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2 Distance, velocity and acceleration
Constant speed and constant velocity
‘The statement that the speed of a car is 40 kilometres per hour (written
40km/h or 40km h~') means that, if the speed remains unchanged, the car
‘yi travel 40km in each hour. The speed of the car is then said to be
taiform ot constant, At the same speed the car would travel 80 km in 2
hours, 120km in 3 hours, etc. Thus:
distance travelled = speed x time
or S=VXE
‘The velocity of a car is a measure of the speed at which it is travelling ina
particular direction.
Ifa car has constant, or uniform velocity, then both the speed and the
direction of motion of the car remain unchanged.
‘Thus the velocity of a car may be stated as 50kmh! due north and the
speed of this car is then $0kmh-'.
So it is seen that speed is a scalar quantity, whereas velocity is a vector
quantity and
distance travelled in a particular direction = velocity x time taken
or s=vxt
The distance travelled in a particular direction may be referred to as the
displacement of the body from some fixed point.
The letter v is used to denote both speed and velocity. This need cause no
confusion provided that the difference between them is remembered, and it
is clearly understood which is being used in a particular example.
In most cases, only linear motion will be considered, ie. motion along a
straight line.
Therefore, the velocity can only be in one of two directions. The direction of
the velocity can then be distinguished by the use of positive and negative.
Forexample: Sms"! denoted by velocity of Sms“
—
Sms"! denoted by velocity of -Sms"!
ecole
Change of units
The car which is travelling at 40 kmh” is, of course, travelling a certain
‘umber of metres each second.Understanding mechanics: chapter 2
18
Example 1
Express a speed of 40 km he! in ms”
ole “t 40%
40kmho! = 40x 1000m hr 60x 60
10 a speed of 115ms~!.
'A speed of 40km h~! is equivalent t
Use of s = vt
is of the quantities involved
When the relationship 5 = vf 1S used, the unit: tl S 4
must be consistent. If the speed is in km hv!, the time must be in hours an‘
the distance will then be in km.
Example 2
Find the distance travel
speed of 15km he,
Fond also the time taken by this body to travel 200,
y= 1Skmhr!
t= 3 minutes = 4h
Using s= vt gives:
s=i5sxt
s=4km or 750m
Jled in 3 minutes by a body moving with a constant
m at the same speed.
The distance travelled is 750m.
To find the time taken to travel 200m
s=200m 9 y= 15kmh!
_ 15x 1000 gt =
60 x 60
Using s= 08 gives:
200 =28 xt where 1 is measured in seconds
1=48s
The time taken to travel 200m at 15kmh"! is 48s.
Average speed
In practice the speed and velocity of a body are seldom constant. When a
See a in eae it is unlikely that its speed is constant. It is
at for part of the time the car is travelli ,
fe th x avelling at more th
a = a , a a some of the time the car’s speed is less than 4okm nt
refer tot :
hal e average speed, or the average velocity of aDistance, velocity and acceleration 19
average speed = {tal distance travelled
total time taken
and average velocity = $018! distance travelled in a particular direction
total time taken
The distance travelled in a particular direction can more conveniently be
referred to as the displacement from some fixed initial position.
Example 3
‘A, Band C are three points, in that order, on a straight road with
‘aB = 40km and BC = 90km.
‘Awoman travels from A to B at 10kmh~! and then from B to Cat
1Skmbe!
Calculat
(@) the time taken to travel from A to B
() the time taken to travel from B to C
(0) the average speed of the woman for the journey from A to C.
(a) Using s=vt for A to B gives: +40 km--=——90 km——>
eee
40=10x1 A B c
—> —>
t=4h 10km ho 15kmh=*
The time taken to travel from A to Bis 4h.
(b) Using s=vt for Bto C gives:
9 =15 x1
1=6h
The time taken to travel from B to Cis 6h.
total distance travelled
for A to C gives:
total time taken zi e
(© Using average speed =
y= 40+90
446
v=13kmh!
The average speed for the whole journey is 13 kmh,
Example 4
‘Arman walks 400m due east in a time of 190s, and then 100m due west in a
time of 50s,
Calculate:
(2) his average
() his average velocity, for the whole journey,20
(a) Using average speed =
Understanding mechanics: chapter 2
total distance
total time
400 + 100
average speed = ————
ae 190 + 50
= =25ms"!
The average speed is 245ms"!.
(b) Using avernge velocity — “isplacement
total time
average velocity = 70
=1ims! E
‘The average velocity is 1}ms~! east.
Exercise 2A
1,
2
3.
4.
5.
6.
2
1
=
Express a speed of 36kmh~ in ms“.
Express a speed of 81 kmh~! in ms“.
Express a speed of 35ms~! in kmhv!.
Express a speed of 22ms~! in kmh!
Express a speed of 6km min“ in ms~
. A body travelling at a constant speed covers
a distance of 200m in 8 seconds.
Find the speed of the body.
A body travelling at a constant speed covers
a distance of 3km in 2 minutes.
Find the speed of the body.
. Find the distance travelled in 5 seconds by a
body moving with a constant speed of
3-2ms7.
Find the distance travelled in 2 minutes by a
body moving with a constant speed of
6kmh"'.
Find the time taken by a body, moving with
a constant speed 3:Sms“!, to travel a
distance of 21 m.
. At time f= 0 a body passes through a point
A and is moving with a constant velocity of
4mst.
(a) Find how far the body is from A when
t=3s.
(b) What is the value of t when the body is
22m from A?
. The spacecraft Voyager IT travels at a
constant velocity of 80000 km h-!.
Find the distance the spacecraft travels in:
(a) hour (b) 1S minutes (¢) I second.
gives:
gives:
400 m E+ 100 mW
13.
18.
300 mE
240
The speed of sound is 340ms!. Find the
distance travelled in one minute by an
aircraft flying at Mach 2 (Le. twice the
speed of sound).
The speed of light is 3 x 10° ms7!. If the
distance from the Sun to the Earth is
1-5 x 10®km, find how long it takes light
from the Sun to reach the Earth.
. If it takes 5 seconds for the sound of
thunder to reach my ears, how far am I fra
the place that it actually occurred? (Speed 0
sound is 340ms~!,)
If an athlete runs a 1500 metre race in
3 minutes 33 seconds, find his average
speed for the race.
. A, Band C are three points lying in that
order on a straight road with AB = Skm
and BC = 4km. A man runs from A to Be
20kmh*! and then walks from B to C at
8kmh7!. Find:
(a) the total time taken to travel from A
toc
(b) the average speed of the man for the
journey from A to C.
‘A man walks 150m due north, in a time of
70s, and then 50m due south, in a time of
30s. Find:
(a) his average speed
(b) his average velocity.2
Distance, velocity and acceleration
1c speed of 10ms ', then from B to
19, Acaris driven from Town A to Town B, an av
ne of 45, and then returns to B. The
4okm away, at an average speed of Cinat
cokmhe!. The car is at B for 10 minutes average speed for the whole journcy is
and is then driven back to A, Saal Find
(a) Find the average speed for the journey (a) the average speed of the body in the
BA if the average speed for the second stage of the motion
complete journey is 60kmh-!, (eae)
(b) What is the average velocity of the car (b) the average speed of the body in moving
for the complete journey? ia ee
a fs (©) the time taken for the third stage of the
20, A, Band C are three points lying in that motion (i.e. C ~+ B)
order on a straight line with AB = 60m and (d) the average velocity for the complete
AC = 80m. A body moves from A to B at motion
Lj notation
In the first chapter, vectors were expressed using the i-j notation. Both the
position and the velocity of a body can be given in this vector form.
Position vector
Using a suitable origin O, the position of a body at P may be given as the
vector OP, where:
OF = (ai + opm. ‘
This is the position vector of the body.
As before, the vector may be denoted by a single
letter, say,
r= OB =(ai+ dpm
The distance of P from the origin O and the ol
direction of OB may then be found:
distance OP = | OP | or |r|
=e +h)
' (ai + b)) m
b
and the direction of OP is given by tan 0 =
a
Velocity vector
The velocity vector v can be expressed in the
same way,
Ifthe velocity vector of a body at P is given by:
y=(l+d)ms"', ia
the body has a velocity of ems”! in the direction
of the unit vector i, and dms~' in the direction
of the unit vector i22 Understanding mechanics: chapter 2
Example 5
The point O is the origin and the points P and Q have position vectors
(Ti ~ 24j) m and (13i — 16j)m respectively. Find:
(a) the distance OP
(b) the vector PO
(©) the distance PQ.
@ ‘OP = (7i- 24j)m
distance OP = | OP | = y(7? + (-24)*) = 25m
The distance OP is 25m.
(b) Since OP + PQ = 0G
PG = 00 - OF
= (13i — 16) - (Ti — 24)) = (1+ 8m
The vector PQ is (6i + 8j)m.
(©) From (b) PQ =(6i+8))m
distance PQ =| PQ |
= V6 +82) = 10m
The distance PQ is 10m.
Example 6
A particle P has an initial position vector (3i + 2) + 4k)m.
If the particle moves with a constant velocity of (Si+j— 3k)ms™', find:
(a) the position vector of P after time t,
(b) the position vector of P after 3 seconds,
(a) Position vector after time sis given by:
¥(t) = (3i + 2j + 4k) + Si +j— 3k)
r() = (3+ Si+(2 +0] + (4—3nk.
The position vector of P after time ¢ is:
[B+ 501+ 2+ Oj+ (4 - 3k] m.
(b) After 3 seconds:
1(3) = 181 + 5j — Sk:
After 3 seconds the position vector is (18i + Sj — 5k) m.Exercise 2B
1, The point A has position vector (71 + 24
Find how far A is from the origin, oe
2. ‘The points B and C have position vectors
(Bi 15j)m and (Si — 12}) m respectively.
Find: :
(a) how far B is from the origin
(6) how far C is from the origin
© BCA in vector form (i.e. i-j notation)
@ [BC |.
‘The point O is the origin and points A, B
and C have position vectors (31 —
»
Find:
(a) the distance OA»
(b) the distance OB
(©) the distance OC
(@ the vector AB
(© the vector BC
(f) the vector CB
(g) the distance AB
(h) the distance BC.
4, Find the speed of a body moving with
velocity (6i — 8jms~!.
5, Find the speed of a body moving with
velocity (7i— 24j)ms7!.
6. Find the speed of a body moving with
velocity (-4i + jms“,
7, Find the speed of a body moving with
velocity (41 — 10j + k)ms~!,
8. Find the speed of a body moving with
velocity (31 — j - 7k)ms~'.
9. Particle A has velocity (Si + 2)ms~! and
particle B has velocity (—4i + 4j)ms~,
Which particle has the greater speed?
10. A body moving with a velocity
(2i+ aj)ms7! has a speed of 5-2ms"!
Find the two possible values of a.
11. A body moving with a velocity of
(61+ (6+ 7)j}Jms~! has a speed of 17ms
Find the two possible values of b.
12. A particle has an initial position vector of
(Si+ 3))m.
W the particle moves with a constant velocity
of (2i + 4))ms~" find its position vector after:
(a) 1 second
(b) 2 seconds,
4j + 5k)m,
(Bi + 8)— 3k)m, and (4i + 3k)m respectively,
15.
17.
19,
EEE EE
Distance, velocity and acceleration 23
. A particle has an initial position vector of
(Si+ 4pm
If the particle moves with a constant velocity
of (2i— jms“, find its position vector after:
(a) 3seconds —_(b) 5 seconds
|. A particle has an initial position vector of
(Zi + 5j)m. The particle moves with a constant
velocity of (ai + 5j)ms~' and after 3 seconds
has a position vector of (10i — j)m.
Find the values of a and 6.
Find the speed of a body which is moving
with a constant velocity of (Si— 12{)ms"!.
If the body is initially at a point with
Position vector (i + 6j) m, find the position
vector of the body 3 seconds later and its
distance from the origin at that time.
3. A particle has an initial position vector
(4i + 3j + 9k) m. The particle moves with a
constant velocity of (3i— 2j— Sk)ms~!.
Find:
(@) the position vector of the particle at time 1
(b) the position vector of the particle after
5 seconds.
How far is the particle from the origin after
5 seconds?
A particle has an initial position vector
(ai + bj + ck)m. The particle moves with a
constant velocity of (3i-+j+4k)ms~! and
after 2 seconds has a position vector
(i+j+ 1k)m.
Find the values of a, b and c. How far is the
particle from the origin after 3 seconds?
A particle has an initial position vector
(Ti — 6 + 3k) m with respect to an origin O.
For the next two seconds the particle moves
with a constant velocity of (41 — 6k)ms!.
The particle then moves with a constant
velocity (ai +j+ck)ms™!, reaching O
after a further three seconds.
Find the values of a, 6 and c.
At time ¢ = 0 two particles A and B have
position vectors (2i + 3j — 4k)m and
(Bi + 6k) m respectively. A moves with
constant velocity (—i + 3j + 5k)ms~' and B
with constant velocity vm s~'. Given that
when ¢ = 5 seconds B passes through the
point that A passed through one second
earlier, find v.24 Understanding mechanics: chapter 2
Uniform acceleration formulae
When the motion of a body is being considered, the letters w, v, a, rand s
usually have the following meanings:
v = final velocity
u = initial velocity
1 = time interval or time taken
a = acceleration
5 = displacement
Consider a car travelling in a straight line. If initially its velocity is Sms~'
and 3 seconds later its velocity is 1] ms™', the car is said to be accelerating.
Acceleration is a measure of the rate at which velocity is changing. In this
example, the velocity increases by 6ms™' in 3s, If the acceleration a is
assumed to be uniform, then it is 6ms~' in 3s, or 2ms™! each second,
which is written 2ms~?.
In general:
change in velocity
acceleration = ————
time interval
or
Hence veutat —...{I]
If the acceleration is uniform, then the average velocity is the average of the
initial and final velocities, ie.
uty
average velocity =
displacement _ 5
But average velocity =
: Y= "Time taken
s_uty
t 2
7 s-“m pl
Substituting the value of v from equation [1] into equation [2] gives:
(ututant
2
s=utt+jar «2
Substitute for 1 from equation [1] into equation [2].
Equation [1] is rewritten as:Distance, velocity and acceleration 25
and substituted into equation [2:5 — “+¥) (v-¥)
2 @
siving das =F — at
Hence Pawt2as 4]
‘These four formulae are very important and should be committed to
memory:
veutat
sett Remember these only apply
2 to motion involving
seutttar uniform acceleration,
v=w+2as
Distance and displacement
In the above formulae, 5 represents displacement. In practice, s is also used
to denote distance because distance and displacement are often equal. There
need be no confusion provided that care is taken in any particular question.
When the direction of motion of a body remains unchanged, then the
distance travelled and the displacement are equal.
If the direction of motion changes part way through the motion, then the
distance travelled and the displacement will not be equal.
Suppose a body moves 15km due east and then 10km due west:
distance moved = 15km+10km = 25km
displacement from initial position = 15km E+10km W = 5km E
Example 7
A body moves along a straight line from A to B with uniform acceleration
4ms~. The time taken is 12s and the velocity at B is 25ms7!. Find:
(a) the velocity at A
(b) the distance AB.
Given a= 3 ms“
t=12s \ we need to find: (a) u (b) s
v=25ms! .
@ Use vew+at
25 = ut (3)(12)
=17ms
The velocity at A is 17ms~!.26 Understanding mechanics: chapter 2
(b) Use s=ur+ tar or Psi? + 2as ors= a
= (17)(12) +4 (3)(2P (28) = (1 +2(9)s = ws 28
= 204448 625 = 289445 = 252m
y= 252m = 252m
The distance AB is 252m.
Example 8
A cyclist travelling downhill accelerates uniformly at Ims™. If his initial
velocity at the top of the hill is 3ms~"', find:
(a) how far he travels in 8s
(b) how far he travels before reaching a velocity of 7ms“!.
(a) Given a= 1-Sms™*
u=3ms" we need to find s
cen |
Use s=ut+ far
= 38) + 401-58)
= 24448
s=72m In 8s the cyclist travels 72m.
(b) Given a@=1-5ms?
we need to find s
The distance travelled is 134 m.
Retardation
Ifa body moving at 12ms~ is subsequently moving at 2ms~', the body is,
said to be subject to a retardation, ie. a negative acceleration. If the change
in velocity takes place over a period of 45, the retardation is 10ms' in 4s
or 2 ms~ and the acceleration is -24 ms~.
Example 9
A stone slides in a straight line across a horizontal sheet of ice. It passes a
point A with velocity 14ms~!, and the point B 21s later.
Assuming the retardation is uniform and that AB = 30m, find:
(a) the retardation
(b) the velocity at B
(©) how long after passing A the stone comes to rest.Distance, velocity and acceleration 27
(a) Given w= 14ms"!
258 We need to find retardation
30m
Let acceleration = a
Use s=utttar
30 = (14)(2-5) + 4.(a)(2.5)?
30 = 35+ =
—1-6ms~, i. a retardation
or
‘The retardation is 1-6ms~2,
(b) Let velocity at B= v
From part (a) retardation = 1.6ms~? or a= —1-6ms~
Use P=w +2as
= (14? +.2( — 1-6)(30)
= 196 - 96
v=10ms"!
‘The velocity of the stone at B is 10ms~!.
14ms
—1-6ms? we need to find ¢
v= 0 when the stone comes to rest
(©) Given
u+at
144 (-1-6)t
8-758
The stone is at rest 8-75 after passing A.
Exercise 2C
Questions 1 to 20 involve a body moving with uniform acceleration along a
straight line from point A to point B.
initial final
velocity velocity
ae acceleration —_ :
A eo,
rs
distance >
1. Initially at rest, acceleration = 4ms~, + 4, Initial velocity = 3ms~,
time taken = 8s, Find the distance. final velocity = Sms~', time taken = 10s.
2. Initial velocity = 3ms!, Find the distance.
acceleration = 2ms~?, time taken = 6s.
Find the final velocity. + 5. Initial velocity = 3ms~',
3. Initially at rest, acceleration = 2ms"*, final velocity = Sms“, distance = 2m.
lime taken = 45, Find the distance. Find the acceleration.28
Understanding mechanics: chapter 2
* 6. Final velocity = 27ms~!,
Bp
e
. Initial velocity = 7m
. Initial velocity
= 8ms~, time taken = 2s.
final velocity = 3ms~', distance = 5m.
Find the acceleration.
Distance = 28 m, acceleratio
time taken = 4. Find the initial velocity.
Distance = 201, initial velocity = 3ms~',
final velocity
Initial velocity = 6ms"',
final velocity = 8ms“',
acceleration = 0-5ms~*. Find the distance.
Initial velocit;
final velocity = 50ms"!,
time taken = 16s. Find the acceleration.
Distance = 500m, initial velocity = Ims~',
time taken = 10s. Find the acceleration,
Initial velocit
final velocity
acceleration
|. Initial velocity = 30ms"',
final velocit 10ms~
acceleration
acceleration = 1ms~?, distance = 12m.
Find the time taken.
Distance = 60m, final velocity = 8ms~',
time taken = 12s. Find the initial velocity.
Initial velocity = Sms“,
final velocity = 36kmh-',
acceleration = 14 ms~?. Find the distance.
. Acceleration = 0-5ms~?,
final velocity = 162kmh~!,
time taken = | minute. Find the initial
velocity.
19, Acceleration = 2ms~*,
final velocity = 10ms~', time taken = 2s.
Find the distance.
20. Distance = 132m, time taken = 12s,
acceleration = —1ms~?, Find the final
velocity.
21. A train starts from rest and accelerates
uniformly, at 1-Sms~?, until it attains a
speed of 30ms~'. Find the distance the train
travels during this motion and the time
taken.
22. A cheetah can accelerate from rest to
30ms"! in a distance of 25m. Find the
acceleration (assumed constant).
7ms-', Find the time taken.
4ms~. Find the time taken.
23, The manufacturer of a new car claims
can accelerate from rest to 90 km h~' in,
10 seconds. Find the acceleration (assum,
constant). _
24, In travelling the 70cm along a rifle barry
bullet uniformly accelerates from its init,
state of rest to a muzzle velocity of
210ms~!. Find the acceleration involveq
and the time for which the bullet is in the
barrel.
25, According to the Highway Code, a car
travelling at 20ms~! requires a minim,
braking distance of 30m. What retardat,
is this and what length of time will it
take?
26. A car is initially at rest at a point O. The g
moves away from O in a straight line,
accelerating at 4ms~?. Find how far the cg
is from O after:
(a) 2 seconds
(b) 3 seconds.
How far does the car travel in the third
second?
27. A body moves along a straight line
uniformly increasing its velocity from 2ms
to 18ms™! ina time interval of 10s. Find
the acceleration of the body during this tin:
and the distance travelled.
A particle is projected away from an origin
O with initial velocity of 0-25ms~!. The
particle travels in a straight line and
accelerates at 1-5ms~?. Find:
(a) how far the particle is from O after
3 seconds
(b) the distance travelled by the particle
during the fourth second after
projection.
29. At time = 0, a body is projected from at
origin O with an initial velocity of 10ms"
The body moves along a straight line with
a constant acceleration of -2ms~>.
(a) Find the displacement of the body from
O when ¢ equals 7 seconds.
(b) How far from O does the body come '0
instantaneous rest and what is the valvt
of ¢ then? -
(c) Find the distance travelled by the body"
during the time interval 1 = 0 to 1=7
seconds,he
30.
-
32.
4
of?
A, Band C are three points lying in that
order ona straight line. A body is projected
from B towards A with speed 3ms~!. The
y experiences an acceleration of I ms~?
towards C. If BC = 20m, find the time
taken to reach C and the distance travelled
by the body from the moment of projection
until it reaches C,
‘Acar is being driven along a road at a
steady 25ms~' when the driver suddenly
notices that there is a fallen tree blocking the
road 65 metres ahead. The driver
immediately applies the brakes giving the car
constant retardation of Sm s~*. How far in
front of the tree does the car come to rest?
If the driver had not reacted immediately
and the brakes were applied one second
Jater, with what speed would the car have hit
the tree?
A train travels along a straight piece of track
between two stations A and B. The train
starts from rest at A and accelerates at
1-25ms~ until it reaches a speed of
20ms~'. It then travels at this steady speed
for a distance of 1-56km and then
Free fall under gravity
33.
35.
Distance, velocity and acceleration 29
decelerates at 2ms~? to come to rest at B.
Find:
(a) the distance from A to B
(b) the total time taken for the journey
(©) the average speed for the journey.
A particle travels in a straight line with
uniform acceleration. The particle passes
through three points A, B and C lying in
that order on the line, at times = 0, t= 2s
and 1 = 5s respectively. If BC = 30m and
the speed of the particle when at Bis 7ms"',
find the acceleration of the particle and its
speed when at A.
|. A, Band C are three points which lie in that
order on a straight road with AB = 95m
and BC = 80m. A car is travelling along the
road in the direction ABC with constant
acceleration ams~®. The car passes through
Awwith speed ums~', reaches B five seconds
later, and C two seconds after that. Find the
values of u and a.
‘Acar A, travelling at a constant velocity of
25ms~', overtakes a stationary car B. Two
seconds later car B sets off in pursuit,
accelerating at a uniform 6ms~?. How far
does B travel before catching up with A?
The uniform acceleration formulae developed in the last section may be used
when considering the motion of a body falling under gravity. In such cases
the ‘acceleration of the body is 9-8ms~? and this is commonly referred to as
'z, the acceleration due to gravity. If the motion is vertically upward, the
body will be subject to a retardation of 9-8 ms™.
In fact the magnitude of g varies slightly at different places on the Earth’s
. surface, but for our purposes it can
98
ms,
Arrow convention
-In
any particular example, care is
vectors involved are all the same.
+ y= 25ms~! 7 implies that the initial velocity is 25ms~! upwards
a=98ms7? | implies a downward acceleration of 9:8 ms"? -
4
= -98ms~ T
be taken as having the constant value of
is needed to ensure that the directions of the
Before substituting numerical values in the uniform acceleration formulae,
the arrows of the vectors involved must all be in the same direction.
| eee
eo30 Understanding mechanics: chapter 2
Example 10
A brick is thrown vertically downwards from the top ofa building and has
an initial velocity of 1-Sms~'. If the height of the building is 195 m, find:
(a) the velocity with which the brick hits the ground
(b) the time taken for the brick to fall.
(a) Given uw :
s we need to find: (a) v (b) ¢ “st
a=98ms? | ye
Use w= w+ 2as
Fa (15)+ 29.) 22) :
or
The hits the ground with a downward velocity of 19-5ms~!.
(b) Use v=u+at
19-5 = 1-5+9-8¢
t= 18 184s
98
The brick hits the ground after 1-84s.
Example 11
A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 14-7ms~! from a
platform 19-6m above ground level. Find:
(a) the time taken for the ball to reach the ground
(b) the velocity of the ball when it hits the ground.
Given w= 14-7ms"' Tf
.8ms~? | \ weneedtofind (a)¢ (b)
5=196m|
(a) Use s
=19.6 = 14.714 4(-9.8)2
-4=3-2
P-3-4=0
(40+ =0 ie t=4s or -Is
The ball reaches the ground after 45.
(b) Use v=u+at
4-7 + (—9.8)4 = 14.7 — 39.2
~24-5ms", ie. 24-5ms-! |
v
‘The ball hits the ground with a downward velocity of 24-5ms~!Y
Example 12
Distance, velocity and acceleration 31
A particle is projected vertically upwards with a velocity of 34-3ms~!. Find
how long after projection the particle is at a height of 49m above the point
of projection for:
(a) the first time
(b) the second time.
a=98ms~ | = -9.8ms~
Given u=343ms"' t
s=49m
Use s=ut+jar
49 = 3431-1 09.892
P-7t+10=0
(@- St-2) =0, ie.
t=5s or
\ we need to find #.
2s
The particle is 49m above the point of projection:
(a) after 2s
() after 5s.
Exercise 2D tock
1. A book falls from a shelf 160.cm above the
floor.
Find the speed with which the book strikes
the floor.
2. Astone is dropped from a position which is
~ 40 metres above the ground.
Find the time taken for'the stone to reach
the ground.
GA stone is,dropped from the top of a tower
and falls to the ground below.
If the stone hits the ground with a speed of
14ms"", find the height of the tower.
4, A ball is thrown vertically downwards from
the top of a tower and has an initial speed of
4ms™!, If the ball hits the ground 2 seconds
later, find:
(a) the height of the tower
(b) the speed with which the ball strikes the
ground.
5. A stone is projected vertically upwards from
ground level with a speed of 21 ms~'. Find
the height of the stone above ground:
(a) I second after projection
(b) 2 seconds after projection
(©) 3 seconds after projection.
A ball is thrown vertically upwards with
speed 28 ms~! from a point which is | metre
above ground level. Find:
(a) the speed the ball will have when it
returns to the level from which it was
projected
(b) the height above ground level of the
highest point reached.
7. A ball is thrown vertically upwards from a
point A, with initial speed of 21 ms~', and is
later caught again at A. Find the length of
time for which the ball was in the air.
8. A ball is kicked vertically upwards from
ground level with an initial speed of
14ms!. Find the height above ground level
of the highest point reached and the total
time for which the ball is in the air.
@ A stone is thrown vertically upwards with a
speed of 20ms~' from a point at a height h
metres above ground level. If the stone hits
the ground 5 seconds later, find h.
A stone is projected vertically upwards from
ground level at a speed of 24:5ms~!, Find
how long after projection the stone is at a
height of 19.6m above the ground:
(a) for the first time
(b) for the second time.
For how long is the stone at least 19-6m
above ground level?
3.32 Understanding mechanics: chapter 2
) A ball is held 1.6m above a concrete floor
and released. The ball hits the floor and
rebounds with half the speed it had just
prior to impact. Find the greatest height the
ball reaches after:
(a) the first bounce
(b) the second bounce.
12. A body is projected vertically upwards from
ground level at a speed of 49 ms~'. Find the
length of time for which the body is at least
78-4 m above the ground.
1.
S
A bullet is fired vertically upwards at a
speed of 147ms7'. Find the length of time
Graphical representation
Consider the motion of a body which accelerates uniformly
from a speed u to a speed v in time ¢ and then maintains
constant speed v. Plotting velocity on the vertical axis and
time on the horizontal axis, we can draw a velocity-time
graph .
The acceleration of the body is defined as the
rate of change of velocity,
u
. v= : .
ie. a=*—" and so the acceleration during
the time interval 0 — ¢ will
be the gradient or slope of the line AB.
From soe)
- 34
for which the bullet is at least 93
the level of projection.
14. A body is projected vertically w
a speed of 14ms~!, Find the heehee @
body above the level of projection after”
(a). 1 second of motion '
(b) 2 seconds of motion.
Find the distance travelled by the body
the 2nd second of motion. 4
@& Two stones are thrown from the same p,
at the same time, one vertically upward, (!
with speed 30ms~', and the other vertcy
downwards at 30m". Find how far ap,
the stones are after 3 seconds. :
Om ato,
velocity
°
i)
7 time
1 it can be seen that the distance travelled by the body
during the time interval 0 — ¢ is represented by the area OABC, i.e. the area
‘under’ the graph for that part of the motion.
Example 13
The velocity-time graph shown is for a body
which starts from rest, accelerates uniformly to a
velocity of 8ms~' in 2 seconds, maintains that
velocity for a further 5 seconds, and then retards
uniformly to rest. The entire journey takes
11 seconds.
Find:
(a) the acceleration of the body during the
initial part of the motion
(b) the retardation of the body during the
final part of the motion
(©) the total distance travelled by the body.
>
co
velocity (ms~!)
ep usuar)]e
e
12345678 910n
time (s)Distance, velocity and acceleration
(a) The initial acceleration is given by the gradient of the line OA:
| increase from © to A_
gradient of OA = ©!
horizontal inc1 from O to A
“The initial acceleration is 4ms~2,
(b) The acceleration during the final part of the moti i
gradient of the line BC: monee Ee
vertical increase from B to C
gradient of BC =
horizontal increase from B to C
‘The final retardation is 2ms~?.
(@) The total distance travelled is given by the area OABC. This is a
trapezium, and so:
en DASE a
2
= 64
‘The total distance travelled is 64m.
Setting up a mathematical model of a real situation
In an earlier part of this chapter we considered free fall under gravity. In
that section we used the value of 9:8ms~ for the acceleration due to
gravity, but pointed out that in fact g varied slightly dependent upo?
focation. We simplified the real situation, in which the acceleration due to
gravity may not quite equal 9-8ms~*, by adopting a more convenient and
sufficiently accurate model that assumed g to be 9-8ms-? everywhere on and
close to the Earth's surface.
Similarly when we say that
choosing to neglect the smal
in reality. Our simplified mat
small variations.
Likewise when we choose to neglect wind resistance we are again adopting a
simplified mathematical model of the situation. In this way we avoid
complications without seriously affecting the acceptability of the answer.
If we draw a velocity-time graph for the motion of a cyclist, we are
choosing to display our mathematical model graphically. Certain
assumptions may be made in our model. For example, we may draw a
horizontal line on our graph to show the cyclist travelling with constant
velocity, whereas in reality the cyclists speed probably varied slightly during
this time,
a car travels with constant speed we are
| variations in speed that will probably occur
hematical model chooses to neglect these
3334 Understanding mechanics: chapter 2
A good mathematical model of a real situation will make any assumptions
necessary to allow appropriate mathematics to be used while at the same
time not making the model so different from the real situation as to make it
useless.
‘As with most models, these mathematical models simplify the real situation,
making it more manageable, while still retaining those features of the real
situation that are considered to be most significant. The model will lose
some small details that exist in the real situation but can still allow useful
calculations and predictions to be made. The validity of the model can then
be checked by comparing the outcomes as predicted by the model with the
real-life outcomes.
Note. As the above paragraphs point out, we have been using mathematical
models of the real world already in this book in order to solve problems. In
such cases we did not state all of the assumptions we were making in order
to solve each question. However, if a question specifically asks you to “set
up the model” you should clearly state any assumptions you are going to
make, as the next example demonstrates.
Example 14
A road engineer for a local council needs to find a safe distance between
road humps on a 30 miles per hour stretch of road. The engineer knows that
the maximum safe speed to travel over the humps is $ miles per hour and
must allow for the motorist who will reach a speed of 30 miles per hour
between humps. From previous research the engineer knows that the
average family car has an average acceleration of 3ms~? and a deceleration
of 6-5ms~2, Set up a model for the above situation and use the model to
estimate a safe distance between humps.
Step 1 Set up the model
Smph 30mph_ —_-Smph
SN
i yt
Assume that the car is a particle.
e Assume that there are no resistive forces such as air resistance and
friction.
e Assume that the car will travel throughout the motion with constant
acceleration and then constant deceleration.
Assume the road surface is horizontal.
Step 2 Apply the mathematics
Using the conversion 1 mph ~ 4ms! gives:
22mst 3m so! s
133ms! 22ms"!
1m —+—ym—ed