International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education (IJERE)

Vol. 8, No. 1, March 2019, pp. 64~70

ISSN: 2252-8822, DOI: 10.11591/ijere.v8.i1.pp64-70  64

Vocabulary size, reading motivation, reading attitudes

and reading comprehension performance among Filipino
college learners of English

Rosalyn Gunobgunob-Mirasol
Department of English, University of Santo Tomas, Philippines

Article Info ABSTRACT

Article history: Reading is an indispensable tool in the academic world. Most, if not all,
activities in varied collegiate courses entail the act of reading. There are
Received Aug 8, 2018 many contributing factors that affect one’s ability to read and comprehend
Revised Oct 3, 2018 text materials effectively. Two of the many factors are the reader’s
Accepted Dec 6, 2018 vocabulary size and their reading motivation. This study examined the
relationship of the vocabulary size, reading strategies and the reading
comprehension performance of college learners in a comprehensive
Keywords: university in the Philippines. A correlational analysis was employed to
ascertain the relationship between the scores in the reading comprehension
Acquisition of competence component of the course and the vocabulary levels tests by Nation. The
Reading attitude findings of this study hope to provide useful insights into the prediction of
Reading motivation college learners’ reading performance and the teaching of vocabulary in the
Reading comprehension ESL context as well as the integration of learners’ reading
Vocabulary size motivation in the curriculum.
Copyright © 2019 Institute of Advanced Engineering and Science.
All rights reserved.

Corresponding Author:
Rosalyn Gunobgunob-Mirasol,
Department of English, Research Center for Social Sciences and Education,
University of Santo Tomas,
Espana Boulevard, Manila, Philippines.
Email: [email protected]

1. INTRODUCTION
A significant debate about second and even foreign language learners’ poor reading ability and
whether such inefficient reading ability should be ascribed to target language proficiency or reading problems
took place in the mid-80’s [1]. With today’s millennial learners, there is also a great debate about the areas
and the setting of the reading encounters of the students. As readers get exposed to varied reading encounters
such as the use of online reading sites, the use of kindle, online books, and quick access to social media such
as facebook, twitter, instagram, tinder, wattpad, ask.fm, and countless social media platforms brought about
the new generation of readers today. With this shift from the print setting to digital setting, educators are
challenged to determine what motivates the readers to read.
Reading instruction has five components which include phonemic awareness, phonics, word
recognition, vocabulary, and comprehension. One cannot deny the fact that these five components are
important. These components of reading instructions allow the students acquire necessary skills to be
proficient readers. However, it is also important to consider the reader’s will to read. According to Cambria
and Guthrie [2], a good reader has both skill and will. This focuses on the motivation to read. They agree on
the idea that motivation to read comes with readers’ enjoyments, their wants, and their behaviours that
envelope the act of reading. A reader may acquire important skills to make sense of the text, but without
motivation, s/he cannot become a proficient and competent reader.
Reading attitude is defined as the “feeling about reading that results in the adoption or avoidance of
positive reading habits” [3]. Another definition of reading attitude is “a system of feeling related to reading

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Int. J. Eval. & Res. Educ. ISSN: 2252-8822  65

which causes the learner to approach or avoid a reading situation” [4]. The formation of a students’ good
reading attitude starts at home for it is where literacy awareness begins [5]-[7]. Home is also where reading
motivation, or simply motivation, is fostered and enhanced. Motivation is a widely accepted key factor in
language learning; it is the internal drive that pushes someone to achieve something [8]. Motivation is
defined as “the personal goals, desires, and intentions of an individual [9]. When motivation is put into the
context of reading, it is defined as “the individual’s personal goals, values, and beliefs with regard to the
topics, processes, and outcomes of reading” [9]. It is said that “motivation to read is a multidimensional
concept which makes one’s choice to come from varied reasons [10]. Some researchers believe that interest
is classified as intrinsic motivation [2]. It means it is something that one does for his/her own sake [11]-[14]
and reward is excluded in the idea. This implies that the reader values reading because he/she experiences
highest level of connection with the text, himself/herself, and with the world. Reterlsdorf et al. [15]
emphasized that reading enjoyment represents the activity-related component of intrinsic motivation. This
inner motivation of the readers may lead to a better performance and competence in the school. Students who
also have high intrinsic motivation are usually highly achieving readers [16]. Wigfield and Guthrie found that
“students who are intrinsically motivated spend 300% more time reading than students who have low
intrinsic motivation for reading.” Compared to ten other motivations, intrinsic motivation for reading was
most highly associated with whether or not students read widely and frequently on their own accord [16].
Knoll [17] explored the relationship between motivation and reading comprehension in tenth grade
English/language arts students and found a strong relationship between the two variables. This strong
relationship seems to indicate that a focus upon the motivation of students with low reading scores would be
beneficial to those individuals. Given this information that reading motivation of the learners seemed to
decline as they approach higher learning and that reading motivation can be associated to the performance of
the learners, it should be of important consideration that teachers look into the non-cognitive performance of
the learners especially their reading attitudes and reading motivation.
This paper looked into the necessary and relevant details of our college readers today in terms of
their vocabulary size, reading attitudes reading motivation and their relationship with their reading
comprehension performance; thus, providing useful details into the prediction of college learners’ reading
performance and the teaching of vocabulary in the ESL context as well as the integration of learners’ reading
motivation in the curriculum. Specifically, this paper determined the following: (1) difference between male
and female vocabulary size; (2) factors affecting vocabulary size; (3) relationships among the dimensions of
motivation (4) relationship between reading attitude and motivation (5) dimensions of motivation that
significantly affect the vocabulary size of the student; (6) reading attitudes of the respondents; (7) difference
between students’ reading attitudes towards academic and recreational purposes in print and digital
environments; and (8) correlation between reading attitudes in purposes and settings.

2. RESEARCH METHOD
2.1. Research design
This paper employed quantitative - descriptive approach. This involves collections of quantitative
information that can be tabulated along a continuum in numerical form, such as scores on a test or the
number of times a person chooses to use a-certain feature of a multimedia program, or it can describe
categories of information such as gender or patterns of interaction when using technology in a group situation
[18]. Descriptive research involves gathering data that describe events and then organizes, tabulates, depicts,
and describes the data collection [19].

2.2. Subjects and study site

A total of 121 college students were surveyed to determine their reading attitudes and reading
motivation. They were also given a reading comprehension test before the semester ended. On one hand, the
first generation of college students seem to be at a more or less high risk of being academically, socially, and
economically left behind [20]. Because of their new environment, first year college may have higher anxiety
over those who have stayed in college for more than a year. This scenario should move educators to look into
their attitudes and motivation to better provide quality instruction to them. On the other hand, third year
college has already determined characteristics as influenced by social, parental, and cognitive factors. As
college students are given more academic loads such as homeworks, formative and summative assessments
and the like, students spend more time reading materials that are already identified by their professors. It
might be of interest to educators to determine whether interest-related reading is very low among third year
students. This may be due to several factors such as individual, family, and social responsibilities [21].

Vocabulary size, reading motivation, reading attitudes and reading…. (Rosalyn Gunobgunob-Mirasol)
66  ISSN: 2252-8822

2.3. Instrumentation
There were three instruments used in this study. The first one was the Adolescent Reading Attitudes
Survey (ARAS) by Michael McKenna, the Motivation to Read by Wigfield, et al., and a reading
comprehension text with the corresponding reading comprehension questions. The ARAS consists of 18
questions that ask the respondents of how they feel in situations that pertain to their purposes and setting in
their reading activities. The Motivation to Read consists of 53 questions, of which 11 constructs were
identified: reading efficacy, reading challenge, reading curiosity, reading involvement, importance of
reading, reading work avoidance, competition in reading, recognition for reading, reading for grades, social
reasons for reading, and compliance. Moreover, the students answered the vocabulary size test at
my.vocabularysize.com to determine theyr vocabulary size. The respondents answered the reading
comprehension questions were tested to find out the reliability using the Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level, with
the result of 13.7 equivalent to college level text; and The SMOG Index, with the result of 13.2, which is also
equivalent to a college level text.

2.4. Data gathering procedure

The researchers sought permission from selected students of first- and third-year college enrolled in
the University of Santo Tomas. A letter of informed consent was given to them after explaining the
objectives of the study. The survey was given on the second month of the second semester because during
this stage, the students have already had the feeling of what it is to be a first-year college or a third-year
college student. The first survey administered was the ARAS by Michael McKenna; a week after the ARAS,
the researcher administered the motivation to read profile. The reading comprehension tests were
administered on the second and fourth month of the semester. The results were then tabulated, and
appropriate statistical tests were employed.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1 presents the significant difference between the students’ gender and vocabulary size.
Independent sample t-test and Levene’s test for equality were used to determine the difference on the said
variables, pretest scores, and post test scores. Results revealed that there is no significant difference in their
vocabulary size (t(88)=-226, p>.05), pretest scores (t(38)=1.135, p>.05), and post test scores (t(38)=1.178,
p>.05) all considering equal variances.

Table 1. Significant difference in the vocabulary size and test scores of male and female students
Levene's Test for Equality of
Female (n = 68) Male (n = 22) t-test for Equality of Means
Variances
Sig. (2- Mean
Mean sd Mean sd F Sig. t df
tailed) Difference
Vocab Size 11350.000 3225.898 11527.273 3091.799 .018 .893 -.226 88 .822 -177.273
Levene's Test for Equality of
Female (n = 34) Male (n = 6) t-test for Equality of Means
Variances
Sig. (2- Mean
Mean sd Mean sd F Sig. t df
tailed) Difference
PRE RC-
46.412 6.301 43.167 7.387 .606 .441 1.135 38 .263 3.245
SCORE
POST RC
63.529 4.092 61.333 4.926 .216 .644 1.178 38 .246 2.196
SCORE

Table 2 presents which factos affect vocabulary size. Stepwise regression analysis is used to
determine what factors affect the vocabulary size. Results revealed that reading attitude towards printed
environment has significant positive effect to vocabulary size (F(1,88) =4.003, p<.05, R2=.044). However,
the regression model indicates that only 4.4% of the variability in vocabulary size can be explained by the
students’ attitude towards printed environment.

Table 2. Regression analysis of reading attitude and vocabulary size

Unstandardized
Coefficients Standardized Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.
1 (Constant) 6884.779 2277.434 3.023 .003
Print 989.173 494.413 .209 2.001 .049
Dependent Variable: Vocab Size (F(1, 88) = 4.003, p = .049, R2 = .044)

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Int. J. Eval. & Res. Educ. ISSN: 2252-8822  67

Table 3 presents the relationship among the dimensions of motivation. Pearson correlation
coefficient is used to determine if there are significant relationships among the dimensions of motivation.
Efficacy is significantly correlated with involvement (r = .189, p < .05), importance (r = .387, p < .01),
competition (r = .430, p < .01), and recognition (r = .476, p < .01). Involvement is significantly correlated
with importance (r = .287, p < .01) and recognition (r = .235, p < .01). Significant correlation also exists
between importance and competition (r = .378, p < .01), importance and recognition (r = .486, p < .01), and
competition and recognition (r = .635, p < .01). Among the dimensions of motivations, only involvement and
competition are not significantly correlated (r = .147, p > .05).

Table 3. Correlation among the dimensions of motivation (n = 121)

Efficacy Involvement Importance Competition Recognition
Efficacy 1
Involvement .189* 1
Importance .387** .282** 1
Competition .430** .147 .378** 1
** ** **
Recognition .476 .235 .486 .635** 1
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Table 4 presents the relationship between reading attitudes and motivation. Pearson correlation is
used to determine if there is significant relationship between reading attitude and motivation. Reading
attitude towards academic purposes and digital environment are not significantly correlated with the
dimensions of motivations. However, reading attitude towards recreational purposes is significantly
correlated with efficacy (r = .224, p < .05), involvement (r = .451, p < .01), importance (r = .256, p < .01),
competition (r = .197, p < .05), and recognition (r = .324, p < .01). Additionally, reading attitude towards
printed environment is significantly correlated with efficacy (r = .261, p < .05), involvement (r = .418, p <
.01), importance (r = .304, p < .01), and recognition (r = .247, p < .01).

Table 4. Correlation between dimensions of motivation and reading attitudes

Academic Recreational Print Digital
Efficacy .108 .224* .261** .012
Involvement .135 .451** .418** .062
Importance .102 .256** .304** -.020
Competition .067 .197* .145 .086
Recognition .031 .324** .247** .035
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Table 5 presents which dimension of motivation affects the vocabulary size of the students.
Stepwise regression analysis is used to determine what dimensions of motivation significantly affect the
vocabulary size of the student. Results revealed that only efficacy has significant positive effect on
vocabulary size (F(1, 88) = 5.207, p < .05, R2 = 0.56). The positive effect of efficacy indicates that higher
level of efficacy leads to bigger vocabulary size. However, the regression model shows that only 5.6% of the
variability in vocabulary size can be explained by efficacy.

Table 5. Regression analysis between motivation and vocabulary size.

Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.
1 (Constant) 7531.185 1723.879 4.369 .000
Efficacy 1420.681 622.592 .236 2.282 .025
Dependent Variable: Vocab Size (F(1,88) = 5.207, p = .025, R2 = .056)

Table 6 presents the general description of the reading attitudes of the students. It can be noted that
the top three items that have garnered the most positive attitudes from the respondents fell under the
Recreational purpose; and the bottom three fell under the academic purpose. In general, though, the students
have positive reading attitude (M = 4.560, sd = .352).

Vocabulary size, reading motivation, reading attitudes and reading…. (Rosalyn Gunobgunob-Mirasol)
68  ISSN: 2252-8822

Table 6. Descriptive statistics of the reading attitudes of the students

Top three result
Item No. Statement Purpose Setting Mean Sd
15 How do you feel about being on social media like Facebook or Twitter Recreational Digital
5.111 1.040
in your free time?
10 How do you feel about texting friends in your free time? Recreational Digital 4.966 .937
8 How do you feel about talking with friends about something you've Recreational Print
4.923 1.018
been reading in your free time?
Bottom three result
12 How do you feel about working on an internet project with Academic Digital
4.197 1.131
classmates?
7 How do you feel about reading a book online for a class? Academic Digital 4.009 1.063
3 How do you feel about doing a research using encyclopedias (or other Academic Print
3.923 1.035
books) for a class?

Table 7 presents students’ reading attitudes towards academic and recreational purposes in print and
digital environments. It can be noted that the top three items that have garnered the most positive attitudes
from the respondents fell under the Recreational purpose; and the bottom three fell under the academic
purpose. In general, the students have positive reading attitude (M = 4.560, sd = .352). The students have
significantly higher level of reading attitude for recreational purposes (M=4.830, sd = .643) as compared to
academic (M = 4.315, sd = .634), (t (120) = 9.518, p < .001). However, considering the environment,
students’ level of attitude towards printed materials (M = 4.528, sd = .682) and digital materials (M = 4.564,
sd = .664) are not significantly different (t (120) = .547, p > .05).

Table 7. Significant difference between students’ reading attitudes towards academic and recreational
purposes in print and digital environments
Paired Differences
95% Confidence
Std. Sig. (2-
Mean sd Mean sd of Interval of the t df
Error tailed)
difference difference Difference
Mean
Lower Upper
Purpose Academic 4.315 .634 -.515 .595 .054 -.622 -.408 -9.518 120 .000
Recreational 4.830 .643
Environment Print 4.528 .682 -.037 .740 .067 -.170 .096 -.547 120 .585
Digital 4.564 .664

Table 8 presents the correlation between reading attitudes in purposes and settings. It was found out
that there was a significant positive correlation between and among the students reading attitudes towards
purposes and environment. Significant correlations exist between students’ attitude towards academic and
recreational purposes (r = .567, p < 0.01), attitude towards printed and digital materials (r = .396, p < .01).
These indicate that those students with higher level of reading attitude towards academic purposes are also
those with higher level of reading attitude toward recreational purposes which is true also for the attitude of
the students toward printed and digital environment. Significant correlations also exist between students’
attitude towards academic purposes and printed materials (r = .756, p < 0.1); academic purposes and digital
materials (r = .803, p < .01); recreational purposes and printed materials (r = .769, p < .01); and recreational
purposes and digital materials (r = .612, p < .01).

Table 8. Correlation between students’ reading attitude towards in purposes and settings
Academic Recreational Print Digital
Academic 1
Recreational .565** 1
Print .756** .803** 1
** **
Digital .769 .612 .396** 1
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

4. CONCLUSION
This paper investigated the role of reading attitudes and reading motivation to the respondents’
vocabulary size and reading comprehension performance. Generally, the respondents have positive attitudes
in reading in both settings and purpose and that respondents who have higher level of reading attitude

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Int. J. Eval. & Res. Educ. ISSN: 2252-8822  69

towards academic purposes are also those with higher level of reading attitude toward recreational purposes
which is true also for the attitude of the students toward printed and digital environment.
Motivation, specifically the construct on reading efficacy, may seem to affect their vocabulary size.
This result suggests that it is important to increase the motivation of the students to read as the amount of
reading may lead to an increase in vocabulary size.
Although students seem to have positive attitudes in reading digitally, exposure to print environment
is still deemed important as studies revealed that students learn better in reading using printed texts. Purpose
in reading matters; therefore, readers must know their purpose in reading. A conscious awareness of why
students read needs to be considered in the teaching and learning environment.
In the digital world, many thinks that printed texts may seem less important over digital texts;
however, looking at the results of comprehension tests, one cannot underestimate the power of printed texts.
Exposure to both settings is highly important then so that students can have an equal chance of looking at
where they perform better.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The researchers would like to express their gratitude to the Research Center for Social Sciences and
Education of the University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines

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BIOGRAPHY OF AUTHOR

Rosalyn G. Mirasol, Ph.D. is an associate professor at the Department of English, University

of Santo Tomas, and Manila, Philippines. She is also a research associate at the Research
Center for Social Sciences and Education in the same University. Dr. Mirasol is a Board of
Director of the Reading Association of the Philippines and an active member of International
Literacy Association. Her research interests include reading attitudes, cognitive and non-
cognitive assessments of reading proficiency, and she advocates home school reading
collaborations.

Int. J. Eval. & Res. Educ. Vol. 8, No. 1, March 2019: 64 - 70