SHAFTS: TORSION LOADING AND

DEFORMATION

Torsion Loading

„ Introduction
– Members subjected to axial loads were
discussed previously.
– The procedure for deriving load-
deformation relationship for axially loaded
members was also illustrated.
– This chapter will present a similar
treatment of members subjected to torsion
by loads that to twist the members about
their longitudinal centroidal axes.

1
Torsion Loading
Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts

• Interested in stresses and strains of

circular shafts subjected to twisting
couples or torques

• Turbine exerts torque T on the shaft

• Shaft transmits the torque to the

generator

• Generator creates an equal and

opposite torque T’

Torsion Loading
Net Torque Due to Internal Stresses

• Net of the internal shearing stresses is an

internal torque, equal and opposite to the
applied torque,
T = ∫ ρ dF = ∫ ρ (τ dA)

• Although the net torque due to the shearing

stresses is known, the distribution of the
stresses is not
• Distribution of shearing stresses is statically
indeterminate – must consider shaft
deformations
• Unlike the normal stress due to axial loads,
the distribution of shearing stresses due to
torsional loads can not be assumed uniform.

2
Torsion Loading

„ Introduction
Cylindrical members

Fig. 1

Torsion Loading

„ Introduction
Rectangular members

Fig. 2

3
 Torsion Loading

„ Introduction
– This chapter deals with members in the
form of concentric circular cylinders, solid
and hollow, subjected to torques about
their longitudinal geometric axes.
– Although this may seem like a somewhat a
special case, it is evident that many torque-
carrying engineering members are
cylindrical in shape.

Torsion Loading

„ Deformation of Circular Shaft

– Consider the following shaft

a b
Fig. 3 c d

l
T
T
l

4
Torsion Loading

„ Deformation of Circular Shaft

– In reference to the previous figure, the
following observations can be noted:
• The distance l between the outside
circumferential lines does not change
significantly as a result of the application of the
torque. However, the rectangles become
parallelograms whose sides have the same
length as those of the original rectangles.

Torsion Loading

• The circumferential lines do not become

zigzag; that is ; they remain in parallel planes.
• The original straight parallel longitudinal lines,
such as ab and cd, remain parallel to each
other but do not remain parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the member. These lines
become helices*.

*A helix is a path of a point that moves longitudinally

and circumferentially along a surface of a cylinder
at uniform rate

5
 Torsion Loading

„ Deformation of Circular Shaft Subjected

to Torque T

Fig. 4

a
T

T
b

Torsion Loading

„ Deformation of a Bar of Square Cross

Section Subjected to Torque T

Fig. 5

T
T
b

6
Torsion Loading
Shaft Deformations

• From observation, the angle of twist of

the shaft is proportional to the applied
torque and to the shaft length.
φ ∝T
φ ∝ L
• When subjected to torsion, every cross-
section of a circular shaft remains plane
and undistorted.
• Cross-sections for hollow and solid circular
shafts remain plain and undistorted because a
circular shaft is axisymmetric.
• Cross-sections of noncircular (non-
axisymmetric) shafts are distorted
when subjected to torsion.

Torsion Loading

„ An Important Property of Circular Shaft

– When a circular shaft is subjected to
torsion, every cross section remains plane
and disturbed
– In other words, while the various cross
sections along the shaft rotate through
different amounts, each cross section
rotates as a solid rigid slab.

7
 Torsion Loading

„ An Important Property of Circular Shaft

– This illustrated in Fig.4b, which shows the
deformation in rubber model subjected to torsion.
– This property applies to circular shafts whether
solid or hollow.
– It does not apply to noncircular cross section.
When a bar of square cross section is subjected to
torsion, its various sections are warped and do not
remain plane (see Fig. 5.b)

Torsion Loading

„ Stresses in Circular Shaft due to

Torsion
– Consider the following circular shaft that is
subjected to torsion T
Fig. 6
B C A
T
T

8
 Torsion Loading

„ Stresses in Circular Shaft due to

Torsion
– A section perpendicular to the axis of the
shaft can be passed at an arbitrary point C
as shown in Fig. 6.
– The Free-body diagram of the portion BC
of the shaft must include the elementary
shearing forces dF perpendicular to the
radius ρ of the shaft.

Torsion Loading

„ Stresses in Circular Shaft due to

Torsion
B C

T T
ρ
Fig. 7

dF = τρ dA

9
Torsion Loading

„ Stresses in Circular Shaft due to

Torsion
– But the conditions of equilibrium for BC
require that the system of these
elementary forces be equivalent to an
internal torque T.
– Denoting ρ the perpendicular distance from
the force dF to axis of the shaft, and
expressing that the sum of moments of

Torsion Loading

„ Stresses in Circular Shaft due to

Torsion
– of the shearing forces dF about the axis of
the shaft is equal in magnitude to the
torque T, we can write

T = Tr = ∫ ρ dF = ∫ ρ τ dA
area area
(1)

10
Torsion Loading

„ Stresses in Circular Shaft due to

Torsion B C

T
ρ T

T = Tr = ∫ ρ τ dA
area
(2)

Torsional Shearing Strain

„ If a plane transverse section before

twisting remains plane after twisting and
a diameter of the the section remains
straight, the distortion of the shaft of
Figure 7 will be as shown in the
following figures (Figs. 8 and 9):

11
Torsional Shearing Strain
Shearing Strain

• Consider an interior section of the shaft. As a

torsional load is applied, an element on the
interior cylinder deforms into a rhombus.

• Since the ends of the element remain planar,

the shear strain is equal to angle of twist.

• It follows that
ρφ
Lγ = ρφ or γ =
L

• Shear strain is proportional to twist and radius

cφ ρ
γ max = and γ = γ max
L c

Torsional Shearing Strain

„ Shearing Strain
c

ρ
φ
L

Fig. 8

12
Torsional Shearing Strain

„ Shearing Strain γ ρ

φ
a′
a aa′ aa′
tan γ = ≈ sin
L L
because γ is very small
L a′
γ
Fig. 9 a
L

Torsional Shearing Strain

„ Shearing Strain
– From Fig. 9, the length aá can be
expressed as

– But
aa′ = L tan γ = Lγ (3)

aa′ = ρφ (4)
– Therefore,
ρφ
Lγ = ρφ ⇒ γ = (5)
L

13
Torsional Shearing Strain

„ Shearing Strain
For radius ρ, the shearing strain for circular
shaft is ρφ
γρ = (6)
L
For radius c, the shearing strain for circular
shaft is
cφ (7)
γc =
L

Torsional Shearing Strain

„ Shearing Strain
Combining Eqs. 6 and 7, gives
γ ρ L γ cL
φ= = (8)
ρ c
Therefore
γc
γρ = ρ (9)
c

14
Torsional Shearing Stress

„ The Elastic Torsion Formula

If Hooke’s law applies, the shearing stress
τ is related to the shearing strain γ by the
equation
τ = Gγ (10)
where G = modulus of rigidity. Combining
Eqs. 9 and 10, results in
τρ τc τc (11)
= ρ ⇒τρ = ρ
G Gc c

Torsional Shearing Stress

„ The Elastic Torsion Formula

When Eq. 11 is substituted into Eq. 2, the
results will be as follows:
T = Tr =
area
∫ ρ τ dA
τ  τ 
c
= ∫ ρ  c ρ  dA = ∫ ρ  c ρ  dA
0 c  area 
c 
τc
= ∫ρ (12)
2
dA
c area

15
Torsional Shearing Stress

„ Polar Moment of Inertia

The integral of equation 12 is called the
polar moment of inertia (polar second
moment of area).
It is given the symbol J. For a solid circular
shaft, the polar moment of inertia is given
by c 4
πc
J = ∫ ρ 2 dA = ∫ ρ 2 (2πρ dρ ) = (13)
0
2

Torsional Shearing Stress

„ Polar Moment of Inertia

– For a circular annulus as shown, the polar
moment of inertia is given by
c
c
J = ∫ ρ dA = ∫ ρ 2 (2πρ dρ )
2

b b
• (14)
πc πb π
(r )
4 4
= − = o
4
− ri 4

2 2 2
r0 = outer radius and ri = inner radius

16
Torsional Shearing Stress

„ Shearing Stress in Terms of Torque and

Polar Moment of Inertia
– In terms of the polar second moment J, Eq.
12 can be written as
τc τcJ (15)
T = Tr = ∫ρ dA =
2

c area
c
– Solving for shearing stress,
Tc
τc = (16)
J

Torsional Shearing Stress

„ Shearing Stress in Terms of Torque and

Polar Moment of Inertia
Tc
τ max = (17a)
J
Tρ (18a)
τρ =
J
τ= shearing stress, T = applied torque
ρ = radius, and J = polar moment on inertia

17
 Torsional Shearing Stress

„ Distribution of Shearing Stress within

the Circular Cross Section
τ τmax τ τmax
τc =
Tc τmin
J
c ro
ρ ri ρ

Fig. 10

Stresses in Elastic Range

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

• Multiplying the previous equation by the

shear modulus,
ρ
Gγ = Gγ max
c
From Hooke’s Law, τ = Gγ , so
ρ
τ= τ max
c
The shearing stress varies linearly with the
J = 12 π c 4
radial position in the section.
• Recall that the sum of the moments from
the internal stress distribution is equal to
the torque on the shaft at the section,
τ τ
T = ∫ ρτ dA = max ∫ ρ 2 dA = max J
c c
• The results are known as the elastic torsion
J= 2
(
1 π c4
2 − c14 ) formulas,
Tc Tρ
τ max = and τ =
J J

18
Torsional Shearing Stress

„ Example 1
– A hollow cylindrical steel shaft is 1.5 m
long and has inner and outer diameters
equal to 40 mm and 60 mm. (a) What is
the largest torque which may be applied to
the shaft if the shearing stress is not to
exceed 120 MPa? (b) What is the
corresponding minimum value of the
shearing stress in the shaft?

Torsional Shearing Stress

„ Example 1 (cont’d)

60 mm
40 mm

T
1.2 m

Fig. 11

19
Torsional Shearing Stress

„ Example 1 (cont’d)
– (a) Largest Permissible Torque

Using Eq.17a
Tc τ J (19)
τ max = ⇒ Tmax = max
J c
Using Eq.14 for claculating J ,

J=
π
2
(r o
4
)
− ri 4 =
π
2
[(0.03) − (0.02) ]
4 4

= 1.021× 10 −6 m 4

Torsional Shearing Stress

„ Example 1 (cont’d)
Substituting for J and τmax into Eq. 19, we have

T=
(
Jτ max 1.021× 10 −6 120 × 106
=
)(
= 4.05 kN ⋅ m
)
ro 0.03
(b) Minimum Shearing Stress

Tri 4.05 ×103 (0.02)

τρ = = = 79.3 MPa
J 1.021×10 −6

20
Torsional Displacements

„ Angle of Twist in the Elastic Range

– Often, the amount of twist in a shaft is of
importance.
– Therefore, determination of angle of twist is
a common problem for the machine
designer.
– The fundamental equations that govern the
amount of twist were discussed previously

Torsional Displacements

„ Angle of Twist in the Elastic Range

– The basic equations that govern angle of
twist are
– Recall Eqs. 6,

ρφ dθ (20)
γρ = or γρ = ρ
L dL

21
Torsional Displacements

„ Angle of Twist in the Elastic Range

Tc Tρ
τc = or τ ρ = (21)
J J
and
τ
G= (22)
γ

Torsional Displacements

„ Angle of Twist in the Elastic Range

– Recall Eq. 17a and 7
Tc cθ
τ max = γ max =
J L
– Combining these two equations, gives

γ max L τ max L
 Tc  1 L
θ= = = 
c G c  J G c
TL
=
GJ

22
Torsional Displacements

„ Angle of Twist in the Elastic Range

The angle of twist for a circular uniform
shaft subjected to external torque T is
given by

TL
θ= (22)
GJ

Torsional Displacements

„ Angle of Twist in the Elastic Range

– Multiple Torques/Sizes
• The expression for the angle of twist of the
previous equation may be used only if the shaft
is homogeneous (constant G) and has a
uniform cross sectional area A, and is loaded at
its ends.
• If the shaft is loaded at other points, or if it
consists of several portions of various cross
sections, and materials, then

23
Torsional Displacements

„ Angle of Twist in the Elastic Range

– Multiple Torques/Sizes
• It needs to be divided into components which
satisfy individually the required conditions for
application of the formula.
• Denoting respectively by Ti, Li, Ji, and Gi, the
internal torque, length, polar moment of area,
and modulus of rigidity corresponding to
component i,then
n n
Ti Li
θ = ∑θ i = ∑ (23)
i =1 i =1 Gi J i

Torsional Displacements

n n
Multiple Torques/Sizes Ti Li
„ θ = ∑θ i = ∑
i =1 i =1 Gi J i

E1 E2 E3

L1 L2 L3

Fig. 12 Circular Shafts

24
 Torsional Displacements

„ Angle of Twist in the Elastic Range

The angle of twist of various parts of a
shaft of uniform member can be given by
n n
Ti Li
θ = ∑θ i = ∑ (24)
i =1 i =1 Gi J i

Angle of Twist in Elastic Range

• Recall that the angle of twist and maximum
shearing strain are related,
cφ
γ max =
L
• In the elastic range, the shearing strain and shear
are related by Hooke’s Law,
τ max Tc
γ max = =
G JG
• Equating the expressions for shearing strain and
solving for the angle of twist,
TL
φ=
JG
• If the torsional loading or shaft cross-section
changes along the length, the angle of rotation is
found as the sum of segment rotations
Ti Li
φ =∑
i J i Gi

25
Torsional Displacements

„ Angle of Twist in the Elastic Range

If the properties (T, G, or J) of the shaft are
functions of the length of the shaft, then
L
T
θ =∫ dx (25)
0
GJ

Torsional Displacements

„ Angle of Twist in the Elastic Range

– Varying Properties
L
T
θ =∫ dx
L 0
GJ

x
Fig. 13

26
Torsional Displacements

„ Example 2
– What torque should be applied to the end
of the shaft of Example 1 to produce a twist
of 20? Use the value G = 80 GPa for the
modulus of rigidity of steel.

Torsional Displacements

„ Example 2 (cont’d)

60 mm
40 mm

T
1.2 m

Fig. 14

27
Torsional Displacements

„ Example 2 (cont’d)
Solving Eq. 22 for T, we get
JG
T= θ (26)
L
Substituting the given values
G = 80 × 109 Pa L = 1.5 m
 2π rad 
θ = 20  0 
= 34.9 ×10 −3 rad
 360 

Torsional Displacements

„ Example 2 (cont’d)
From Example 1, J was computed to give a
value of 1.021×10-6 m4.
Therefore,using Eq. 26

T=
JG
θ=
( )(
1.021×10 −6 80 ×109 )(
34.9 ×10 −3 )
L 1.5
= 1.9 ×103 N ⋅ m = 1.9 kN ⋅ m

28
Torsional Displacements

„ Example 3
What angle of twist will create a shearing
stress of 70 MPa on the inner surface of
the hollow steel shaft of Examples 1 and
2? T
60 mm
40 mm

T 1.2 m

Fig. 14

Torsional Displacements

„ Example 3 (cont’d)
Tρ Jτ ρ
τρ = ⇒T =
J ρ
(1.021×10 -6 )(70 × 106 )
= = 3.5735 kN ⋅ m
0.02
TL 3.5735 × 103 (1.5)
φ= = = 0.65625
GJ 80 × 109 (1.021× 10 −6 )
To obtain θ in degrees, we write
360
θ = 0.65625 = 3.760
2π

29