INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

General Concepts

Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer. These are the parts that you can see, feel and
hear. Examples are the CPU, the keyboard, the monitor, memory, cables, mouse, printer and power supply.
Software refers to the programs that control the computer and make it function. A program is a set of
instructions that the computer obeys.
Information Technology is a broad term which covers all aspects of the use of computer technology. It
includes not only hardware and software, but also communication technology applied to linking computer
systems, software engineering, and the administration and use of computer systems.

Types of Computer
Mainframes
These are the largest and most powerful of computers. The biggest of these are sometimes called
Supercomputers. Mainframes are usually only found in large corporate institutions, research
organisations, government ministries and tertiary academic institutions. They provide centralised
processing and storage of data. They are usually used for large database systems such as the accounts of a
municipality, patient information at a large hospital or student records at a university.
Personal computers or PCs for short are the type of computer that most users are familiar with. Because
they are usually found on users desks, they are also sometimes called desktop computers. Operating
systems such as Linux and Windows were designed specifically for personal computers. The same applies
to the thousands of application packages that are available including OpenOffice.org and Microsoft Office.
A typical PC consists of a main unit housing the CPU and disk drives, a VDU (Video Display Unit), a
keyboard and a mouse. PCs are self contained computing systems that can be used for thousands of
different tasks from creating a simple document to controlling a large industrial machine.
Laptops are similar to personal computers except that they comprise an integrated unit. Instead
of a separate monitor, the lid contains a screen. The keyboard is built into the base. Usually they
make use of a touchpad instead of a mouse. The term notebook computer is often used instead
of laptop computer. The main feature of a laptop is its portability. This is possible, not only because of the
reduced size and weight, but also through the use of a built-in battery which is able to power the computer
for a few hours without being connected to a mains power supply. Laptops are also designed around low

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power and smaller devices. For example, laptops use small 2½“ hard drives as opposed to the 3½” drives of
desktops. In addition, these drives have special components built-in to protect them against movement.
PDA / Personal Digital Assistant is the smallest of all computers. Their main task is to maintain a diary
and keep contact lists. On many you are able to make use of a word processor or spreadsheet, but, because
of physical constraints, the amount that can be done is far more limited than on a PC. PDAs vary
considerably in the features they contain. Top of the range cell phones now contain a PDA. Usually, all the
components of a PDA are solid state – they do not contain any moving parts. Some of the larger PDAs,
often called subnotebooks, may contain a miniature 1½“ hard drive. One feature that distinguishes a PDA
from a subnotebook is that the latter has a built-in keyboard whereas the PDA makes use of a light pen and
character recognition for data input. Most PDAs are able to connect to a personal computer so that data can
be exchanged. A common feature is synchronisation where software on the PC automatically updates
both the PC and PDA at the same time by using the most up-to-date data on each.

Main Components of a Personal Computer

Central Processing Unit or CPU can be thought of as the brain of the computer. The function of the CPU
is to execute the instructions in the programs. At the heart of its operations are arithmetic and logical
operations. The CPU is made up of millions of electronic components called transistors, capacitors and
resistors. Transistors are the active components of the CPU. Modern CPUs contain millions of transistors.
It was the miniaturisation of components and the creation of the integrated circuit that has made the
development of modern computers possible. Although integrated circuits contain enormous numbers of
components and connectors, the whole object is manufactured as a single item through special
manufacturing techniques. From the outside, the integrated circuit looks like a small black box with a
number of electrical connectors on the outside.
Input devices
Input devices are components which are used to feed commands and data into the computer.
These include devices such as keyboards and mice.
Output devices
Output devices are devices that the computer uses to send us the results of the processing. These include the
VDU (monitor) and printers.

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Secondary memory consists of the various devices that are able to store data and programs even when the
power is off. This includes devices such as hard drives, floppy drives, tape drives, CD drives and DVD
drives.
Primary memory is the memory that is intimately associated with the actual working of the computer.
This includes memory that holds the start-up routines as well as the current program and data it is working
with. There are various forms of primary memory: RAM, ROM and Cache memory. RAM or Random
Access Memory holds the current running program and its associated data.ROM or Read Only Memory
contains certain key routines (small programs). One example, is the set of start-up routines. These take
control of the computer when you switch on and ensure that the computer boots-up. Booting-up is the
process of starting the computer up so that it is able to load and run computer programs. Cache memory is
very high speed memory that is used by the CPU in executing the individual instructions of the program. It
is used to hold items such as instructions that are next in line to be executed and data that is likely to be
needed by the CPU.

Computer Performance
The performance of a computer is determined by a number of factors, all of which work together.
Often a single item that is functioning poorly will cause a bottleneck resulting in poor performance.
CPU: The model of the CPU and its speed are the first factors that determine computer performance.
Generally, the CPU so far outperforms the other components, that poor performance is usually due to other
factors. One important factor in the performance of the CPU is the amount of on-board cache memory. If
the CPU has sufficient cache memory it can queue future instructions and data in cache. Since access to
cache memory is far faster than that to RAM, the overall processing performance is improved. On-board
cache memory helps especially where the CPU is involved in processing of graphics.
RAM: If a computer does not have sufficient RAM, it has to make use of the hard disk to store
intermediate data that it would normally store in RAM. This is referred to as virtual memory. Since hard
disk access is much slower than access to RAM, this will slow down the computer. The more RAM a
computer has, the less need there will be to make use of virtual memory.
Number of applications: Modern computers are designed to run more than one application at a time and to
allow applications to be working on multiple sets of data at the same time. However, the more open
applications and documents there are, the more this will place a burden on the processing power of the
computer. For best performance, only open the applications and documents you need. Close others.

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Graphics cards: The graphics card is the unit that converts the signals from the CPU into a form that can
be displayed on the monitor. A good graphics card can take over many of the tasks of the CPU in
generating the output. This leaves the CPU free to do other processing tasks. The quality of the graphics
card is a key factor in the performance of a computer, yet is one which is often overlooked.
Central Processing Unit
Parts of the CPU
There are three main components to the CPU: the arithmetic-logic unit (ALU), control unit and
on-board cache memory.
Control unit: The control unit is responsible for loading and interpreting the individual instructions that
comprise the computer program. These instructions are in a language called machine code. Machine code
is a pattern of ones and zeros. The control unit also has the task of getting the data needed by the
instructions and returning the results of the processing after the instruction has been executed.
Arithmetic-logic unit: The ALU is responsible for carrying out arithmetic operations such as addition and
subtraction as well as logical decisions such as whether one number is bigger than another. All programs
consist of complex sets of arithmetic and logical operations. Another way of thinking of a logical operation
is as a decision making operation.
On-board cache memory: Because the CPU can perform its operations much faster than data can be
transferred from RAM, many CPUs have on-board cache memory. This is memory that the control unit can
access very quickly and use for intermediate storage. Further, data and instructions can be loaded into
cache before they are actually needed. When they are needed, the transfer is much faster than it would have
been if RAM had been used.
Speed of the CPU: The CPU operates as a result of electronic pulses sent to it by another device on the
motherboard called the clock. The speed of a CPU is measured by the maximum number of pulses it is able
to handle. This is measured in MHz (megahertz) or millions of pulses per second or GHz (gigahertz)
thousands of millions of pulses per second. A good personal computer will use a CPU with a clock speed of
over 2 GHz. This means it receives 2 000 000 000 million pulses every second from the CPU. Previously
CPUs could only do one operation per pulse. With improvements in technology, they have been able to
improve on this. For example, they can do one operation at the start of the pulse and one at the end of the
pulse.

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Memory
RAM is used to store the current data and programs whereas ROM is used to store the routines that enable
a computer to boot up. The following table compares RAM and ROM.
Bits
In all the components of a computer, data and instructions are stored as patters of ones and zeros. These
individual ones and zeros are called bits. In electronic components the one is stored by switching an
electronic switch on and a zero by switching it off. On a magnetic material, such as the surface of a hard
disk, the one may be stored with a clockwise magnetic field and a zero with a counter-clockwise field. The
reason for the use of only ones and zeros stems directly from the fact that modern circuitry makes use of
electronic switches and these can only be on or off. The term for circuitry based on switches is digital.
Arithmetic based on the use of only ones and zeros is called binary arithmetic.
Bytes
Bits are grouped together into sets of eight. A set of eight bits is called a byte.
ASCII or American Standard Code for Information Interchange was a system of representing all the
characters of the western alphabet and certain special characters in a single byte. You can think of the byte
as the amount of memory required to store a single character. As there are only 256 possible variations
within eight bits, this is not sufficient to represent other alphabets.
Input Devices
Any device which allows us to send data or instructions to the computer can be regarded as an input device.
They use any mechanical movement, sound, light, heat or electronic signals to input data and instructions.
Keyboard
The most familiar input device is the keyboard. Users type the text directly into the computer. There are a
number of layouts of the keyboard. The most important are the language variations. For example, the US
and UK keyboards are quite similar but are very different from the French keyboard.
Mouse
The mouse is a point and click device. As you move the mouse across a surface, it senses this movement
either mechanically or optically. This is translated into the movement of a pointer on the screen. Functions
are represented as icons on the screen. When you click on these using a mouse button, the function is
executed.

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Touchpad
A touchpad is a device that senses pressure to guide the pointer on the computer screen. It is generally a
small square area below the keyboard. As the user moves his/her finger across the touchpad, the pointer
moves on the screen. Next to the pad are two buttons used for clicking in exactly the same way as those on
a mouse.
Trackball
A trackball acts as a type of overturned mouse. The ball is on the top side of the object. By rolling the ball
you can move the pointer across the screen. Some keyboards have an in-built trackball. The trackball has
been superseded by the touchpad.
Light pen
A light pen is a device which is sensitive to variations in patterns on a surface. Light pens act like a
miniature scanner and can read text as they are dragged across the printed page. Bar code reader
A bar code is a pattern of vertical lines in which the spacing and thickness can be used to represent data. A
bar code reader is a device that can read and interpret bar codes and input the data into the computer.
Joystick
A joystick is a device that is familiar for use in games to move objects on the screen. However, it is also
used to control the movements in computerized industrial machines such as lathes. It consists of a small
vertical lever which can move in any direction. These movements are translated to the computer which in
turn uses them to control the movements of machinery.
Digital camera
Instead of film, a digital camera uses a light sensitive screen at the back of the camera. A small computer
inside the camera converts the pattern on the screen into a standard graphics file which can then be
transferred to a computer.
Microphone
A microphone translates speech into an electronic signal. Modern speech recognition software is
able to translate this into either commands or data. This enables the user to use a microphone as
an alternative to the keyboard.
Scanner
A scanner is similar to a photocopier, except that instead of producing a paper copy of the document you
place on it, you get an electronic copy which appears on your computer screen.

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Text recognition software can be used with a scanner. This software is able to recognise the individual
letters in the image. Instead of creating a single image of the document, the software inserts actual text into
your application which can then be edited.

Output Devices
An output is any device that the computer uses to send the results of processing to the user. The
output can be a hard copy (paper), visual or sound.
Visual Display Unit (VDU)
Virtually all computers use some type of screen as their primary output device. There are two categories of
screen: cathode ray tube and LCD.
CRT screens: The cathode ray tube (CRT) type screen is usually called a monitor and makes use of the
same technology as a television screen. A beam of electronics is fired from an electronic gun at the back of
the tube. This strikes the front of the tube which is covered in a phosphorescent material which glows when
struck by electrons. Between the electron gun and the screen the beam is modulated by a signal to produce
the image you see on the screen. With CRT type screens, an important measure is the refresh rate.
Printers
Printers produce a hard copy of the output on paper. There are three main types of printer: Dot
matrix, Inkjet and Laser.
Plotters
A plotter consists of a device that can move paper both backwards and forwards. On the top of the device
one or more pens are able to move horizontally across the paper. The combined movement of the pens
horizontally across the paper and the vertical movement of the paper allows complex continuous diagrams
to be drawn. Some plotters allow different colour pens to be used to create diagrams in multiple colours. In
other types of plotters, the paper lies on a flat bed. Plotters are usually used in conjunction with CAD
(Computer Assisted Design) programs.
Speakers
Modern computers using the appropriate software can turn text in a document into audible
speech. This is known as speech synthesis. Other types of software allow music and other
sounds to be created and played back. The line between the computer and a home entertainment system is
becoming blurred. Computers are able to play music directly from a CD or play a film from a DVD. You
can even fit your computer with a radio or TV card to add these functions.

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In all cases, the sound is transmitted through a speaker in the same way it is in a sound system
or radio.
Storage Devices
Diskette
A diskette comprises a plastic flexible disk enclosed inside a tough plastic cover. At one end is a window.
When the diskette is placed inside a diskette drive, the window is pushed to the side. The read-record head
inside the drive makes contact with the magnetic disk. Diskettes are slow and have a low capacity (1,44
Mb). Since they are cheap, they still tend to be commonly used for storing small amounts of data. Another
advantage is that they can be used over and over again. Unfortunately, many are not very good quality and
data can become corrupted and unusable. Because of this they are not suited to backup purposes. The disks
can become corrupt through many causes including disk, heat, magnetism or moisture.
Zip disk
A zip disk is a removable magnetic disk which fits into a special zip drive. The surface is coated
with a special scratch resistant material which makes a zip disk a very robust storage device. The speed of a
zip drive is faster than all but the very fastest of CD drives. Its robustness and speed make it an excellent
backup device. However, its capacity is much less than that of hard drives and tape drives which limits its
use for very large amounts of data.
Data cartridge
A data cartridge is a tape very similar to that found in a tape recorder, only much higher quality. These are
used in a device called a tape streamer to record data. Data cartridges, especially if good quality, are
reliable and cheap devices for creating backups of large quantities of data. They are, however, rather slow.
Data cartridges are sequential devices which means that to access an item of data on them, all the
preceding data reads to be read first. They are tending to become obsolete as newer faster and more reliable
technologies are available. A single tape can stored many Gbs of data.
CD ROM
A CD ROM uses optical technology. When data is written, small pits are burned into the surface
using a highly focused laser beam. These are read by another laser beam. There are two types of CD ROM
used for storage. The CD-R disks can only be written to once. Once data has been written to part of the
surface, this part can no longer be used. CD-RW disks are designed so that one set of data can overwrite
another. This allows the disks to be re-used many times. CD ROM provides a reliable and storage medium
for backing up and storing data. The speed is greater than that of a diskette but slower than that of a hard

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drive. Writing to a CD ROM is a much slower process than reading it. The capacity of a CD ROM is 640
Mb. It is sometimes possible to store about 700 Mb on a disk.
DVD
The Digital Versatile Disk is a development of the storage technology of the CD ROM. Using newer
storage methods and higher quality media, a DVD can store about 4 Gb of data.
Hard disk drive
A hard disk drive can be internal or external. An internal drive is housed inside the main unit and is
connected directly to the motherboard of the computer. An external drive is housed inside a special caddy
which connects to the computer through one of its ports. Most now use the USB or firewire ports to achieve
maximum performance. An external hard drive is a good backup medium and allows large quantities of
data to be stored. Since the same drive can be connected at different times to different computers, these
drives provide a useful way of transferring data between computers that are not connected through a
network. As they are electromechanical devices, they are subject to mechanical failure if not
handled with care. The small 2½“ drives used in laptops make excellent external hard drives
since they are constructed to be moved around.
Flash memory and memory sticks
A new type of external memory is the flash disk or memory stick. This is a solid state device (no
moving parts) that connects to the computer via the USB port. It provides a very fast and reliable
method of storing data externally. They are at the moment fairly expensive, especially the larger capacity
devices. They tend to be limited to a maximum of about 2 Gb. This figure can be expected to increase quite
dramatically over time.
Formatting a disk.
A new diskette or hard disk is not able to record data immediately. The disk first needs to be prepared by a
process known as formatting. This marks out concentric circles called tracks. Each track is divided into a
number of sectors. The tracks and sectors are marked out using magnetic markers. As data is recorded on a
disk, it fills up. To be able to re-use a disk, it may also be formatted. This releases the areas that contain
data so that new data may be stored in its place. When a disk is reformatted, the old data is lost. When data
is stored on a disk, it is not always stored in a continuous pattern. Rather, the system stores data in the first
free area it finds. When this has been filled, it looks for additional free space and continues storing the data.
A file ends up being stored as a series of segments across the disk. This breaking up a file into many
segments is called fragmentation. Fragmentation slows down the operation of the disk as the system needs

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to keep track of all the different segments. A disk may be re-organised to reduce fragmentation by a process
called defragmentation. There are different file systems available, but in all cases the disk needs to be
prepared with the index area, tracks and sectors through formatting. Disk can be reformatted. In this
process everything on the disk is erased and the disk is formatted as if it was a new disk. The following
diagram represents the tracks (green) and sectors (red triangular area) that are created when the disk is
formatted and ready to store data.

Types of Software
Software is divided into two broad categories: systems software and application software.
Systems software is the term used to described programs that enable the computer to function, improve its
performance and access the functionality of the hardware. Systems software sole function is the control of
the operation of the computer. You can think of systems software as providing the foundation for
applications software. Systems software is further subdivided into operating systems and utilities. The
operating system is the program that actually makes the computer operate. Utilities are programs which
either improve the functioning of the operating system or supply missing or additional functionality.
Applications software is the term used for programs that enable the user to achieve specific objectives
such as create a document, use a database, produce a spreadsheet or design a building.
Versions: Software developers continually strive to improve the performance of their products and add
new features. Especially in a world of competing products, each developer needs to make their product
perform better, have fewer problems and have more features. The new releases of software products are
called versions. The versions use a numbering system such as Mandrake Linux 9.2 or OpenOffice.org 1.1.
A change in the first number represents a major new version while a change in the second number
represents a less significant change.
Operating System Software
Common operating systems.
It is the operating system that actually makes the computer function. The following is a list of some of the
functions of the operating system:
1. Boot-up the computer.
2. Control the hard drives: This includes such features as formatting and defragmenting disks as well
as saving files to and retrieving files from disk.
3. Control input devices such as keyboards, mice and scanners.

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 4. Control output devices such as the video display and printer.
5. Control the external ports: Ports are the external connections that enable peripheral devices to be
connected to a computer. Common types of ports are serial, parallel, USB and firewire. Of these the
USB ports are the most important.
6. Provide the functionality for computers to be linked in a network.
7. Provide the foundation for application software to be launched.
8. Enable application software to access and use the hardware.
The following list names some operating systems. They are grouped according to similarity.
1. Unix; Linux; Free BSD
2. Windows 95; Windows 98; Windows Me
3. Windows NT4 Workstation / Server; Windows 2000 Workstation / Server; Windows XP; Windows
2003 Server.
Applications Software
Word processor OpenOffice.org Writer, StarWriter, KWord, Microsoft Word, Lotus Ami Pro
Corel WordPerfect.
Functions of word processors; Create, store, format and edit documents, letters and articles. Word
processors are used where the emphasis is on manipulation of text.
Spreadsheet OpenOffice.org Calc,StarCalc, KSpread,Microsoft Excel,Quattro Pro,Lotus 123
Functions of Spreadsheets
Create financial statements, balance sheets, perform statistical and numerical analysis of data, and make
forecasts based on numeric data. Spreadsheets are used where the emphasis is on arithmetic.
Presentation Software OpenOffice.org Impress,StarImpress,KPresenter,Microsoft PowerPoint
Functions of Presentation software
Create slide shows, lectures, seminars and other types of presentation.
DBMS (Database management Systems); Sybase, MySQL,Microsoft Access, Oracle, MS SQL server,
Ingres.
Functions of DBMS
Store and convert data into information. Databases are particularly useful in working with large quantities
of data.
Email client; Evolution, KMail, Microsoft Outlook

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Functions
Send, receive, store and organize electronic mail.
Web browser Mozilla, Netscape, Microsoft Internet Explorer
Functions of
Surf the Internet and view web sites.
Desktop publishing(DTP)
Microsoft Publisher, Page Maker,
Functions
DTP is similar to word processing except that there is more emphasis on page layout and the integration of
diagrams.
Accounting; GnuCash, Pastel Accounting, Sage, Quickbooks
Functions
Store accounting information and produce reports, statements and invoices.
Web development Dreamweaver, Microsoft FrontPage, HTML,PHP
Functions
Create web sites that can be read by a browser.
Graphics and imaging The GIMP, Adobe Photoshop
Functions
Create and manipulate graphics images and store images in a variety of formats.
Graphical User Interface
A graphical user interface or GUI is designed to simplify the work of the user whether they are
using the operating system or an application package. The interface consists of a screen with a
number of icons or menus. Functions are executed by pointing and clicking with the mouse.
Some of the advantages of using a GUI are:
1. Less work for the user. To execute a function all you have to do is point and click on an icon instead
of typing out an instruction.
2. Quicker to learn.
3. Easy access to the basic functionality of the operating system or application package.
4. Hides the underlying complexity from the user.

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 5. Simplifies and integrates multitasking. Multitasking refers to using several applications at the same
time. Opening a new application or document involves a couple of mouse clicks. Likewise
switching between tasks also involves only a couple of mouse clicks.
Disadvantages of using a GUI based operating system.
1. Not all the functionality is available. The icon represents the most commonly used form of a
function. A text based system gives you access to all the options associated with a function.
2. Power users tend to switch between the GUI and the system prompt as needed.
3. Being graphics based, a GUI runs more slowly than a text based system. However, with the power
and speed of modern computers this is not the problem it once was.

Systems Development
Program development life cycle
The development of computer programs is a highly developed and structure process involving a
number of distinct stages as shown in the table below. The stages of development are known as
the program development life cycle.
Stages
Analysis The problem or task is analysed and clarified. This involves analysis of the way the task is
currently being done and consultation with end users. The project is set out in broad outline. The work of
this stage is performed by systems analysts.
Design The project is broken down into smaller sections. These too may be further broken down until there
are units. The method of programming each unit is then specified in great detail. The most suitable
programming language for each unit is then chosen. The complete specification is the final design. The
work of this stage is also performed by systems analysts.
Programming The design is handed over to programmers who code the design into programming
languages such as C or Java. The work of this stage is carried out by computer programmers.
Testing Since programs are long and complex, they may contain errors called bugs. These may be
syntactical errors, in which the programmer made a mistake in the structure of the command, or logical
errors. In these the program appears to work, but works incorrectly. The process of testing is designed to
find and eliminate bugs. This stage involves end users to try out the program, programmers to fix
syntactical mistakes and systems analysts to fix errors in the logic of the program. The following are often
also included as part of the development cycle.

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Implementation Once the systems analysts are satisfied that the system is operating correctly, it is
installed and implemented. Usually this is done using a pilot group. In this implementation, the system is
implemented on a limited scale to start with. If any further bugs are found, these can be eliminated
before full scale implementation.

LAN, WAN
A set of computers connected together so that they can communicate is called a computer network. This
involves installing network cards in each computer. Each computer is then connected through cabling to a
central device called a hub. Operating systems contain components that are dedicated to the task of
enabling computers to communicate over a network. This software makes use of special rules of
communication called protocols. There are many different types of protocols used for a variety of
purposes. The most commonly used protocol for establishing and maintaining communication across a
network is called TCP/IP or Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol.
Client-server and peer-to-peer networks
Networks on which all computers have equal status are called peer-to-peer networks. On most networks,
certain computers have special dedicated tasks. Since these machines provide services to other computers,
they are called servers. The computers that make use of the services or servers are called clients or
workstations. A network such as this is called a client server network. A server which is used for the
central storage of files is called a file server. Using a file server, users can access their work from
anywhere on the network. They can also make these files available to users on other computers. File servers
also enable users to co-operate on a task by centralising the results of their work. A computer attached to a
printer which users can access is called a print server. Having a single printer rather than a printer attached
to each computer obviously saves capital. An increasingly important type of server is an applications
server. In the case of applications servers, application packages are not installed on the workstations but on
the applications server.
A communications server is a computer dedicated to connecting a network to the outside
world. These are often called proxy servers. As the case of print servers illustrates, one of the values of
having a network is that it enables resources to be shared.
LAN
A LAN or Local Area Network is a group of computers within the same building, or within a group of
buildings that are in close proximity, that are connected together.

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WAN
A WAN or Wide Area Network is a group of widely dispersed computers that are connected together.
These could be across the same town, or across a country or even across the world. Apart from distance, the
other feature that distinguishes as WAN from a LAN is that the WAN would make use of a range of
communication technologies such as telephone, microwave and satellite links.
Advantages of sharing printers and files
A peer-to-peer network is where two or more computers are linked together in order to share information
and hardware. It is a major advantage to be able to share printers, plotters and scanners. When computers
are networked together, there can be many pc's sharing a printer as opposed to each one having to have it's
own printer which is much more costly. It is also possible to share data files across the network by creating
a share on the hard drive and allowing other people access to that information.
If you want to share applications you would need to investigate a client/server network solution
and some of the advantages are listed below.
Advantages of file servers
1. Users can access their work from any workstation connected to the network.
2. Users can easily exchange work with colleagues.
3. Users can easily co-operate on tasks.
4. Backing up is centralised and can be placed under the control of experts who will follow the correct
procedures.
Advantages of print servers
1. Instead of having printers attached to each computer, printers only need be purchased for the print
servers. This results in financial savings.
2. As there are fewer printers to look after, there is lower maintenance.
3. As far fewer printers need to be purchased better quality printers with advanced features can be
purchased.
Advantages of applications servers
1. Software only needs to be installed on the applications server instead of each workstation.
2. The software is configured in the same way for all users.
3. Upgrading of software only needs to be done on the server.
4. Cost of licensing software for an applications server is less than the cost of many stand-alone
versions.

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 5. Centralising applications software simplifies the process of implementing software policies in an
organisation. Software policies refer to what software may be installed on computers and how it
may be used.
Advantages of proxy servers
Proxy servers contain a repository of internet sites recently visited and cached for quicker access
at a future date.
1. Proxy servers can be configured with firewall software. This helps protect the network from attack
by hackers.
2. Files can be filtered for computer viruses before being passed on to the network.
3. Organisations can control access of users to outside sites.
4. Since there is only one point of communication, there is a large saving on line costs.

Internet
The internet is the collection of all computers across the world which can access each other in some way.
The links between computers might include telephone, fibre optic cable, radio, microwave or satellite.
Today tens of millions of computers are able to access each other. The Internet has no central organisation
which controls its use. Also know as information superhighway of cyberspace. It’s a global interconnection
of computers.
Uses of the Internet
1. Integrate the operations of multinational corporations.
2. Provide access to and share information and databases.
3. Transfer and share files between computers.
4. Facilitate business transactions.
5. Share resources.
6. Promote scientific co-operation between research institutions.
7. Provide a communications channel for the military.
Intranet
An intranet is similar to the Internet in operation. However, it is limited to an organisation. Users may
browse computers within an intranet using a browser but will usually not be able to access the wider
Internet. In the same way, outsiders will not be able to access the intranet of an organisation. An intranet
can be thought of as a private Internet.

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Extranet
An extranet is an extension of an organisation's intranet to include outside users. In an extranet, outside
organisations or individuals are allowed access to certain parts of the intranet. This access is usually
controlled by means of passwords and access rights. These restrict which users can access the extranet and
what they can do once they have access. The purpose of the extranet is to facilitate business transactions
with other organisations.

World Wide Web

The World Wide Web or WWW is a part of the Internet. The WWW consists of all the sites that can be
accessed using a web browser such as Mozilla, Netscape, Internet Explorer or Opera. In order for a
browser to access a web site, the web site must contain files that have a particular format constructed using
HyperText Markup Language or HTML. These sites are developed using special web development
applications. It is possible to create simple web sites using a word processor by saving the document in
HTML format. The HTML documents are stored as web pages on special servers known as web servers.
These run special web server software such as Apache Web Server or Internet Information Services.
The WWW enables the free flow of information across the world. Developments in technology have made
access easier and faster. As a result the WWW also became known as the Information Superhighway.
Most of the activities listed under the Internet in the previous section are now actually carried out using the
Internet. In other words, the sites are created in HTML, or a similar format, are installed on web servers and
are accessed by web browsers.

Computers at Work
Computers are ideal for repetitive work requiring speed and accuracy. This is especially true of
those situations where human beings would become bored or simply cannot work fast enough.
Some examples include:
1. Corporate data processing including functions such as sorting, selecting, summarising
2. Analysis of census and other demographic data
3. Administration of the national revenue system
4. Actuarial calculations
5. Statistical analysis
6. Corporate accounting functions

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 7. Creation of animations for films
8. Weather forecasting
9. Forensic analysis such as DNA and fingerprint matching
10. Manufacture of electronic components and circuitry
Corporate uses of computer applications
Corporations have to keep records of their staff, details of their clients, the levels of their stocks, production
schedules, debtors, creditors and a myriad of other details. Many of these activities are themselves linked in
one or more ways. For example, stock levels of raw materials and production schedules are very closely
linked. The ideal solution in a corporate environment is Enterprise software. This is a complex suite of
applications that are created to work together. Enterprise software is designed to automate all the activities
of an organisation in one system. The different components or modules interact with each other. For
example, if production requires certain raw materials, the appropriate production module will send a
message to the stock module that certain materials are needed and when they will be needed. If the stock
module determines that existing levels are too low, it will send a message to another module responsible for
orders. This module will then check which supplier to use and automatically generate an order stating the
quantity needed and a deadline for delivery. Organisations do not buy an entire enterprise package, but only
the modules that are relevant to the operation.
Inland Revenue
The Department of Inland Revenue needs to keep records on millions of tax payers, both individual and
corporate. It also needs to calculate the tax each has to pay and send out tax assessments. Sophisticated
computer systems manage these tasks. SARS has a website that a taxpayer can register on and submit
returns electronically by filling in the return online and authorising payment directly from their bank
account.
National census and other demographic data
National economical and social planning require that governments have a good idea of the number of
people in the country and in each region. They need to know income and health levels and size of families.
They also need to know the skills and educational levels of different sections of the population. This
information is obtained by means of a national census. Part of this involves people filling in census forms
and these being collected and checked by census officials. In other cases, figures are obtained by indirect
methods such as aerial photographs. In all cases the data has to be analysed to produce summaries that
planners can use. This task can only be done by specialized software designed for the purpose. Other

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organisations also collect data for specific research purposes. For example, the Medical Research Council
will conduct research to determine the prevalence of aids. This research relies on sophisticated statistical
software to analyse the data.
Vehicle Registration
Every vehicle has a unique registration number. This number, together with the vehicle and owner details is
kept in a central database. This database can be accessed not only by the municipal officials, but also by
other interested parties such as the police.
Voting registers
In order to vote, a person must be recorded on the voting register. This register of voters contains millions
of records. Records need to be changed, deleted and added on a regular basis. Because of the sheer volume,
it would be difficult to maintain in any other way than a computerised system.
Electronic voting
This is a system that is being introduced which will allow voters to register their choice online to submit
their ballot instead of the traditional method of marking a piece of paper with a pen.
National Identity System
The Department of Home Affairs keeps records of all the citizens in a country. It keeps records of
births, marriages and deaths. It also issues identity documents and passports. All this is only
possible through the use of computerised systems.
Patient records
Patient records need to record not only personal details such as name, address, relatives and employer, but
most importantly detailed health history, record of operations and medication. The more efficiently this
information can be stored and retrieved, the more efficiently the health care system can be administered.
Scheduling
Hospitals are extremely busy organisations which usually function amidst considerable stress. In order to
use the facilities efficiently, where possible, activities need to be scheduled. For example, the availability or
surgeons needs to be co-ordinated with the availability of operating rooms and the urgency of treatments.
With good scheduling systems, much of the stress of the more routine activities can be reduced.
Ambulance control systems
By their very nature, ambulances do not work to a schedule. They are needed at unexpected places and
unexpected times. The best a system can do is to optimise their use. That means knowing which ambulance
is nearest to a scene at any given moment. In addition, modern software gives an ambulance driver details

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of the shortest route. The latest on-board software makes use of speech synthesis which actually tells the
driver how to get to a destination as he is driving. This technology makes use of in-built maps and global
positioning (GPS).
Diagnostic tools
With diagnostic tools, a doctor feeds information about a patient symptoms into the system. The system
will respond with a series of possible causes. It may ask for further information to refine the diagnosis. At
the moment these tools are not replacing the diagnostic skills of a doctor, but rather help him/her explore
alternative diagnoses. Other diagnostic tools connect the patient directly to the computer. This is commonly
used in the diagnosis of cardiac problems. Not only are all the different heart waves displayed on the
screen, but the physician has the option of magnifying or analysing any of the patterns in more detail. They
can also be stored and compared with the heart patterns at a later stage.
Specialised surgical equipment
A modern trend is towards less invasive surgery. This involves inserted catheters into different
parts of the body. Through these miniature cameras and surgical instruments are placed. The
output from the cameras are displayed on large screens. Other relevant data is also analysed and
displayed on screens. All of the activities are assisted by special computer programs.

Electronic World
Email refers to the transmission of messages between computers across a network or across the Internet.
Email allows text, graphics and sometimes sound. Users are able to send files together with messages.
These are sent as attachments to the email. To use email, you need to have access to a network or the
Internet. A mail client is installed on the computer. This is used for the creation, sending, receiving and
storage of email messages. Well known email clients include Evolution, KMail, Microsoft Outlook and
Outlook Express. Web based email systems only require that you have access to the Internet. Many of these
such as Yahoo, Hotmail and Eudoramail are free. Web based mail systems act as remote mail clients.
Effectively, you log on to the mail client on the server using a web browser. From that point on, it acts in
much the same way as a mail client installed on your own computer. You can log on to your web based
mail system where ever in the world you happen to be.
Email addresses
Email address consist of two parts separated by an @ symbol. The first part is the name of the user and the
second part is the name of the mail server. For example, in the email address [email protected], the

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user name is david and the name of the mail server is icdlafrica.com. This is the address of the computer
which holds his mail.
Advantages of email
1. It is very fast and efficient. Mail is transmitted from the sender to recipient in a matter of
2. seconds. Recipients can reply immediately. If both happen to be on-line at the same time, they can
conduct a conversation using email.
3. Documents and files can be sent with the email. The only limitation is the maximum size of
attachments that your system will permit.
4. It is very cost effective. The cost of sending an email is a fraction of the price it would be to send it
as a letter.
5. There is a saving on paper, printing and envelopes.
6. Email clients can be organised so that copies of emails that have been sent can be stored under
appropriate directories.
Disadvantages of email
1. If there is a problem with the telephone lines, email cannot be sent or received.
2. There are certain security problems such as the interception of email by hackers. This can be
overcome by encrypting email. This requires the email to be coded into an unintelligible form
using a key. The recipients system has access to the key and is able to decrypt the email.
3. Occasionally problems in the complex system between the sender and recipient occur which cause
email to disappear. To know when this has occurred, it is possible for your system to request a
receipt of delivery from the recipients computer.
4. Unsolicited email or spam is becoming a problem. Because it is simple to send thousands of
identical emails to users at the same time, some merchants acquire lists of email addresses and
compile these into distribution lists. They then send the same advertising email to everyone on the
distribution list. To overcome this, anti-spamming software is now available which identifies certain
addresses as sources of spam and discards any mail that comes from them.
E-Commerce
This is the name given to the process of carrying out commercial transactions over the Internet. One of the
best known examples is Amazon.com. You can purchase books anywhere in the world from this web site.
You make payment using your credit card at the same time as making the purchase. Amazon.com
exemplifies many of the characteristics of e-commerce. You are entitled to post a comment on the site,

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whether good or bad, about any book you buy. Before you purchase a book, you can look through the
comments of other purchasers. They also have a procedure in place that allows you to return books under
certain circumstances. To purchase goods using an e-commerce site you need to provide a name and
physical address to which the goods must be sent and a credit card. You can also specify the delivery
method. This will depend on how urgently you need the goods and how much you are willing to spend on
delivery. Good e-commerce sites will tell you in advance, the availability of the goods, how long
they will take using the different delivery methods and the cost of delivery. There are main two types of e-
commerce site. Business to consumer or B2C sites sell directly to the consumer. Other sites involve
transaction between business themselves. These are Business to Business or B2B sites.
Advantages of on-line purchasing
1. No restriction on shopping hours. You can purchase goods 24 hours a day, seven days a week.
2. You are not put under pressure by a salesperson and have time to make a more rational purchase
decision.
3. You are not restricted to shopping in an area to which you have physical access. You can shop
across the world.
4. Usually it is much cheaper to purchase goods on-line from a virtual store. If you purchase at source
you can eliminate the mark up of intermediaries. Further, on-line sites have lower overheads than
conventional shops.
5. You have access to a wider range of alternatives.
Disadvantages of on-line shopping from a virtual store
1. It is more impersonal as you do not interact with a human being with whom you can discuss the
product you wish to buy.
2. You cannot physically see and touch the item you are buying.
3. There are certain risks associated with purchasing goods on the Internet with a credit card.
4. Returning defective or incorrect goods can be a problem. This is especially the case if they have
come from another country.

Ergonomics
Ergonomics is the science of co-ordination the physical and psychological aspects of human
beings with their working environment. Although computers present us with great opportunities
for making our work easier, they do present some health and safety risks if used incorrectly. The

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science of ergonomics tells us how to use computers correctly.
Monitors
If you work with a monitor, tired, sore or blood-shot eyes indicate eye strain. The following points
indicate some aspects of monitors to be aware of.
Keyboards and mouse
Repeated use of the same muscles and joints can result in a type of injury called RSI or
Repetitive Strain Injury. This type of injury can range from inflammation of joints, to damaged
ligaments and muscles or even hairline fractures in bones. RSI is usually caused by the incorrect
use of the keyboard and mouse.

Desks and chairs

Height and position of chairs: The height and position of the chair is an important factor in reducing strain.
These should be adjusted so that:
- the feet can rest flat on the floor. This maintains blood circulation.
- the thigh is horizontal to the floor.
- the head can be kept upright in line with the spinal column. If the chair is too high, the head
will be bent. This will in turn cause backache.
A chair with adjustable height will allow you to find the most appropriate and comfortable
height for your build.
• Posture: The back should be slightly bent forward. Sitting rigidly upright for long periods can
cause stress in the back and shoulders.
• Support: There should be support for the lower back to avoid sitting in a hunched position.
• Rest: It is important to get up and move around on a regular basis. Ideally should do some
stretching exercises to help relax tense muscles.
• Height of the desk: A common problem is having a desk which is too high. This is largely a
matter of trial and error. A good test is whether the elbows are able to rest comfortable on the
work surface.
Health Issues
Lighting and ventilation
It is important to ensure that there is adequate lighting, but does not cause a glare on the screen. Another
important consideration is whether there is enough air circulation in the room as computers generate a lot of

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heat and if a room is not adequately ventilated it can become stuffy and cause fatigue. It is also not good for
the equipment so most companies make use of air conditioning.
Precautions
Apart from health issues, there are a number of safety issues associated with the use of computers.
Adequate earthing
A faulty earthing system can cause electrical shock. A good system will be properly earthed and will
incorporate earth-leakage detection. If the system detects a fault that could lead to electrical shock, a
switch will trip before any damage can be done.
Cabling
It is common to see electrical cabling lying on the floor of offices. Apart from the fact that it looks untidy,
workers can trip over cabling. Electrical cabling should be installed by electricians so that there is the
minimum of open cabling. Electrical power sockets should be installed close to workstations so that there is
no need to run cabling across the floor. The cabling between the power point and the computer should be
secured using cable ties.
Load on power points
There should be adequate power points for the equipment. Overloaded power sockets are a fire hazard. If
there is any sound of sparking in a power socket, the cause should be investigated by a qualified electrician.
The Environment
Paper
One of the goals on information technology was the paperless office. The reality is quite different and
users are often careless and wasteful in the use of paper. The cost factor will be considered in the next
section. From an environmental perspective, waste of paper is very damaging. Here are some things that
you can do to reduce the environmental impact.
1. Do not throw paper away. Set up a storage area for paper that cannot be re-used. Have this collected
on a regular basis for recycling.
2. Print on both sides of the paper. Unless you are producing a document in final form, print on the
reverse side of used paper.
3. Alternatively, look for organisations that can make use of this paper. Many poor schools would be
very glad to get supplies of paper that can still be used on one side.

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Consumables
Often users throw used toner and ink cartridges away. There are two alternatives. You can have them
refilled. If this is not an option because of guarantee restrictions on printers, you could resell them to
companies which refurbish cartridges for resale.
Power
Another area where users are often careless is electrical power consumption. For example, many users
switch only their monitors off at the end of the day so they do not have to boot up in the morning. Apart
from the security risk, this means that the computer is running all night and wasting electrical power.
Switch off any equipment that does not need to be on. When purchasing equipment, low power options
could be selected. An example, would be the purchase of flat LCD screens over conventional monitors as
these consume less power. It is also possible to configure the computer to save power. When a component,
such as the monitor, has not been used for a while, the computer shuts it down.

Information Security
Because information and information technology are fundamental to just about all aspects of modern life,
the modern era is often referred to as the Information age. By its very nature, much information is private
and confidential. Information security refers to all the procedures which are used to protect information
for deliberate or accidental misuse or dissemination. Technically, it refers to the maintenance of the
integrity of information. Integrity means that the information remains correct at all times and cannot be
accessed by unauthorised agents.
Personal privacy
If personal information such as health or finance status, personal or family issues and background details
became available to unauthorised agents, this could lead to the standing of individuals being seriously
compromised. In some cases it may have little more effect than a feeling of invasion of personal privacy,
while in other cases in may lead to serious embarrassment, loss of status or job and even blackmail.
Company confidentiality
Business functions by trying to achieve a competitive edge. This is achieved by making better products and
having better marketing strategies. If competitors found out the formulation of products or details of
manufacturing or the marketing plans for new products, a company would lose its competitive edge. There
is a whole dark area to business known as industrial espionage in which a variety of means are used to
discover trade secrets and business dealings. Obviously, there is an absolute imperative to maintaining the

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confidentiality of all company information. A less obvious breach of information security occurs through
industrial espionage where information is either changed or deleted to sabotage the functioning of the
organisation.
Protecting company information
There are a number of procedures companies can take to protect their information and these would usually
be detailed in a company policy document which would be explained to the staff on appointment. Often a
personal copy of this document is given to each employee for their records.
Staff employment practices: Basic to good company security are loyal and trustworthy staff. If staff are
likely to have access to sensitive information, they should be thoroughly screened before they are
employed. The more sensitive the information they have access to, the more vital is this process. Promotion
to more sensitive positions can be based on a good history or loyalty and trust. Part of the staff induction
process and on-going staff training should inculcate in staff the importance of security and an awareness of
the consequences of its violation.
Security procedures: Information should be classified on the basis of its sensitivity. Access rights to this
information should be limited to those who need to know. To access certain information, an employee
might need a special security clearance. All access to sensitive information should be recorded. Where
sensitive information is stored in the form of paper files, these should be kept in a secure vault. Procedures
should be in place that enable staff to report breaches or suspected breaches of security. They should be
able to report these without fear of reprisal. In large organizations, security departments can be established
specifically for the purpose of providing such channels and monitoring security on an on-going basis. This
is often done in conjunction with forensic auditing. This is a special form of auditing to detect
mismanagement and corruption. All computers from laptop computers to mainframes contain information.
Much of this, whether corporate or personal, is confidential. Many thousands of laptop computers
containing important company or state information have been stolen. Since most corporate records are now
kept in electronic form on computer systems, procedures need to be put in place to protect the
computers. Apart from deliberate violations by people, computers are also subject to accidental damage and
natural disasters.
Physical procedures
Physical access to mainframes should be restricted to operators and systems administrators.
Facilities should be fire and flood proof. Highly sensitive installations should also have adequate
protection from criminal and terrorist activities.

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Desktop and laptop computers are very vulnerable to theft. A simple procedure is to only allow
authorised people access to offices. The use of security cameras can also act as a deterrent.
Desktop computers can be physically attached to the floor or a work surface.
Laptop computers present the greatest risk. They are not only light and easy to pick up, but they
are also more expensive and valuable than desktops. The best protection is not to let them out of
site. If a manager is staying at a hotel, he or she can leave the computer in the hotel safe rather
than their room.
Software procedures
Information can be stolen, altered or deleted without the computer being physically removed.
The information may even be accessed across the Internet.
Firewalls: A firewall is the first line of defence against hackers. It is a computer program that is
installed on a computer that connects a network to the Internet. The firewall analyses the
packets that pass in and out of the network. It is programmed to follow certain rules which
enable it to decide whether or not to allow a packet to pass. There is firewall software that can be
installed on a stand-alone PC.
Access rights: Access rights can refer to both physical and software. In a physical sense, these
refer to different members of staff who have to gain physical access to certain areas. For
example, access to the room containing the mainframe may be restricted to operators. Software
rights refer to the level of access different users have to different levels of data and information.
For example, some users may have no access to certain data, others may only be able to read
the data but not change it. Others in turn may have full rights to create and change data. Access
rights are associated with a user id and password. A user id could be a user name or a
combination of letters and numbers. To log on to a system a user would need a user id and a
password. As other users may know the user id of colleagues, another level of security in terms
of passwords needs to be added in the form of a password. Passwords are private and should
never be divulged to anyone else. Users could have several user ids, each with a different level of
security. They would log on each time with the lowest level of security they need to accomplish a
given task.
Password policies: Password policies refer to guidelines or requirements on the structure and
use of passwords. They can be required for access to a computer system or a group of files or a
single file. The following are some guidelines for password policies:

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• They should never be blank.
• They should not be the names of family members or pets or anything else that would be easy
for an intruder to try out.
• Ideally they should never be words, especially words like administrator, admin or root.
• They should never be less than five characters and preferably longer. Short passwords can
easily be determined by a brute force password cracker. This is a piece of software that
repeatedly feeds in all combinations of letters and numbers until accessed is gained. With short
passwords this can be done in seconds.
• A good policy is to use a meaningless combination of letters and numbers that is seven or eight
characters long. What some users do is to take a meaningful word such as looking and replace
the o with the number 0 and the letter i with the number 1 so that the password becomes
l00k1ng. You could also make a less obvious change, for example replace k with 3 and g with
9 so that the password becomes loo3in9.
• Passwords should be changed on a regular basis. Administrators can set a policy that
automatically causes passwords to expire after a certain period of time, for example 7 days.
When using a PC, you would need to use an operating that provides genuine access protection
with a user id and password. This means using Linux or Windows NT/2000/XP/2003. In Windows
95/98/Me the logon procedure can be bypassed. If Windows NT, 2000, XP or 2003 are used, it
should be in conjunction with the NTFS file system.
Data encryption: Data should be encrypted. Encryption scrambles the data and makes it
unintelligible without the use of a key. The key is used to decipher the data.
Vulnerability of data
Data is vulnerable in many ways:
1. The system on which it is stored can fail. For example, a hard drive may crash due to component
failure. The medium itself may become corrupt. Where data is stored on a magnetic medium, this can
become corrupt due to a number of factors including moisture, heat, magnetic fields and electro
magnetic radiation. Even optical storage which is highly reliable should never be regarded as infallible.
2. The system can be stolen.
3. The system could be physically damaged through war, criminal activity, vandalism or carelessness.
4. The system could be damaged as a result of a natural disaster such as a flood, fire or earthquake.

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5. The data could be deleted or changed through criminal activity, vandalism or carelessness. No matter
what care you may take to protect a system, additional copies of data need to be made and stored on a
regular basis. Copies of data are referred to as backups.
The following are some guidelines to working with backups.
1. Once backups have been created, they should be store in a secure area at a different site.
2. Never keep backups on the same site as the system. They could be stolen or destroyed along with the
rest of the system.
3. Backups should be made on a very regular basis. Even for a small organisation, this should be done
daily. Even the loss of a single day's work would be a major problem. In large organisations backing up
may take place on an on-going basis. A schedule of backing up should be clear policy and adhered to.
4. More than one copy of data should be made. If the data is very valuable, the different copies could be
stored in different secure locations.
5. Different versions of the backup should be retained.

An appropriate medium for backing up must be used. In the case of companies this would
1. Generally be done using tape, although optical storage is becoming more common. For personal use, a
CD or DVD makes an excellent backup. DVD writers are still quite expensive.
2. Never use diskettes for backup purposes. They are not reliable for this purpose. Even when backing up
a PC, makes multiple copies and keep them at another site for safe storage. You could, for example, use
a safety deposit box at a bank.
3. Often a network server has two identical hard drives, one being a mirror image of the other. This means
that if one fails the other one can take over. In other words all the software on the first is identical to the
software on the second.
4. Software can be backed up by making a copy of the cd/dvd media and then storing the originals and
using the backups to install from. This is allowed by most software manufacturers. The original is kept
under lock and key along with the licence numbers.

Computer viruses
A computer virus is a program that is deliberately created to cause annoyance or alter or delete data. Some
viruses cause computer systems to slow down to the point where they are not usable. One of the features of
viruses is that they are designed to replicate and spread.

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Trojan: A Trojan (or Trojan horse) is a virus that hides itself inside another legitimate program. When the
program is used, the virus is released and can begin its work of replication and annoyance or damage.
Worm: A Worm is a program that replicates itself over and over in the computer's memory until the
computer can barely function. One of the signs of invasion by a worm is the slowness of computers.
Time bomb: A time bomb is a virus which lies dormant until a certain date or time or for a period of time.
At this date or time, the virus suddenly becomes active and carries out whatever task it is programmed to
do. This can include the deletion of everything on the hard drive.
Logic bombs: A logic bomb is similar to a time bomb, except that instead of becoming active at a certain
time, it becomes active when a particular activity happens. For example, instead of formatting a diskette,
the virus causes the hard drive to be formatted.
Macro-viruses: Macro-viruses make use of a special customisation feature in applications called macros.
Macros allow you to create mini-programs to carry out certain tasks in your applications.
Spread of computer viruses
Viruses are spread in a number of ways:
1. Downloads from the Internet.
2. Pirated software.
3. Exchange of removable disks.
4. In attachments to emails and in emails themselves.
5. In documents. Macro-virus, described above, can be hidden in ordinary documents,
6. Spreadsheets and presentations.

Anti-virus software
Anti-virus software scans files for pieces of code, called signatures, which it recognises as part of a virus.
Updating anti-virus software mostly involves updating the signatures file. This should be done on as
frequent as basis as possible. This is even more the case when you receive files regularly from outside
sources. The actual anti-virus program itself will be updated from time to time. These updates will include
additional features and improved methods of scanning. It is important to keep in mind that no anti-virus
software is perfect. It is only as good as the techniques it uses for detecting viruses and the currency of the
signature file. There is always the chance that a virus will go undetected. However, a good anti-virus
system installed on your system is essential and will usually detect most viruses. When a virus is detected,
the software will attempt to remove the virus. This is called cleaning or disinfecting. It sometimes happens

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that the system can detect the virus but not get rid of it. In this case, you will usually be given the option of
deleting or quarantining the infected file. When a file is quarantined, it is made unusable and so unable to
spread the virus. A future update of the software may be able to remove the virus. If it can the quarantine is
removed.

Good practice when downloading files, accessing file attachments

There are a number of measures you can take to protect yourself from viruses:
1. Install good anti-virus software and update it on a regular basis, for example at least once a month
but preferably once a week. But always remember, anti-virus software is not perfect. It cannot be
the only measure you take.
2. Scan all removable disks before reading them.
3. Enable the auto-protection feature on the anti-virus software to scan emails.
4. Be wary of emails from unknown sources, particularly if they contain attachments. Some very
careful users delete emails they are unsure of without opening them.
5. Use an Internet Service Provider than scans emails before delivery.
6. Do not download files/software from unknown Internet sites.
7. Be careful of using removable disks from unknown sources.
8. Do not install pirated software.

Copyright
Copyright refers to the legally protected right to publish and distribute any literary, musical, artistic or
software material. This means that only the developer and authorised sellers have the right to copy and
distribute computer software, video materials, music or text. Because there is no control over the Internet,
there are hundreds of sites where software, music and videos can be downloaded. Access to permanent
connections makes downloading of large files physically possible. Many of these sites are located in
countries that do not protect copyright.The fact that it is possible to do something does not make it legally
and ethically right. Authors and developers are entitled to a return on their creative efforts. Downloading
pirated material is both ethically and legally wrong. By reducing revenue, piracy can hamper the
development of software. Software development is expensive and part of the royalties are needed for future
development. Software piracy is a form of theft. It is both a criminal and a civil offence. Developers are
entitled to claim damages in cases of piracy. Increasingly they are making use of all legal avenues to reduce

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piracy and obtain compensation where it has occurred. They are entitled to claim damages against not only
sites, organisations and individuals who make pirated software available, but also those who make use of it.
Downloading from the Internet is not the only form of software piracy. Making copies of software,
other than for personal use, as well as installing software on more computers than specified in the licence
agreement are both forms of piracy.
copyright issues associated with using and distributing materials stored on removable media
When you purchase software, you are actually purchasing the right to install the software on a specified
number of machines. Software usually comes out in two forms: standalone and network. When you
purchase standalone software, you are purchasing the right to install it on a single machine. Generally there
are further restrictions that are specified in the licence agreement. When you purchase a network version of
the software, you purchase the right to install the software on computers attached to a particular network.
This may give you the right to install it on all the computers on the network or a certain maximum number.
It is important to realise that you do not purchase the actual program. The program remains the
intellectual property of the developer. The concept of intellectual property is used as the developer owns
something abstract, something which is the result of considerable intellectual effort. This also means that
you do not have the right to alter the program in any way other than the configuration allowed in the
installation. However you may store the program, on CD, DVD, zip disk, diskette, hard drive or tape, the
program still remains the intellectual property of the developer. This does not mean that you may lend the
stored program out to others, though. This would be a breach of copyright. The stored version is for that
purpose only as a backup and for the licensed user only.

Licence Agreements
when you purchase software, you only purchase the right to use the software subject to certain conditions.
These conditions are specified in the licence agreement. When you install the software onto a computer,
there is always a stage where you have to make a selection that you have read and accept the terms and
conditions of the licence agreement. When you do this, you are agreeing to the developer's rights under
copyright law.
The terms of the licence agreement include the following:
1. Clarification of the licence as right to use the software not ownership of the intellectual property.
2. The number of machines on which the software may be installed.
3. Restrictions on copying the distribution CD.

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 4. Restriction on the resale of the software.
5. Prohibitions on altering the code and reverse engineering. Reverse engineering involves a process
of uncovering the logic and algorithms used to develop the program.
Shareware
Shareware is software, generally downloaded from the Internet, which can be freely used and distributed.
However, it does require that if users would like to continue using it, they pay the developer a fee. This is
nearly always done by means of a credit card transfer across the Internet. When payment is received, users
get a serial number which they insert into the software. To attempt to enforce payment, developers usually
employ a number of methods:
1. Nag notices. These are notices that appear on a regular basis reminding the user that the software
has not yet been registered.
2. Time limitations. The software can be used for a certain period of time. At the end of this period it
ceases to work.
3. Function limitations. The shareware version may exclude certain key features. These limitations
would be removed when a valid serial number is entered.
Freeware
Freeware is software which can be freely copied and distributed. Usually there are certain
restrictions such as it may not be resold or its source should be acknowledged.
Open Source software
An interesting evolution in software development is the Open Source Movement. This movement has the
objective of creating software that can be distributed freely and used at no charge. Developers all over the
world are encouraged to become part of the movement. Many corporations are playing an active role in the
development of open source software. Two examples are Linux and OpenOffice.org. The development of
Linux is being actively supported by corporations such as IBM and Sun Microsystems. Sun Microsystems
are central to the development of OpenOffice.org. Open source software is still subject to a licence
agreement. However, the licence agreement is quite different in tone and purpose to that attached to
commercial software.

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