Unit 1: Fundamentals of computer

1.1 Introduction:
A computer can be defined as a multipurpose, programmable, electronic data processing device that is
capable of accepting input (data), processing it, and producing refined data (information) as output at
enormous speed.

Features:
1) Speed:
It has a high speed of executing an instruction. CPU of a computer can perform more than millions of
operations per second. It takes only a few seconds for calculation that will take hours to complete.
Today, a powerful computer can perform billions of operations in just one second.

2) Storage:
A computer has a very large storage capacity where users can store any type of data, which can be
used at any time. The computer has an inbuilt memory where it can store a large amount of data.
Users can also store data in secondary storage devices such as hard disk, pen drive, DVD, etc. in
terms of KB (Kilobyte), MB (Megabyte), GB (Gigabyte), TB (Terabyte), etc.

3) Accuracy:
Accuracy refers to the degree of correctness and exactness of operation performed by the computer.
A computer can process a large amount of data and generate error-free results. The accuracy of the
result completed by the computer is consistently high due to digital techniques. An error is very
small. The errors in computing may be due to logical mistakes by a programmer or due to inaccurate
data.

4) Versatility:
It means the capacity to perform a completely different type of work. It can perform a simple
mathematical calculation to highly complex and logical manipulation. Users may use a computer to
prepare payroll slips. Next moment users may use it for inventory management or to prepare
electrics bills.

5) Diligence:
A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, etc. It can work for hours without creating
any errors. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a computer will perform every calculation
with the same speed and accuracy.

6) Automation:
A computer is said to be an automatic machine. A computer is programmed to perform a series of
complex tasks automatically. The computer stores a set of instructions as well as data and one
instruction is enough for a computer to complete a task without further instructions.

7) Power of remembering:
A computer has the power of storing any amount of information or data. Any information can store
and record as long as required for any number of years. It depends on the entire how much data
what to store in a computer and where to use these data.

8) No IQ:
A computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from the users. It
performs the instruction at high speed with full accuracy. It is a user to decide what user wants to do
in which sequence. So, a computer cannot take its own decision as a user can.

9) No Feelings:
A computer does not have a feeling for knowledge and experience because it does not get tired after
long hours of working. A computer doesn't differentiate between users.

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 Types and Generations of computer:
Types of computer:
There are different types of computers developed till today. These computers are classified or grouped
into different types according to their purpose (Use), size, technology (Model), working principle
(Function), and brand.

a) Based on Purpose:
Based on purpose, computers are classified into two types. They are;

1) General Purpose Computers:

General-purpose computers are commonly used computers that are designed to perform more
than one task. These computers are mainly used in homes, offices, etc. for data processing,
communication, document designing, spreadsheet calculation, graphics designing, etc. The
microcomputers such as laptops, PCs, notebooks, etc. are the general-purpose computer.

2) Special Purpose Computes:

The special-purpose computers are designed to perform a single specific task and have a limited
area of application. The programs on these computers are loaded at the time of manufacturing
which cannot be changed by the user. The modern washing machines, self-driven cars, etc. are
examples of special-purpose computers.

b) Based on Size:
Based on the size, computers are classified into four types. They are;

1) Super Computer:
A Supercomputer is a multi-user, multi-processor, more efficient, faster, and most expensive
computer than others. These computers are an extremely fast computer that can perform 100 of
millions of instruction per second. It is a special-purpose computer i.e. capable of handling huge
amounts of calculation. Most supercomputers are used by government agencies or processing
large programs and a high amount of data very quickly. These computers are used in weather
forecasting, oil exploration, weapon research, and aircraft research.

Characteristics/features of a supercomputer:
 Large in size.
 These computers are capable of handling huge amounts of calculations that are beyond
human capabilities i.e. the human is unable to solve such extensive calculation.
 Many individuals can access supercomputers at the same time.
 The supercomputer can support the extremely high computational speed of CPU.
 These are the most expensive computer.

2) Mainframe Computer:
These computers are generally known for their large size, amount of storage, processing power,
and high level of reliability. They are used by large size organization for critical applications
requiring a high volume of data processing. These computers are mainly used in banking,
insurance company, airlines, air traffic control, etc.

Characteristics/features of a mainframe computer:

 Large in size.
 It is a multi-user computer, which supports more than 100 terminals at a time with a
single machine.
 More expensive.
 It is used by large size organization and governments for large-scale data processing.
 General-purpose computer.
 Central administration.

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 3) Mini Computer:
These computers are smaller, less expensive, and less powerful than super and mainframe but
more expensive and powerful than a microcomputer. These computers are used by the medium-
size organization for business transaction process, database management, programming, etc.
These computers are designed to serve multiple users simultaneously.

Characteristics/features of a mini computer:

 Medium in size.
 It is a multi-user computer at least 50 people can work at a time with a single machine.
 Cheaper than super and mainframe computer.
 Used by the medium-size organization for desktop publishing, file handling, data
processing, etc.
 General-purpose computer.
 Central administration.

4) Micro Computer:
A microcomputer is the smallest, cheapest, and versatile digital computer, used in different fields.
A microcomputer uses a microprocessor as it’s processing unit. They have small memory, less
processing power, physically small, and permit and few peripheral to be attached.

Characteristics/features of a micro computer:

 The size of the personal computer is decreasing day by day.
 These computers are also known as personal or home computer which can be classified
into four types i.e. desktop computer, laptop computer, palmtop computer, pocket
computer, etc.

c) Based on Technology (Model):

Based on technology, computers are classified into three types. They are;

1) XT Computer:
XT stands for extra or extended technology. It is an old technology with a very slow processing
speed. It is a text-based system with no GUI (Graphical User Interface). The input/output (IO)
device was not flexible and is slower than present devices. A processor like Intel 8080, 8086,
8088 used this technology.

2) AT Computer:
AT stands for advanced technology. AT computer is faster in processing and can run both GUI
based and CUI (Character User Interface). IO devices are interactive, flexible, and faster. It was a
medium speed processing device. Processors using AT technology were Intel 80286, 80386,
80486, Pentium I, and Pentium II.

3) PS/2 Computer:
PS/2 stands for personal system-2. It is the modification of AT computer, making the computer
faster than AT. It was mostly used in laptops with a rechargeable and battery-operated system
with faster and flexible IO devices.

d) Based on Working Principle (Function):

Based on the working principle, computers are classified into three types. They are;

1) Analog Computer:
The computer which works with a natural and physical value like frequency, current flow,
temperature, etc. for continuously changing data is called an analog computer. It is a special-
purpose computer which is mostly used for scientific work, medical work, etc. Generally, it has
less storage capacity and its accuracy is poor, compared to the digital computer. Examples of
analog computers are thermometer, speedometer, voltmeter, etc.

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 Characteristics/features of analog computer:
 Analog computer works with natural or physical values.
 It is used for a special or specific purpose.
 It has no or low storage capacity.
 Normally, it cannot be reprogrammed.
 It has low accuracy and reliability.
 It is non-versatile.
 It operates by measuring or comparing.
 The Analog signal is in the form of curve line graphs.
Analog signal

2) Digital computer:
The computer which works with binary digits i.e. o and 1 and discrete data is called the digital
computer. It is a general-purpose computer and it can also be used for commercial purposes. It is
mostly used in the creation of reports, results, tabulation, graphics, presentation, etc. Examples of
a digital computer are IBM PC, IBM Compatibles, calculator, etc.

Characteristics/features of digital computer:

 Digital computers work with binary digits i.e. 0 and 1.
 It is used for general purposes.
 It has a high storage capacity.
 It can be reprogrammed.
 It has high accuracy and reliability.
 It is costly compared to an analog computer.
 It is suitable for graphical work, documentation, industrial process, etc.
 The wave form of the digital computer is;

Digital signal

Different between Analog Computer and Digital Computer:

Digital Computer Analog Computer
1. These computers work with digits. 1. These computers work with natural or
physical values.
2. It works upon discrete data. 2. It works upon continuous data.
3. It operates by counting and adding, i.e. it 3. It operates by measuring and comparing.
calculates.
4. Its accuracy is high. 4. Its accuracy is low.
5. Results are obtained after complete 5. The output is continuous.
computation.
6. It is general purpose computer. 6. It is a special purpose computer.
7. Larger storage capacity. 7. No or smaller storage capacity.
8. Higher cost compared to analog computer. 8. Lower cost compared to digital computer.
9. 9.
Digit

10. Desktop computer is an example of a digital 10. Presley is an example of analog computer.
computer.

3) Hybrid Computer:
A hybrid computer is the combination of analog and digital computer which can perform any type
of work. It can transfer the data from analog to digital or vice-versa. It is a special purpose
computer. It is an expensive computer that is used in weather forecasting, rocket lunching
process, oil exploration, hospitals, etc.

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 Characteristics/features of hybrid computer:
 A hybrid computer can process both continuous and discrete data.
 It is the combination of the best features of analog and digital computers.
 It is a special purpose computer.
 It can transfer the data from digital to analog and vice-versa.
 It is mostly used in scientific research, hospitals, etc.
 It usually has a high cost compared to analog and digital computers.

e) Based on Brand:
Based on the brand, computers are classified into three types. They are;

1) IBM Computer:
IBM computers stand for “International Business Machine” which is made by IBM company. IBM
company was established by Dr. Herman Hollerith in 1923 A.D. and it is the largest computer
manufacturing company in the world till today. It is leading the market of mainframe, mini and
personal computer. The IBM computers are more reliable, durable, and have a high processing
capacity. It is also called IBM branded computer as its whole parts are developed by IBM itself.
Generally, these computers are more expensive than other computers. IBM computers are very
famous for data processing and store.

2) IBM Compatible:
The word compatible means ' can exist together and work successfully'. So in IBM compatible, the
components of the computer are developed by different companies and finally, they are
assembled and a computer is made. So, it is also called an assembled PC. Although the
architecture of IBM compatible is similar to IBM's PC, they are very cheaper than branded PC or
compatible PCs are Dell, Lenovo, and Toshiba, etc.

3) Apple/Macintosh:
Apple Corporation is one of the largest computer manufactures which is in the USA. It has made
many PCs with good qualities and user-friendly, and the internal architecture of Apple computers
is different than that of IBM PC. The software made for Apple computers cannot be used in IBM
PC or vice versa. Even the floppy disks or hard disk formatted in one can’t be recognized by
others. These computers are famous for graphic design and animation. Some of the most popular
Apple/Macintosh products are Macbook Pro, iMac, etc.

Generations of computer:
Computer generation is the stepwise development in technology for the growth of computer hardware.
The term generation is fully based on the development of hardware technology. But nowadays it has
been extended to include both hardware and software that performs together in the computer system.
Computer generation describes as a stage of technology of development innovation. Its classification is
mainly based on technology, manufacturing, language used, etc. There are five generations of computers
which are as follows.

1) The first generation of computer:

The generation of computers which used a vacuum tube as the main technology is called the first
generation of computers. The first generation of computers is developed from 1945 to 1956 AD. E.g.
ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC, UNIVAC.
Features of the first generation of computer:
1. Main technology: Vacuum Tube.
2. Speed and processing capacity: Very slow.
3. Programming language: Machine language only.
4. Accuracy and reliability: Not fully accurate and reliable.
5. Size: Huge size and required a lot of space.
6. Cost: Very costly.
7. Power consumption: consumed a lot of electricity.
8. Heat generation: Generate a lot of heat.

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 9. Not portable.
10. Slow input, and output device.

2) The second generation of computer:

The generation of computers which used transistors as the main technology is called the second
generation of computers. It was developed from 1956 to 1964 AD. E.g. IBM 1620, IBM 1401, IBM
7094, Control Data Corporation 3600, and UNIVAC 1108.

Features of the second generation of computer:

1. Main technology: Transistor.
2. Speed and processing capacity: Slow.
3. The programming language used: Supported machine and assembly language.
4. Accuracy and reliability: Not fully accurate.
5. Size: Large, required less space compared to the first generation of computers.
6. Cost: Costly.
7. Power consumption: consumed a lot of electricity but less than the first generation of
computers.
8. Heat generation: Generate less heat than the previous generation.
9. Not portable.

3) The third generation of computer:

The generation of computers which used the Integrated Circuit (IC) as the main technology is called
the third generation of computer. It was developed from 1964 to 1971 AD. E.g. IBM System/360,
National Cash Register Century Series, ICL 1900 series, DATA GENERAL range, and IBM 370 series.

Features of the third generation of computer:

1. Main technology: Integrated Circuit (IC).
2. Speed and processing capacity: Faster than the previous generation.
3. The programming language used: Supported high-level language.
4. Accuracy and reliability: More accurate and reliable than the previous generation.
5. Size: Small in size.
6. Cost: Cheaper than the previous generation.
7. Power consumption: Consumed less electricity than the previous generation.
8. Heat generation: Generate less heat than the previous generation.
9. Portable.
10. Primary memory used: Semi-conductor memory.
11. Secondary memory used: Magnetic disk, keyboard, and monitor are introduced for data
input and output.
12. Multiprogramming and DBMS were introduced.

4) The fourth generation of computer:

The generation of computer which used Microprocessor or VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) as the
main technology is called the fourth generation of computer. It was developed in 1971 AD till now.
E.g. IBM PC, Apple/Macintosh, HP3000, and the SUPERBRAIN.

Features of the fourth generation of computer:

1. Main technology: Microprocessor or VLSI.
2. Speed and processing capacity is very fast.
3. Programming language: High-level language and fourth generation language.
4. Accuracy and reliability: Fully accurate and reliable.
5. Size: Smallest.
6. Cost: Cheapest.
7. Power consumption: Very low.
8. Heat generation: Very low.
9. Portable: Advance, user-friendly, versatile, multi-programming, multi-processing, and web-
based software are developed.

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 10. Primary memory used: Semi-conductor memory (RAM, ROM, etc.)
11. Secondary memory used: Magnetic disk and optical disk (Hard disk, DVD, pen drive, etc.)
12. Internet: Email and advanced operating systems are developed.

5) The fifth generation of computer:

The generation of computers which will use biochips and AI (Artificial Intelligence) as the main
technology is called the fifth generation of computers. The computer of these generations is still in
the development stage but scientists are trying since 1990 AD. The computer will use ULSI (Ultra
Large Scale Integration), Intelligent programming, and knowledge-based problem-solving
techniques.

Features of the fifth generation of computer:

1. Main technology: Bio-chips, AI (Artificial Intelligent), and ULSI (Ultra Large Scale
Integration)
2. These computers will use superconductor memory or technology so, speed will be very fast.
3. It will use natural language.
4. The computer will have Artificial Intelligence so, computers will be knowledge-based and
intelligent.
5. The input and output of these generations will be in the form of speech and graphics images.
6. More user-friendly interface with multimedia.
7. Aims to solve highly complex problems that required reasoning intelligence and expertise.

Memory Unit:
Memory unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit. This storage capacity is
expressed in terms of Bytes. The following table explains the main memory storage units.
0, 1 Bit 1 Bit
4 Bit 1 Nibble
8 Bits or 2 Nibble 1 Byte
1024 Bytes 1 Kilobyte (KB)
1024 Kilo Bytes 1 Megabytes (MB)
1024 Megabytes 1 Gigabytes (GB)
1024 Gigabytes 1 Terabytes (TB)
1024 Terabytes 1 Petabytes (PB)
1024 Petabytes 1 Exabyte (EB)

1.2 Storage device:

The devices that are used to store the data and program instructions either temporarily or permanently
are called memory and storage devices. Both the memory and storage devices are used to store data and
instructions but their purpose is different. The purpose of memory devices is used to store data either
temporarily or permanently while the computer works with them. The purpose of storage devices is to
store data permanently even when the computer is switched off.

Classification of Memory:-
Memory

Primary Memory Secondary Memory

Register Cache RAM ROM Magnetic Optical Magnetic Flash

L1 SRAM PROM Tape Disk Disk Memory
L2 DRAM EPROM CD Floppy Memory
EEPROM DVD Disk Chips
Hard disk Pen drive
BD
Fig: Classification of Memory

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Primary Memory:
It is also known as the main storage or main memory of the computer. It is used to holds or stores data
and applications for a short period while the computer is running. Primary storage normally has limited
storage capacity. It is expensive. The types of primary memory are:-

a) Register:-
A register is the primary memory of the computer system. They are mainly used to store data during
the time of processing inside ALU. The register within the CPU is a special purpose temporary
storage location. The main types of registers are general-purpose register and special purpose
register. The important register within the CPU is the programmed counter (PC).

b) Cache Memory:-
Cache memory is extremely fast memory i.e. built into a computer's CPU or located next to it on a
separate chip. The CPU use cache memory to store instructions that are repeatedly required to run
programs improving overall system speed. The advantage of cache memory is that the CPU doesn't
have to use the motherboards system bus for data transfer. Wherever data must be passed through
the system bus, the data transfer speed slows to the motherboard’s capability. The CPU can process
data much faster by avoiding the bottleneck created by the system bus.
Cache memory is a temporary memory that a computer microprocessor can access more quickly
than it can access regular RAM. It is the micro-processer process data, it looks first in the cache
memory and if it finds the data there, it doesn't have to do the more time-consuming reading of data
from larger memory. There are two processes in cache: cache hit and cache miss.
i. Cache hit:- At first time processor sends the address to desire data to the cache. If data is available
then the event is called a cache hit.
ii. Cache miss:- When the processor sends an address that is not present in the cache, the event is
called a cache miss. After cache miss data of main storage is copied to cache for next cache hit.
CPU Main Memory
Features of cache memory:-
 It is a temporary memory.
 It is a small size memory.
 It is a fast memory.
 It increases the speed of the computer.
Cache Memory
 Its internal cache is inside the microprocessor and external caches are
Fig: Cache Memory
outside micro-processor.

L1 and L2 cache:
L1 and L2 are levels of cache memory in a computer. If the computer processer can find the data it's
needed for its next operation in cache memory it will save time compared to having to get it from RAM.
L1 is "level one" cache memory. Usually built on to the microprocessor chip itself. For example, the Intel
MMX microprocessor comes with thirty-two thousand bytes of L1.

L2 i.e. "level two" cache memory is on a separate chip that can be accessed more quickly than the larger
main memory. A popular L2 cache memory size is in terms of megabytes.

c) RAM (Random Access Memory):-

RAM is the physical hardware inside a computer that temporarily store data, serving as the
computer working memory. This is a volatile memory because the data and information remain
when the power supply is on, when the power supply goes off, the store contained in the RAM will
be lost. There are two types of RAM i.e. SRAM and DRAM.

i. SRAM (Static Random Access Memory):-

It can store data without any need for frequent recharging. CPU doesn't need to wait to assist data
from SRAM during processing so it is faster than DRAM. It utilizes less power than other memory. It
is the most expensive and normally used to build very fast memory known as cache memory. It is
normally formed by using a transistor.

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ii. DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory):-
DRAM is mostly formed by using a capacitor. It is the less expensive kind of RAM. It requires an
electric current to maintain its electrical state. The electrical charge of DRAM decreases the data
store in it can be lost. It needs to recharge or refreshed again and again to maintain its data. The
processor can't access the data of DRAM when it's being refresh, so it is slow.

Difference between SRAM and DRAM:

S.N SRAM S.N DRAM
1. It is mostly formed by using a transistor. 1. It is mostly formed by using
capacitors.
2. It is expensive. 2. It is cheaper.
3. It has a low density of data. 3. It has a high density of data.
4. It is faster than DRAM. 4. It is slow than SRAM.
5. It doesn't need periodic refreshing. 5. It needs periodic refreshing.
6. It is mainly used as cache memory. 6. It is mainly used as the main memory.
7. It consumes less electrical power. 7. It consumes high electrical power.

d) ROM (Read Only Memory):-

ROM is a semi-conductor non-volatile type of primary memory. It is also called build-in computer
memory containing data or instruction that can only be read, not write. ROM is permanent and non-
volatile because it holds its memory or instructions when power is removed. ROM is mainly divided
into three major types;

i. PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory):- A memory chips on which data can be written only
once. Once a program has been written into a PROM it remains forever. The data stored in the
PROM can't be modified. So, it is called a one-time programmable device.

ii. EPROM (Erasable programmable Read Only Memory):- It can be erased by exposing it to ultra-
violet light. The ultraviolet light clears it contains, making it's possible to reprogram the memory.

iii. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory):- A memory chip that can
be programmed and erase electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand
times. Both erasing and programming takes about four to ten millisecond. In EEPROM any
location can be selectively erased and programmed. The process of programming is flexible but
slow.

Difference between RAM and ROM:

S.N RAM S.N ROM
1. RAM stands for Random Access Memory. 1. ROM stands for Read-Only Memory.
2. RAM can perform both read and write 2. ROM only allows the user to read the data
operations over the data and information. and instructions.
3. RAM is volatile i.e. its contents are lost when 3. ROM is non-volatile i.e. it contains are
the device is power off. retained even when the device is power
off.
4. RAM stores data when the computer is 4. ROM stores data and instructions at the
running. time of manufacturing.
5. RAM usually has higher memory space than 5. ROM usually has less memory space than
ROM. RAM.
6. RAM is less expensive. 6. ROM is more expensive.
7. RAM has a larger size with higher capacity. 7. ROM has a small size with less capacity.
8. The two main types of RAM are SRAM and 8. The types of ROM include; PROM, EPROM,
DRAM. EEPROM.

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Secondary Memory:
Secondary memory is also known as auxiliary memory or non-volatile memory i.e. not directly accessible
by CPU because it is not accessed by the input/output channels or devices. It is used to store programs
and data for long term storage or when data are not immediately used. Secondary memory
storage/memory is cheaper than primary memory. The types of secondary memory are:

a) Magnetic Tape:-
It contains a thin plastic ribbon, semi-colored; only one side of the ribbon is used for storing data.
The storing side is coated with magnetic oxide. Magnetic tape has been a measuring device for
storing audio, video, and binary for several decades and is still part of data storage in some systems
or some devices.

b) Magnetic Disk:-
The magnetic disk is the most widely used storage medium for computers. The magnetic disk
contains a circular disk made up of metal. Both sides of the disk are used for data storage. A magnetic
disk offers high storage capacity. The magnetic disk is classified into two types: Hard disk and Floppy
disk.

i. Hard Disk:-
A hard disk is a non-volatile memory. A hardware device that permanently stores and retrieves
data on a computer. It uses two to four metallic disk which is usually made using aluminum. The
hard disk is most popular for its high-speed access and reliability of data. It has a high storage
capacity compared to main memory. The hard disk is used for the long-term storage of programs
and data files. It has a storage capacity in terms of Gigabyte (GB) such as 20GB, 40GB, 80GB,
160GB, and 320GB, etc.

ii. Floppy disk:-

A floppy disk is a type of storage medium, capable of storing electronic data like a computer file.
In the past time it was used as the main storage device but today, it is used for carrying data from
one computer to another. It requires floppy drives for its operations. Floppy disks are not as fast
as the hard disk.

c) Optical Disk:-
An optical disk is an electronic data storage removable disk that uses laser and optical technologies
to read and write data. It is mostly used for storing huge amounts of data like video, music, software,
game, office applications. The optical disk is durable and light-weight. The read light speed is slower
in optical disk compare to the hard disk and flash memory. Some examples are CD, DVD, and BD.

i. CD:-
CD stands for compact disk it is an optical disk that is used to store text, graphics, audio, video,
and other files. It is a non-volatile optical storage device. It is readable by the computer with a
CD-ROM drive. There are three types of a CD they are:

CD-ROM:- It is an optical ROM in which pre-recorded data can be read. It is famous for the
distribution of computer software and application. The pre-recorded data of CD-ROM can't write
or erase by the user.

CD-R/W:-
CD-R/W is a re-writeable optical disk which is also called an erasable optical disk. It allows the
user to record and erase data. So, the disk can be used over and over again.

CD-R:-
It is a blank CD where we can store data once. After storing once it is converting in CD-ROM.

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 ii. DVD:-
DVD stands for the digital versatile disk. It is an optical disk which we can store much more data
than CD-ROM. It can store up to 20GB of data. The capacity depends on whether it is single layer
single side, Double-layer double side. It can store any type of data such as graphics, audio, video,
etc. The read and write speed of the DVD is slower than the CD. The types of DVDs are DVD-ROM,
DVD-R/W, and DVD-R.

iii. BD:-
BD stands for the blue-ray disk. It is the name of a new generation optical disk. It is developed to
enable recording, re-writing, and playback of high definition (HD) videos, as well as a high
amount of data. It offers more than 5 times the storage capacity of present DVDs. It has three
types: BD-ROM, BD-R/W, and BD-R.

d) Flash Memory:-
Flash memory is an electrically erasable programmable memory that is used to transfer data
between computers and other digital devices. It is also called non-volatile memory because it is
retained data when power is lost. Flash memory is small in size, light-weight, fast and durable. There
are mainly two types of flash memory they are: Pen drive, Memory card.

i. Pen Drive:-
A pen drive or a USB (universal serial bus), the flash drive is portable. Pen drives have replaced the
floppy drive and become the most popular storage devices in present days. Micro, light-weight and
handy is the main feature of the pen drive.

ii. Memory Card:-

A memory card is used for storing media and data files. Memory card is used to store photos,
videos, and other electronic data. In electronic devices that commonly used memory cards
include a digital camera, Mp3 player, smartphone, etc. There are various types of the memory
card in the market. Each varying in size, processing speed, and storage capacity.

Difference between Primary and Secondary memory:

S.N Primary Memory S.N Secondary Memory
1. It is not directly connected to the
It is directly connected to the processor. 1.
processor.
2. It is expensive than secondary memory. 2. It is cheaper than primary memory.
3. It has a low storage capacity. 3. It has a high storage capacity.
4. It is faster than the secondary memory. 4. It is slower than the primary memory.
5. It is a semiconductor memory. 5. It is an optical or magnetic memory.
6. Example: RAM, ROM, etc. 6. Example: hard disk, floppy disk, etc.

1.3 Input device:

The act of entering data and instructions into a computer is called input. The device that collects the
input and sends it to the computer is called an input device. These devices establish a communication
link between the user and the computer system. Computers receive information from a variety of
sources. The most common input devices include the keyboard, pointing devices, scanners, web camera,
digital camera, audio, and video input devices.

a) Electronic Keyboard:
An electronic keyboard is one of the primary input devices in a personal computer. It enables the
user to enter data and commands into a computer for the processing system. The modern keyboard
connects with the CPU by cable or by the infrared transmitter. The keys on computer keyboards are
often classified as follows:

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 i. Alphanumeric keys – letters and numbers
ii. Punctuation keys – comma, period, semicolon, and so on.
iii. Special keys – function keys, control keys, arrow keys, Caps Lock key, and so on.
The layout of keys on the modern-day English keyboard is called the QWERTY design.

b) Computer Mouse:
A computer mouse is a small, palm-sized, plastic device. It has two or three buttons on the top with
either a rotating ball or an optical sensor at the bottom. It is designed to be gripped by one hand and
is attached to a terminal or microcomputer by a cable. When the user rolls the mouse across a flat
surface, the screen cursor mover in the direction of the mouse's movement as a result of electrical
signals through the electrical cable connected to the mouse. It is used to make menu selections and
draw freehand shapes on a screen.

a) Trackball:
A trackball is a stationary pointing device that contains a movable ball rotated with a finger or palm.
It consists of a ball resting on two rollers at right angles to each other, which translates the ball's
motion into vertical and horizontal movements on the screen. A trackball also has one or more
buttons to initiate other actions. The trackball unit is held stationary while the ball is manually
rotated by hand in any direction. The major advantage of a trackball is that it takes a little desktop
surface.

b) Joystick:
A joystick is an input device consisting of a stick that pivots on a base and reports its angle or
direction to the device it is controlling. Joysticks are often used to control video games, and usually
have one or more push-buttons whose state can also be read by the computer. Joysticks are also used
for controlling machines such as cranes, trucks, underwater unmanned vehicles, wheelchairs,
surveillance cameras and zero turning radius lawnmowers.

c) Touchpad:
A touchpad is a device for pointing on a computer display screen. It works by sensing the user's
finger movement and downward pressure. It can also be found on personal digital assistants (PDAs)
and some portable media players, such as the iPod using the click wheel. The first touchpad was
invented by George E. Gerpheide in 1988.

d) Pointing stick:
A pointing stick is an isometric miniature joystick that is primarily used in laptops as a cursor
pointing device. The pointing stick moves and manipulates the computer cursor like a joystick. Its
height is designed to be slightly above the keys. Pointing sticks are commonly found on ThinkPad
laptops.

e) Digitizer Tablet:
A digitizer tablet (also known as a digitizer or graphics tablet) is a tool used to convert hand-drawn
images into a format suitable for computer processing. Images are usually drawn onto a flat surface
with a stylus and then appear on a computer monitor or screen. Digitizer tablets can also be used as
an input device, receiving information represented in drawings and sending output to a
CAD(computer-aided design) application and PC-based software like AutoCAD. Digitizers are often
used by designers, architects, and engineers.

f) Light Pen:
A light pen is a light sensitive pen-like device used to point to displayed objects and to draw images
on the screen. The light pen contains a photocell placed in a small tube. As the user touches the point
of the pen over the surface of the screen, it detects the light emitted from the screen. When the
photocell is activated, the electrical pulses sent to the computer identifies the menu option that is
triggering the photocell. It enables a user to write words or draw pictures directly into the computer.
It can also be used to choose a displayed menu option.

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g) Digital Camera:
A digital camera is an electronic device used to capture and store photographs digitally, instead of
using photographic film like conventional cameras. This allows us to take pictures and to store a
digital photographic image that can be read by the computer. We can transfer the images directly
from the camera onto the computer.

h) Webcam:
The webcam is a camera connected to a computer that allows anyone to connected to the Internet to
view still pictures or motion video of a user. Webcam software typically captures the images as JPEG
or MPEG files and uploads them to the webserver. Webcam capabilities have been added to instant
messaging text chat services such as Yahoo Messenger and one-to-one live video communication
over the Internet.

i) Bar Code Reader:

A barcode reader also called a price scanner or point-of-sale (POS) scanner is a hand-held or
stationary input device used to capture and read the information contained in a bar code. It uses a
laser beam of a specific frequency to distinguish the edges within the bar code and converts the
individual bar patterns into numeric digits. The numeric digits obtained can be used to retrieve such
information about the product as its nature, type, and price. The most common use of the bar code
identification system is to track inventory automatically. Bar codes are widely used for this purpose
in supermarkets, warehouses, libraries, and retail stores.

j) Image Scanner:
An image scanner is a light-sensing device that translates images and other printed information into
digital form so that they can be stored or manipulated by the computer. It works by shining light on
the image being scanned and measuring the light that is reflected with the help of optical sensors.
There are four types of scanners. They are a flatbed scanner, sheetfed scanner, drum scanner, and
handheld scanner. Among these, drum scanners are the most expensive and perform the worst.
Flatbed scanners are the most popular as their price/performance is the best.

k) Voice Input Device:

A Voice input device is an input device that converts human speech into electrical signals. The most
widely used voice-input device is the microphone. This input device, when combined with a sound
card and appropriate software, forms a voice recognition system. This system enables users to
operate computers and to create documents using voice commands. Most voice recognition systems
must be "trained" to the particular user's voice. This is done by matching the spoken words to
patterns previously stored in the computer. If the patterns match, the input is accepted.

l) Optical Character Reader(OCR):

OCR computer input device is designed to convert the scanned images of handwritten, typed, or
printed text into digital text. It is widely used in offices and libraries to convert documents and books
into electronic files. It process and copies the physical form of a document using a scanner. After
copying the documents, the OCR software converts the documents into a two-color(black and white),
version called a bitmap. Then it is analyzed for light and dark areas, where the dark areas are
selected as characters, and the light area is identified as background. It is widely used to convert hard
copy legal or historic documents into PDFs. The converted documents can be edited if required like
we edit documents created in MS Word.

m) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition(MICR):

MICR computer input device is designed to read the text printed with magnetic ink. MICR is a
character-recognition technology that makes use of special magnetized ink that is sensitive to
magnetic fields. It is widely used in banks to process cheques and other organizations where security
is a major concern. It can process three hundred cheques in a minute with one hundred percent
accuracy. The details on the bottom of the cheque (MICR No.) are written with magnetic ink. A laser
printer with MICR toner can be used to print the magnetic ink.

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n) OMR: Optical Mark Recognition:
OMR recognizes marks made by human beings on a document or specially printed papers used in
examinations, surveys, etc. It is generally used when a large number of applicants apply and data has
to be processed immediately and with accuracy. Data is read from the document with an OMR reader.
The datasheet is scanned through a scanner that shines a beam of light on the form paper and detects
the areas of limited light transmittance i.e.; marked areas as they reflect less light in comparison to
blank areas. It gives less than 1% error.

1.4 Output device:

The derivation of the final result as meaningful information for the user after processing is called output.
It can appear in a variety of forms such as text, graphics, audio, and video. The device that supplies
information and sends the results of the computation to the outside world is called an output device.
There are two broad classes of output devices. They are:
 Soft copy output
 Hard copy output

Soft Copy Output:

Soft copy output refers to the output displayed on the screen. The output on the screen is lost when the
computer is turned off. The most commonly used soft copy output device is a monitor.

a) Computer monitor:
The computer monitor is the most popular output device used today for producing soft-copy output.
It is like a television device connected to a computer that displays viewable images generated by a
computer. Computer monitors display a wide variety of information, including text, icons (pictures
representing commands), photographs, computer-rendered graphics, video, and animation. The
basic types of monitors used today are:
i. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display):
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) computer monitors save a lot of space and can even be mounted on
walls. They provide a wide viewing angle and come in sizes typically ranging from 17-inches to
60-inches.

ii. Touchscreen computer monitors:

Touchscreen computer monitors provide a new way of interacting with your computer with a
touch-sensitive screen. This allows users to interact directly with the application on screen
without the need for a mouse or keyboard.

iii. OLED (Organic Light Emitting Display) computer monitors:

OLED (Organic Light Emitting Display) computer monitors are much thinner and brighter than
LCD or Plasma screens. OLED monitors can also be placed on transparent surfaces, such as glass,
allowing the user to see through them when not active.

Characteristics of Monitor:
1. Size: The most important aspect of a monitor is its screen size. Like television, screen size is
measured in diagonal inches, the distance form one comer to the opposite corner diagonally. A
typical size for small VGA monitors is 14 inches. It means 14 inches size from the lower left to the
upper right corner.

2. Resolution:
The resolution of a computer monitor is expressed by the number of pixels on the screen, expressed
as a matrix. For example, a resolution of 640×480 means that, there are 640 pixels horizontally
across the screen and 480 pixels vertically down the screen. The resolution of a monitor indicates
how densely the pixels are packed. Many suppliers of video adapters provide greater resolution and
more colors.

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 Type of adapter Pixels
VGA 640×480
SVGA 800×600
XGA 1024×768
SXGA 1280×1024
UXGA 1600×1200

3. Bandwidth: The bandwidth of computer monitor means the range of signal frequencies that can be
handled by the monitor. This determines how much data it can process and therefore how fast it can
refresh at higher resolutions. The better the bandwidth better is the pictorial quality.

4. Refresh Rate:
The data shown on the screen of the monitor seem to be stationary but actually the picture on the
screen is not stationary. The picture is being drawn time to time by the monitor so fast that our eyes
can’t see the drawing process and the picture seems to be stationary. Refresh rate means the number
of times per second the screen is refreshed or redrawn.

5. Dot pitch: Dot pitch is the amount of space between each pixel. The smaller the dot pitch, sharper
the image. The dot pitch of color monitor for personal computer ranges form about 0.15 to 0.30 mm.

6. Convergence: Each pixel is composed of three dots: a red, blue and green one. Convergence is the
sharpness of each pixel. In graphics, convergence refers to how sharply an individual color pixel on a
monitor appears.

Video Standard:
1. VGA: Perhaps the most common video standard today, VGA, for video graphics array, will support 16
to 256 colors, depending on resolution. At 320×200 pixels it will support 256 colors; at the sharper
resolution of 640×480 pixels it will support 16 colors.

2. SVGA: SVGA, for super video graphics array, will support 256 colors at higher resolution than VGA.
SVGA has two graphics modes: 800×600 pixels and 1,024×768.

3. XGA: Also referred to as high resolution display, XGA, for extended graphics array, supports up to
16.7 million colors at a resolution of 1,024×768 pixels. Depending on the video display adapter
memory chip, XGA will support 256, 65,536, or 16,777,216 colors.

b) Speakers:
The speakers are the most commonly used sound output devices. They are used to receive sound
output. The speakers are used to play music and songs from the computer. Some speakers are also
inbuilt inside the system unit and they give different sounds while using the computer. Various types
of speakers are available in the market. The quality of the sound output depends on the speaker's
quality.

c) Digital projector:
A digital projector is an electronic device that is normally connected to a computer through a cable
enabling it to display an enlarged and projected image on a screen. A digital projector uses very
bright light to project images. Such devices are commonly used in presentation, classroom training,
home theatre, and live event applications. Projectors are widely used in many schools and other
educational settings, connected to an interactive whiteboard to interactively teach pupils.

d) Voice-output devices:
Voice-output devices make sounds that resemble human speech but are pre-recorded vocalized
sounds. The most widely used voice-output devices are stereo-speakers and head-phones. These
devices are connected to a sound card in the system unit. The sound card is used to capture as well as
playback recorded sounds.

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Hard Copy Output:
Hard copy output refers to recording letters, graphics, or pictures on a permanent medium such as paper
or film. The principal hard copy output devices are printers and graphic plotters.

a) Printer:
A printer is an output device that produces text and graphics on a physical medium such as paper.
Printed information is called a hard copy because the information exists physically and is a
permanent form of output. Computer printers are commonly divided into two general classes
according to the way they produce images on paper. They are;

i. Impact printer:
Impact printer is a printer that uses a mechanical hammering device to produce each
character. Each hammer is embossed with the shape of an alphanumeric character and is
transferred through the inked ribbon onto the paper, resulting in a printed character. They
are relatively slow, noisy, and inexpensive. They can withstand a dusty environment,
vibrations, and extreme temperature. The most popular kinds of impact printers are drum
printers and a dot-matrix printer.

a. Drum printer:
A drum printer is an impact printer that consists of a cylindrical drum on which
characters are embossed and it rotates at a uniform speed. There is a magnetically
driven hammer in each character position of the line. A character is printed by striking
a hammer against the embossed character on the surface. The hammer hits the ribbon
and paper against the desired character on the drum when it comes into the printing
position. It is capable of printing at a very high speed ranging from 125 to 3000 lines
per minute and is very expensive.

b. Dot-matrix printer:
Dot-matrix printer is an impact printer that uses a movable print head consisting of
pins. These pins, when pressed against a ribbon and paper, cause small dots to be
printed. The more pins that a print head contains, the higher the printer's resolution.
The speed of the dot matrix printer is measured in characters per second(cps). Dot-
matrix printers are inexpensive and relatively fast, but they do not produce high-
quality output.

ii. Non-impact printer:

Non-impact printers are those in which the printing is done with thermal, chemical,
electrostatic, laser beam, or inkjet technology for printing. The quality of printing is very high.
They are less noisy, faster, and produce high-quality graphics. The most popular kinds of
impact printers are inkjet printers and laser printers.

a. Ink-jet printer:
The ink-jet printer is a high-quality non-impact printer that forms characters by
spraying small drops of ink onto the paper. A special ink with high iron content is
used. The droplets of ink are charged electrically after being lead onto a nozzle. The
droplets are then guided to thin proper positions on paper by electrically charged
deflection plates. Inkjets are usually inexpensive, quiet in operation, and produce
high-quality output.

b. Laser printer:
Laser printers are high-speed, high-quality printers that use a laser beam to form
images on paper using toner ink as a medium. The light beam gets electrically charged
and exposed areas attract the toner ink particles. The toner particles are then
deposited on and permanently fixed to the paper using heat or pressure. Finally, the
electrical charge is removed from the drum and the excess toner is collected. By
omitting this final step and repeating only the toner-application and paper-handling

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 steps, the printer can make multiple copies. Laser printers are very expensive but they
produce high-quality output.

Difference between Impact printer and Non-impact printer:

Impact Printer Non-Impact Printer
1. The head strikes ink coated ribbon to print 1. The thermal, chemical, or optical techniques
information. are applied to print information.
2. Impact printers are normally less expensive. 2. Non-impact printers are more expensive.
3. The print quality of impact printers is lower 3. The print quality of the non-impact printer is
than those of non-impact printers. higher than those of the impact printer.
4. Impact printers are low-speed printers, they 4. Non-impact printers are very fast, they can
consume a lot of time to print a document. print many pages in minutes or units.
5. Impact printers are very noisy. 5. Non-impact printers are less noisy.
6. Example: Dot matrix, Daisy wheel. 6. Example: Thermal, Laser.

b) Plotter:
The plotter is a printer that interprets commands from a computer to make line drawings on paper
with one or more automated pens. Unlike a regular printer, the plotter can draw continuous point-to-
point lines directly from vector graphics files or commands. There are several different types of
plotters: a drum plotter draws on paper wrapped around a drum which turns to produce one
direction of the plot, while the pens move to provide the other direction; a flatbed plotter draws on
paper placed on a flat surface, and an electrostatic plotter draws on negatively charged paper with
positively charged toner. They are most frequently used for CAE(Computer-aided engineering)
applications, such as CAD(computer-aided design) and CAM (computer-aided manufacturing).

1.5 Computer Software:

A computer has no intelligence and it cannot do anything on its own. The hardware will be meaningless
in absence of software. The hardware needs clear cut instructions to solve a problem. A detailed step-by-
step instruction that tells a computer how to solve a problem or carry out a task is called the software.
Computer software is a collection of computer programs that provide instructions telling a
computer what to do and how to do it. Computer software is a set of programs, algorithms, procedures,
and documents.

Types of Software:
 System software
 Application software

1) System Software:
System software includes the programs that are dedicated to managing the computer itself. It is also
known as background software as most of them run in the background to support the foreground
process. It acts as an interface between computer users, computer hardware, and application
software. There are four types of system software.

a) Operating system: It is software that co-ordinates with computer resources. It also acts as an
interface between the user and computer hardware and application software. Every general-
purpose computer must have an operating system. Without an operating system, the user can't
communicate with computers. The commands which are given by the user's delays to the
microprocessor by the operating system. LINUX, UNIX, Windows, etc. are examples of the
operating system.

b) Utility Software: Utility software helps to manage, maintain, and control computer resources.
The operating system typically contains the necessary tools for this but separately, utility
software can provide to improve functionality. Utility software includes antivirus, backup,
disrepair, file management, security, and networking programs.

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 c) Language translator: Language translator translates programming code or programming
instruction into machine code that the computer can understand and process. The input is
known as source code, the translator translates source code into a low-level language called
object code. Compiler, interpreter, and assembler are the most common example of a language
translator.

d) Device driver: A driver is a software, provided by a hardware maker that tells the computer's
operating system and software how to work with that hardware. Computer operating systems
usually come with 'pre-installed' device drivers for the current models of popular devices.
Drivers are hardware-dependent and need operating system software.

2) Application software:
It is used to perform various applications on the computer. These software's are also called end-user
program because they enable the users to complete different tasks. Such as creating documents,
databases, and publications, designing graphics, spreadsheet running a business, etc. In the present
situation, millions of application software packages are available for a wide-range of applications.
Application software can further be subdivided into two categories: packaged software and
customized software.

a) Packaged software:
Packaged software is a computer application consisting of one or more programs created to
perform a particular type of work. It is user friendly and designed to satisfy the needs of more
than one organization. Packaged software may be purchased from software vendors. Some
presentation, spreadsheet, and desktop publishing.

b) Customized software:
Customized software is designed specifically for a particular organization. It is written on the
demand of an individual's need and servers only a single organization. It is written in high-level
languages. Customized software is known as bespoke software. Customized software is tailored
to meet the specific needs of an organization. Some of the examples of customized/tailored
software are payroll package, inventory package, and library information system.

Different between system software and application software:

System Software Application Software
1. System software maintains the system 1. Application software is built for specific tasks.
resources and gives the path for application
software to run.
2. System software is used for operating 2. Application software is used by user to
computer hardware. perform specific task.
3. System software runs when system is turned 3. Application software runs as per the user’s
on and stop when system is turned off. request.
4. Computer cannot open without the system 4. A computer runs without application software.
software.
5. It is cheaper. 5. It is usually expensive.
6. System software’s are installed on the 6. Application software’s are installed according
computer when operating system is installed. to user’s requirement’s.
7. In general, the user does not interact with 7. In general, the user interacts with application
system software because it works in the software’s.
background.
8. Some examples of system software’s are 8. Some examples of application software’s are
Windows, device drivers, compiler, assembler, word processor, web browser, media player,
debugger etc. etc.

3) Web Based Software:

A web based software is application software that is accessed over a network connection using
HTTP, rather than existing within a device’s memory. Web-based applications often run inside a web

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 browser. However, web-based applications also may be client-based, where a small part of the
program is downloaded to a user’s desktop, but processing is done over the internet on an external
server. Web application are also known as web apps.

It includes light applications like Flash games, online calculators, calendars, web-based email and so
on, as well as more intensive applications such as web-based word processors and spreadsheet
applications (like Google Docs and Google Spreadsheet).

4) Mobile Application:
A mobile application (mobile app is short) is a software application developed specifically for use on
small, wireless computing devices, such as smart phones and tablets.
It executes when we press an icon on the mobile device, such as an iPad or Android phone. The
mobile application usually fall into three basic categories:

a. Native: a mobile application that runs only on the specific hardware for which it is designed.
b. Web based: a mobile application that makes use of the Internet’s connectivity to provide some or
all of its functionality.
c. Hybrid: A combination of native and Web-based apps.

Features of Mobile Applications

 Faster access speed
 Instant online and offline access
 Push notifications and instant updates
 Interactive engagement

5) Web page designing software:

Web design software provides users the tools to create, edit, and update web pages. Web designers
will use these programs to create a web page’s layout and content through either editing HTML or a
WYSIWYG editor. Companies operating without a website builder tool will require a designer to
construct and manage the HTML and CSS framework for their website. These products include
features for editing code and visualizing projects. Many will also possess frameworks and templates
to assist in creating the website’s basic structure, as well as element libraries with templates or short
codes to save time during the design process. Web design software provides a more independent,
customizable platform than website builders, but shares some similar features. Web design
software typically allows for importing code from tools like text editors or visual elements from
design tools such as vector graphics tools.

1) To qualify for inclusion in the Web Design category, a product must:

2) Provide a platform for editing and/or exporting HTML and CSS
3) Provide templates or web-frameworks that can be customized
4) Provide tools for visualizing front-end design code
5) Provide elements libraries or short codes
6) Possess web publishing capabilities

Top 10 Web Design Software:

 Dreamweaver
 WordPress.com
 Adobe Muse
 Webflow
 Google Web Designer
 Microsoft Expression Web
 Blogger
 CoffeeCup
 RapidWeaver
 Bubble

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6) Word Processor:
Word processor is software that allows users to create edit, format, and print documents. It also
helps for designing and presenting the documents in attractive formats. It enables the user to write
text, store it electronically, display on a screen, modify by entering commands and characters from
the keyboard and print it. It has a variety of uses application within a business environment home
and education context. It allows the user to make corrections without retyping entire matters. MS
Word is the most popular word processor.

Features:
 It is used for creating, saving and closing, printing a document.
 It is used for formatting text, paragraph table, page, etc. such as font type, font size, bolding,
underline, etc.
 It is used for drawing pictures, charts, tables, and graphics.
 It is used for inserting symbols, objects, word art, clip art, graphics, etc.
 Correcting spelling and grammar.
 Compare words in a document to those store in a programmer's dictionary files.
 It is used for working with text boxes and frames.

7) Spreadsheet:
The spreadsheet is a computer application package for organization, analysis, and storage of data of
value arranging row and column. Each value can have a pre-defined relationship to the other values.
This program is used to process numeric data. It provides an easy method for analyzing data and
presenting high-quality graphics output. MS-excel is the most popular spreadsheet application
software.

Features:
 It allows us for keeping records in the worksheet and workbook.
 It provides various mathematical and logical functions for data manipulation.
 It provides various charts for presenting data.
 It combines the feature of the general ledger with the flexibility of powerful analysis and
reporting functions.
 It allows sharing workbooks with multiple users to edit the same workbook at the same time.
 Shutting data in either ascending or descending order based on a different field.
 Formatting of data for making it attractive by using different tools font color, font size, etc.

8) Presentation:
A presentation is a collection of electronics, slides that can have text, pictures, graphics, tables,
sound, and video. This collection can run automatically can be controlled by a presenter.
Presentation programs can be used in business and schools for discussing a topic or for teaching. It is
trying to replace the use of traditional visual aid technology. MS-PowerPoint, IBM lotus, power dot,
etc. are the most popular presenting software.

Features:
 Different forms of information such as text, graphics, audio, video, and animation can be
presented.
 Different forms of charts, tables, and objects can be embedded in the slides of a presentation.
 It provides the features like custom animation, slide transition, and custom setup show.
 It provides features like slide layout theme, design template, ready mate template.
 Simple comparing operations like copy, paste, cut, find and replace.

Data: The unorganized form of the information is known as data. Data may be in different forms like the
alphabet, digits, pictures, video clips, audio clips, and other symbols. Data may or may not give any sense
or meaning.

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Database: Database is a collection of interrelated data of entities or object which is stored in a computer
in tabular form. The database gives useful information for an organization during data manipulation.

9) DBMS (Database Management System):

Database Management System is a set of programs that manages database files. The DBMS allows
ascending the files, updating the record, and retrieving data as requested. The DBMS acts as an
interface between the application program and the data in the database. Examples of DBMS are; MS-
access, oracle, SQL, My SQL, dBase, etc.

Objectives of DBMS:
 To provide a storage area for the mass amount of relevant data.
 To make access the data for the end-user.
 To modify the database.
 To eliminate data redundancy.
 It allows multiple users to be activated at the same time.
 To protect the data from physical harm and unauthorized access.

Advantages of DBMS:
1) Data sharing: Data store in a database can be shared. For example, with a DBMS, the data for the
entire company is effectively made available to all managers and end-users, which need them.

2) Reduce data Redundancy: In traditional file processing, the same data may be duplicated at
many times or places, which is also called data redundancy. A DBMS reduces the duplication of
data from a database.

3) Integrity can be maintained: Integrity ensures that the data stored in a database is correct or
accurate. So, the problem of ensuring that the data in the database is correct. Inconsistency
between two entries is an example of a lack of integrity. But DBMS avoids the data inconsistency
problem, so it improved the data integrity.

4) Data Independence: The DBMS keeps the description of data separate from applications that
use the data. Thus, changes in the data definition can occur without requiring changes in every
application program that uses the data. This reduces the maintenance cost of the database and
makes the database independent of the storage media. And also the database is not dependent on
the storage media.

5) Data Availability: In a traditional file processing system, data is scattered in many files and due
to non-uniformity in file design, the same data may have different identification. This makes, it
difficult to obtain the relevant data. DBMS helps to overcome this problem.

6) Standard can be enforced: With a DBMS, it is easier to enforce the standard in naming the
format of data, the structure of data.

7) Security can be improved: In any organization, there should be many confidential data; such
data should not be available to all users. In a DBMS, certain restrictions can be applied for
security by giving different authorities to different users.

8) Inconsistency can be avoided: When the same data is duplicated and changes are made at one
site, and not on other sites, it cause data inconsistency. But DBMS reduces the inconsistency
problem by eliminating two entries regarding the same data.

9) Providing multiple user interfaces: DBMS provides a variety of interfaces for various users. It
provides query language interface, forms, and command interfaces so that users interact easily
with the database. Some DBMS also provides menu-driven interfaces for stand-alone users.
Forms and menu-driven interfaces are collectively called GUI (Graphical User Interface).

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 10) Concurrent access of data (data can be shared): Concurrent access means to the same data
simultaneously by more than one user. Data can be shared among several different users. DBMS
supports concurrent access to data.

Disadvantages of DBMS:
1) The initial investment is high for implementing DBMS.
2) Proper training is required for staff to work properly in the database system.
3) When some fault occurs in one part of the database it affects the other parts as well.
4) It is complex to understand and implement.
5) The overhead cost of providing security, recovery, and integrity functions.
6) Cost for the maintenance of the hardware, software, backup, recovery, and its upgrade remains
forever.
7) The problem arises if the database is not properly designed or if the database application system is
not properly implemented.

10) Computer Programming:

It is the process of writing a program following the grammar of the programming language. When we
write a program, we have to follow the grammatical rules. When such statements are written in
chronological order the program is created, which finally perform some task. We might need to use
character, string or number to make a statement which can express some task i.e. simply saying it is a
way to create a sequence of instructions to enable the computer to do something can be termed as
programming.

 Language translator/Processor:
A language translator is system software that translates programs written in any programming language
into machine language programs. It is also known as a language processor. A program code written using
any programming language is called a source program. A program code obtains after converting source
code by using a language translator is called object code or machine code. There are three types of a
language translators.

1. Assembler:
An assembler translates a program written in assembly language into machine language. It is used to
translate mnemonics code of assembly language into machine code. A computer only understands
machine language. So, the assembly language program must be translated into a machine language
program before execution.

2. Compiler:
The language process that translates the complete, source program into a machine language program
at a single attempt is called a compiler. The program translated into machine code is called an object
program. While translating programs, it checks the Syntax that means the grammar of the source
code of a high-level language program and translates it into machine language. If there is a syntax
error in the source code then the compiler produces a syntax error and causes errors. The source
code file must be free from syntax error for the complete completion process. A programming
language such as C, C++, C#, Visual Basic, etc. used a compiler. Java has both compiler and or
interpreter.

3. Interpreter:
An interpreter is a language translator that translates and executes one statement of instructions at a
time before translating the next statements. If there is an error in the source code, it terminates its
translating process and displays an error message. A programming language such as LISP, BASIC
used an interpreter.

22
Differentiate between Compiler and Interpreter
Compiler Interpreter
1. It translates high-level language programs 1. It translates high-level language programs into
into machine language programs at a single machine language programs by one
attempt. instruction at a time.
2. It finds the syntax errors after compiling the 2. It finds the syntax errors after translating a
whole program line of the programs at a time.
3. It is difficult to trace errors and causes of the 3. It is easy to trace errors and causes of the
errors. errors.
4. The compiling process is faster than the 4. The interpreting process is slower than the
interpreter. compiler.
5. It is more efficient than an interpreter. 5. It is less efficient than the compiler
6. It creates the object code. 6. It doesn’t create object code.
7. Examples: C, C++, Visual Basic, etc. 7. Examples: BASIC, LISP, etc.

1.6 Data processing:

 Introduction to data processing:
Data processing refers to the process of transforming raw data into meaningful output i.e.
information. Data processing, manipulation of data by a computer. It includes the conversion of raw
data to machine-readable form, flow of data through the CPU and memory to output devices, and
formatting or transformation of output. Any use of computers to perform defined operations on data
can be included under data processing. In the commercial world, data processing refers to the
processing of data required to run organizations and businesses.

 Data verses Information:

Data Information
1. Data is raw of facts. 1. Information is a processed, organized data
presented in a given context and is useful to
humans.
2. Data is an individual unit that contains a raw 2. Information is a group of data that
material that does not carry any specific collectively carry a logical meaning.
meaning.
3. Data doesn’t depend on information. 3. Information depends on data.
4. It is measured in bits and bytes. 4. Information is measured in meaningful units
like time, quantity, etc.
5. Data is never suited to the specific needs of a 5. Information is specific to the expectations
designer. and requirements because all the irrelevant
facts and figures are removed, during the
transformation process.
6. An example of data is a student’s test score 6. The average score of a class is the
information derived from the given data.

 File Processing:
File processing consists of creating, storing, and/or retrieving the contents of a file from a
recognizable medium. For example, it is used to save word-processed files to a hard drive, to store a
presentation on floppy disk, or to open a file from a CD-ROM.

 Types of data processing:

There are different types of data processing based on the source of data and the steps taken by the
processing unit to generate an output. There is no one-size-fits-all method that can be used for
processing raw data.

23
 Type Uses

Data is collected and processed in batches. Used for large amounts of

Batch Processing data.
Eg: payroll system

Data is processed within seconds when the input is given. Used for
Real-time Processing small amounts of data.
Eg: withdrawing money from ATM

Data is automatically fed into the CPU as soon as it becomes available.

Online Processing Used for continuous processing of data.
Eg: barcode scanning

Data is broken down into frames and processed using two or more
CPUs within a single computer system. Also known as parallel
Multiprocessing
processing.
Eg: weather forecasting

Allocates computer resources and data in time slots to several users

Time-sharing
simultaneously.

1.7 Database Management System:

 Database:
Database is a collection of interrelated data of entities or object which is stored in a computer in
tabular form. The database gives useful information for an organization during data manipulation.

 Database Management System:

Database Management System is a set of programs that manages database files. The DBMS allows
ascending the files, updating the record, and retrieving data as requested. The DBMS acts as an
interface between the application program and the data in the database. Examples of DBMS are; MS-
access, oracle, SQL, My SQL, dBase, etc.

 Why DBMS?
1. A Database Management System Is an Extension of Human Logic
2. Computers Can Quickly Answer Lots of Questions
3. Some Questions Can Be Really Complicated
4. We Are Easily Overwhelmed With Information
5. Automation Is the Key to Efficiency
6. A DBMS Is Better Than Manual Processes in so Many Ways
7. Making and Saving Money

 Types of the DBMS:

a) Flat file system:
 It stores data in a plain text file. A flat file is a file that contains records and in which each record
is specified in a single line.
 There are no structural relationships and the data are "flat" as in a sheet of paper.
 In this approach, each application has data files related to it containing all the data records
needed by the application.

24
  Thus, an organization has to develop several application programs each with associated
application-specific data files.

Checking accounts
programs

Checking account
data files
Fig: Flat-file based approach to data processing

b) Database System:
 A database system consists of a database, database management system, and application
programs.
 Simply, we can say that application software that uses DBMS for data management is called a
database system.

Library programs

Database DBMS Accounting programs

Examination programs

Fig: Database system approach to data processing

 Database Model:
 The basic structure or design of the database is the data model.
 A data model is a collection of conceptual tools for describing data, data relationships, data
semantics, and consistency.
 There are different database models which are used to design and develop the database of the
organization.

a) Hierarchical model
b) Network model
c) Entity-relationship model
d) Relational model
e) Object-oriented model
f) Object-relational data model

a) Hierarchical Model:
 It is the oldest type of data model which is a record-based representational or implementation
data model.
 In this mode, different records are interrelated through the hierarchical or tree-like structure.
 A parent record has several children but a child can have only one parent.
 It can represent only one-to-one and one-to-many relationships.
 For example:

Vehicle

2- 4-
Wheeler Wheeler

Motor Fig: Hierarchical Model

Bi-cycle Car Bus Zeep
cycle

25
b) Network Model:

A1

B1 B2

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6

D1 D2 D3 D4

Fig: Network Model

 The network database model was a progression from the hierarchical database model and was
design to solve some of that model problem, specifically the lack of flexibility.
 Instead of only allowing each child to have one parent, this model allows each child to have
multiple parents (it calls the children members and the parent owner).
 It addresses the need to model more complex relationships such as many to many, many to one.
 This model has its problem such as; it is more difficult to implement and maintain. Although
more flexible than a hierarchical model, it still has a flexible problem.

c) Relational Model:
 It is the best and the most common database model developed by E.F. Codd.
 The relational database model defines the structure or organization of data and a set of
operations on the data.
 It is a simple model in which the database is represented as a collection of 'Relation', where the
relation is represented by a two-dimensional table. Because of its simplicity, it becomes a
commonly used database model. The following table represents a simple relation.

Table student
Roll NO First name Mid name Last name Address Phone
1 Samridhha Raman Ghimire Pithuwa 056-533333
2 Aarushi Sharma Bharatpur 056-522222
3 Nikita Khanal Tandi 056-566666
 As shown in the above table, this model stores the data in more than one table with rows and
columns. The table is also called Relation. The primary key provides rapid access to data. The
relational database can relate the data of one table to the data of another table through the use of
a common field. Nowadays most of the new applications are built using the relational database
model.

d) Object-Oriented Data Model:

Fig: Object-Oriented Data Model

26
  The object-oriented data model is based on an object-oriented programming paradigm
(language).
 It is based on the concept of encapsulating the data and the functions that operate on those data
in a single unit called an object.
 The internal parts of objects are not visible externally.
 Here, one object communicates with other objects by sending a message.

1.8 Computer Network:

 Introduction to computer network:
The term ‘Network’ means a group, chain or a collection of something that come together for the
purpose of communication. In computer’s reference – the same definition holds value but there is
a slight change which is – A network is a group of related computers that exchange resources,
files and possess some kind of communications within themselves. The communication word in
this reference means ‘DATA’. Since these activities are going in between the computers they are
called as Computer Networks.

1. Overview of computer network:

Computer networks define as two or more than two comparing devices link together for
communication, sharing information and other hardware resources are known as a computer
network.

2. Communication Processor:
A front end processor (FEP), or a communications processor, is a small-sized computer which
interfaces to the host computer a number of networks, such as SNA, or a number of peripheral
devices, such as terminals, disk units, printers and tape units. Data is transferred between the
host computer and the front end processor using a high-speed parallel interface. The front end
processor communicates with peripheral devices using slower serial interfaces, usually also
through communication networks. The purpose is to off-load from the host computer the work of
managing the peripheral devices, transmitting and receiving messages, packet assembly and
disassembly, error detection, and error correction.[1] Two examples are the IBM 3705
Communications Controller and the Burroughs Data Communications Processor.

3. Communication Media:
Communication media refers to the means of delivering and receiving data or information. In
telecommunication, these means are transmission and storage tools or channels for data storage
and transmission.
Different media are employed for transmitting data from one computer terminal to the central
computer or to other computer systems inside some kind of network. There are two forms of
communication media:

 Analog: Includes conventional radio, telephonic and television transmissions

 Digital: Computer-mediated communication, computer networking and telegraphy

The most commonly used data communication media include:

 Wire pairs
 Coaxial cable
 Microwave transmission
 Communication satellites
 Fiber optics

The communication media acts as a channel for linking various computing devices so that they
may interact with each other. Contemporary communication media facilitate communication and
data exchange among a large number of individuals across long distances via email,
teleconferencing, internet forums and many other forms of communication.

27
Network Media (Transmission media):
 A Transmission media refers to the wire, cables, and other means through which data travels
from its source to destination.
 Transmission media are often called network media.

Types of Transmission Media:

 Guided Media (Bounded Media)
 Unguided Media (Unbounded Media)
Guided Media (Bounded Media):
 Guided media transmit signals electrically or lite over cable or wire.
 E.g. Twisted pair cable, Co-axial cable, and fiber optics.

Types of Guided Media (Bounded Media):

1) Twisted pair cable:
 A twisted pair cable consists of two copper conductors, each one with its one plastic insulation
and twisted together.
 The twisted-pair cable is of two types.
i. Un-shield twisted pair cable
ii. Shield twisted pair cable
 E.g. Telephone system, LAN.

STP UTP
1. It contains an extra metal foil outside the 1. It doesn’t contain an extra covering.
plastic cover of each peer.
2. It can carry data signals for a longer distance. 2. It can't carry data signals for longer distances
compared to STP.
3. It is expensive. 3. It is cheaper.
4. E.g. Telephone and LAN (To provide data and 4. E.g. Used in Telephones (Only voice).
voice).

2) Co-axial cable:
 Co-axial cable (Coax) carries a data signal of higher frequency and at a faster speed than twisted
pair cable.
 It is commonly used in cable TV systems and broadband transmission.
 Coax has a large bandwidth which means it can Handel plenty of traffic at high speeds.
 Co-axial cable is two types.
i. Thin Coax:- 10 base 2 (10 Mbps within 200m)
ii. Thick Coax:- 10 base 5 (10 Mbps within 500m)

3) Fiber Optics:
 A fiber optics cable transmits signals in the form of light.
 Optical fiber used reflection to guide light through a channel.
 It consists of two main parts.
i. Core: The core is made up of plastic or glass.
ii. Cladding: Cladding acts as a protective cover to the core.
 It is used for services like telecommunication, video conference, and interactive services.

Unguided Media (Unbounded Media):

 Unguided media transmit data through the open air.
 E.g. Microwave, Satellite, Infrared, Radio, etc.

28
1) Microwaves:
 A microwave system uses very high-frequency radio signals to transmit data through the air.
 The transmit station must be visible contact with the receive station.
 Therefore repeater station must be placed so the data signal can travel farther than a distance
limit.

2) Infrared:
 Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area using a line of sight
communication.
 It is used in optic fiber communication wireless LAN, wireless mouse, computer, and printer.

3) Radio:
 Electromagnetic waves in the frequency range of 3 kHz to 1 GHz are commonly known as radio
waves.
 There are two types of configuration for electromagnetic wave transmission and reception,
directional and Omni-directional.

4) Communication Satellite:
A communication satellite is an artificial satellite stationed in space for telecommunication. Modern
communication satellites use a variety of orbits including geostationary orbits, Molniya orbits, other
elliptical orbits, and low Earth orbits. It works as a microwave relay station. It is placed in outer
space and moves its orbit like other satellites. The satellite is visible from any point of the earth so
the sender and receiver can easily communicate with each other by using an antenna aiming at the
satellite. Placing the satellite along the earth's orbit takes a very high cost.

5) Bluetooth Technology:
Bluetooth technology is a wireless technology that connects electronic devices while they are close to
each other. Bluetooth creates a personal-area network (PAN). Cell phones can be paired with
wireless Bluetooth headsets. Bluetooth technology is also compatible with personal computers,
laptops, printers, GPS receivers, digital cameras, telephones, video games, etc.

6) Wi-Fi Technology:
Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) is a popular wireless technology that uses radio waves to provide wireless
high-speed network connections. Wi-Fi uses both single-carrier direct-sequence spread spectrum
radio technology and multi-carrier orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) radio
technology. Wi-Fi is supported by many applications and devices such as Laptops, Notebooks, mobile
phones, etc. The major operating system supports Wi-Fi. It creates a personal-area network (PAN)
and Home network. Bluetooth and Wi-Fi are different in several ways. Wi-Fi technology boasts faster
data transfer speeds and range, making it a good replacement for Ethernet systems.

4. Communication Software:
Communication software is an application or program designed to pass information from one system
to another. Such software provides remote access to systems and transmits files in a multitude of
formats between computers. Communication software forms a part of communication systems with
software components classified according to functions within the Open Systems Interconnection
Model (OSI Model). The best defined examples of communication software are file transfer protocol
(FTP), messaging software and email.

5. Types of Network:
The computer network can be classified based on network architecture and geographical area
coverage.

29
a) Network Architecture:
On the basis of network architecture, the computer network can be classified into:
 Peer to peer network
 Client/Server network

1) Peer to peer network:

 Each computer functions as both client and server.
 This network architecture is suitable for the environment where there are few computers and
users, security is not the issue.

Advantage of peer to peer network:

i. It is simpler and easier to setup.
ii. A dedicated system administrator is not required.
iii. If one computer fails to operate, it will not affect others.

Disadvantage of a peer to peer network:

i. Data security is poor in this network.
ii. The recovery and backup processes are different.
iii. It is not suitable for larger institutions.

Fig: Peer to
Peer network

2) Client-server network:
 The client-server architecture contains at least one dedicated server and the client computer.
 The server provides services to clients and clients always receive services from the server.
 These services may be data, webpage, emails, etc.
 As the network increase in size and traffic more than one server is needed to ensure each task to
be performed more efficiently.

Advantage of the client-server network:

i. Centralized administration is possible through the network.
ii. Higher security can be provided by using the approved period server
iii. The data backup and recovery process are easier.

Disadvantage of the client-server network:

i. It is complex to establish and manage.
ii. Highly skilled manpower is required to manage and handle the network.
iii. If the server fails, it will affect the network.

30
 Server

Fig: Client-server network

b) Geographical areas coverage:

On the basis of geographical areas coverage computer network is divided into three parts. They are
LAN, MAN, and WAN.

1) LAN (Local area network):

 LAN is the interconnection of the computer in a limited geographical area. Like in a single room
or building on one side.
 Ethernet cable, network adaptors, hub, etc. hardware is used by LAN.
 It is simple, smallest, and cheapest compare to other networks.

Advantage of LAN:
i. Data transmission is greater than MAN and WAN.
ii. It has higher security to resources at the network.
iii. It is easier to establish, manage, and operate.

Disadvantage of LAN:
i. It is limited only to a small area.
ii. Fewer backup resources compare MAN and WAN.
iii. It is not suitable for long distances and connects less number computer.

Fig: Local Area Network

(LAN)
2) MAN (Metropolitan area network):
 It is extended up to the city or a larger geographical area than LAN.
 A MAN can connect several LANs.
 It can use either wire or wireless transmission media.
 This network mostly uses bridges, repeaters, routers, switches.
 Example: A cable TV network.

Advantage of MAN:
i. It is spread to a large area than LAN.
ii. It has comparability more number of computer than LAN.
iii. It can connect multiple systems and networks.

Disadvantage of MAN:
i. It uses expensive devices compared to LAN.
ii. It is more complex to establish, manage, and provide security.
iii. Transmission speed is slower compared to LAN.

31
 Network

connection

LAN at office LAN at

Fig: Metropolitan Area Network University

3) WAN (Wide area network):

 WAN is used to interconnect computers spread to a larger geographical area like in separate
cities or countries.
 It often connects multiple smaller networks such as LAN or MAN.
 Communication is usually done through satellite, microwave systems, or optical fibers.

Advantage of WAN:
i. It is spread to a large area than LAN and MAN.
ii. More computer tee mirrors can connect than LAN and WAN.
iii. It also connects dissimilar systems or networks.

Disadvantage of WAN:
i. It uses expensive devices compared to LAN and MAN.
ii. Transmission speed is usually slower compare to LAN and MAN.
iii. Maintaining security is complex (public network).

Internet

Fig: Wide Area Network (WAN)

6. Network Protocol:
A network protocol is an established set of rules that determine how data is transmitted between
different devices in the same network. Essentially, it allows connected devices to communicate with
each other, regardless of any differences in their internal processes, structure or design.

32
1.9 Internet and world wide web (www):
7. Introduction to internet:
Internet is a network of networks. Millions of computers all over the world are connected through
the internet. If the computer is connected to the internet, one user can connect to millions of
computers. It is very much similar to a telephone connection where one can talk with any person
anywhere in the world.

8. Internet access:
Internet access is the process of connecting to the internet using personal computers, laptops or
mobile devices by users or enterprises. Internet access is subject to data signaling rates and users
could be connected at different internet speeds. Internet access enables individuals or organizations
to avail internet services/web-based services.

Internet access is often provided at home, schools, workplaces, public places, internet cafes, libraries
and other locations. The internet began to gain popularity with dial-up internet access. In a relatively
short time, internet access technologies changed, providing faster and more reliable options.
Currently, broadband technologies such as cable internet and ADSL are the most widely used
methods for internet access. The speed, cost, reliability and availability of internet access depends on
the region, internet service provider and type of connection.

There are many different ways to obtain internet access, including:

 Wireless connection
 Mobile connection
 Hotspots
 Dial-up
 Broadband
 DSL
 Satellite

Access to computers or smart devices is one of the important factors for understanding the level of
internet access for a region. However, internet access is not uniformly distributed within or between
countries. A digital divide exists between many countries and regions. Good internet access is
associated with regions with high-income populations, a high development index and high
technological development.

9. Internet Basics:
How does the Internet work?
At this point you may be wondering, how does the Internet work? The exact answer is pretty
complicated and would take a while to explain. Instead, let's look at some of the most important
things you should know.

It's important to realize that the Internet is a global network of physical cables, which can include
copper telephone wires, TV cables, and fiber optic cables. Even wireless connections like Wi-Fi and
3G/4G rely on these physical cables to access the Internet. When you visit a website, your computer
sends a request over these wires to a server. A server is where websites are stored, and it works a
lot like your computer's hard drive. Once the request arrives, the server retrieves the website and
sends the correct data back to your computer. What's amazing is that this all happens in just a few
seconds!

10. Internet Protocol:

The Internet Protocol (IP) is a protocol, or set of rules, for routing and addressing packets of data so
that they can travel across networks and arrive at the correct destination. Data traversing the
Internet is divided into smaller pieces, called packets. IP information is attached to each packet, and
this information helps routers to send packets to the right place. Every device or domain that
connects to the Internet is assigned an IP address, and as packets are directed to the IP address
attached to them, data arrives where it is needed. Once the packets arrive at their destination, they

33
 are handled differently depending on which transport protocol is used in combination with IP. The
most common transport protocols are TCP and UDP.

What is a network protocol?

In networking, a protocol is a standardized way of doing certain actions and formatting data so that two
or more devices are able to communicate with and understand each other.
To understand why protocols are necessary, consider the process of mailing a letter. On the envelope,
addresses are written in the following order: name, street address, city, state, and zip code. If an
envelope is dropped into a mailbox with the zip code written first, followed by the street address,
followed by the state, and so on, the post office won't deliver it. There is an agreed-upon protocol for
writing addresses in order for the postal system to work. In the same way, all IP data packets must
present certain information in a certain order, and all IP addresses follow a standardized format.

What is an IP address? How does IP addressing work?

An IP address is a unique identifier assigned to a device or domain that connects to the Internet. Each IP
address is a series of characters, such as '192.168.1.1'. Via DNS resolvers, which translate human-
readable domain names into IP addresses, users are able to access websites without memorizing this
complex series of characters. Each IP packet will contain both the IP address of the device or domain
sending the packet and the IP address of the intended recipient, much like how both the destination
address and the return address are included on a piece of mail.

IPv4 vs. IPv6

The fourth version of IP (IPv4 for short) was introduced in 1983. However, just as there are only so
many possible permutations for automobile license plate numbers and they have to be reformatted
periodically, the supply of available IPv4 addresses has become depleted. IPv6 addresses have many
more characters and thus more permutations; however, IPv6 is not yet completely adopted, and most
domains and devices still have IPv4 addresses. For more on IPv4 and IPv6, see What is my IP address?

What is an IP packet?
IP packets are created by adding an IP header to each packet of data before it is sent on its way. An IP
header is just a series of bits (ones and zeros), and it records several pieces of information about the
packet, including the sending and receiving IP address. IP headers also report:
 Header length
 Packet length
 Time To Live (TTL), or the number of network hops a packet can make before it is discarded
 Which transport protocol is being used (TCP, UDP, etc.)
In total there are 14 fields for information in IPv4 headers, although one of them is optional.

How does IP routing work?

The Internet is made up of interconnected large networks that are each responsible for certain blocks of
IP addresses; these large networks are known as autonomous systems (AS). A variety of routing
protocols, including BGP, help route packets across ASes based on their destination IP addresses.
Routers have routing tables that indicate which ASes the packets should travel through in order to reach
the desired destination as quickly as possible. Packets travel from AS to AS until they reach one that
claims responsibility for the targeted IP address. That AS then internally routes the packets to the
destination.

34
Protocols attach packet headers at different layers of the OSI model:

Packets can take different routes to the same place if necessary, just as a group of people driving to
an agreed-upon destination can take different roads to get there.

What is TCP/IP?
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a transport protocol, meaning it dictates the way data is sent
and received. A TCP header is included in the data portion of each packet that uses TCP/IP. Before
transmitting data, TCP opens a connection with the recipient. TCP ensures that all packets arrive in
order once transmission begins. Via TCP, the recipient will acknowledge receiving each packet that
arrives. Missing packets will be sent again if receipt is not acknowledged.
TCP is designed for reliability, not speed. Because TCP has to make sure all packets arrive in order,
loading data via TCP/IP can take longer if some packets are missing.
TCP and IP were originally designed to be used together, and these are often referred to as the TCP/IP
suite. However, other transport protocols can be used with IP.

What is UDP/IP?
The User Datagram Protocol, or UDP, is another widely used transport protocol. It's faster than TCP, but
it is also less reliable. UDP does not make sure all packets are delivered and in order, and it doesn't
establish a connection before beginning or receiving transmissions.

11. Internet addressing:

An Internet address uniquely identifies a node on the Internet. Internet address may also refer to
the name or IP of a Web site (URL). The term Internet address can also represent someone’s e-mail
address. See also URL and e-mail.

35
12. WWW, web page, HTML, Web browsers, searching the web, internet chat:
WWW:
It is the collection of linked documents or pages, stored in millions of computers, distributed across
the world. It offers a smooth and easy to use the graphical interface to access the information
available on the internet. It is a distributed file management system with a program to access and
send information.

Web Page:
A web page (or webpage) is a hypertext document provided by a website and displayed to a user in
a web browser. A website typically consists of many web pages linked together in a coherent
fashion. The name "web page" is a metaphor of paper pages bound together into a book.

HTML:
HTML is short for Hypertext Markup Language. Hypertext is simply a piece of text that works as a
link. Markup Language is a way of writing layout information within documents. Basically an HTML
document is a plain text file that contains text and nothing else.

Web browsers:
A software application used to access information on the World Wide Web is called a Web Browser.
When a user requests some information, the web browser fetches the data from a web server and
then displays the webpage on the user’s screen.

Searching the web:

There are many different search engines you can use, but some of the most popular include Google,
Yahoo!, and Bing. To perform a search, you'll need to navigate to a search engine in your web
browser, type one or more keywords —also known as search terms —then press Enter on your
keyboard.

Internet chat:
Online chat may refer to any kind of communication over the Internet that offers a real-time
transmission of text messages from sender to receiver. Chat messages are generally short in order to
enable other participants to respond quickly.

1.10 Electronic Mail:

13. Introduction to Email:
E-mail is a faster, easier, and cheaper way of communication with other users around the world. It is
one of the basic and most popular services of the internet. It solves the problem of getting delays in
the delivery of physical documents from one person to another. The E-mail consists of messages and
other attachment which are used for sending and receiving and saving message over electronically
communication. The E-mail service allows an internet user to sent mail to other internet users in any
part of the world in a very short time.

Uses of E-mail:
E-mail allows individuals and groups to communicate with one another in a very short time. The uses
of E-mail are;
 Information exchange
 Staying in touch professionally and socially
 Transmitting documents
 Publish an online newsletter, special promotions, or events
 Drive traffic to the web site
 Make a new product or personnel announcements and press releases
 Offer discounts for various products or service using e-commerce
 Care for customers for staying in touch with clients, cheaply, and quickly.
 Encourage participation in government, civic, and community projects
 Acting like an entertainment aspect like tells a joke, sharing pictures and movies

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 Advantages of E-mail:
 Delivery of message is very fast.
 The cost of e-mail is almost free.
 Multiple copies of the same message can be sent to a group of the recipient at the same times.
 Image, audio, video, and other documents and files can be attached to the message.
 Because it is written, we can compose and review it before sending it.
 We can check e-mail from any computer in the world.

Disadvantages of E-mail:
 A small error in the address of the links between the sender and receiver is enough to prevent the
delivery of the message.
 Although email is delivered constantly, the recipients may or may not read the email on time.
 Viruses are easily spread by email attachments.
 Electronic mailing system depends on electricity computer and computer network.
 Electronic mailing system depends on electricity computer and computer network. Thus, failure
of any of them can prevent the user from sending and receiving email.

Types of E-mail:
There are two types of email. They are;

a) Web-Based:
Web-based E-mail is referred to as a service that is operated using the browser. Users can send
or receive E-mails by using the browser. Such E-mails can be accessed anywhere throughout the
world. First of all the user must be authenticated then the user is allowed to access the service
of E-mail through the webpage. E-mail providers like Hotmail.com, yahoomail.com, gmail.com,
rediffmail.com, etc. are providing web-based E-mail services.

b) POP E-mail:
POP stands for Post Office Protocol. POP E-Mail is accessed using E-mail client software.
Software like Outlook express, K-mail, Eudora mail, etc. is used for sending and receiving E-
mails. To use POP E-mail accounts, one has to register for it. This type of service is generally
provided by the local ISP. They also provide a username, password as well as the protocol to
access E-mail.

14. Email-Names & addresses, Mailing basics:

Every email address has two main parts: a username and domain name. The username comes first,
followed by an at (@) symbol, followed by the domain name. In the example below, "mail" is the
username and "techterms.com" is the domain name.

An email address is a unique identifier for an email account. It is used to both send and receive email
messages over the Internet. Similar to physical mail, an email message requires an address for both the
sender and recipient in order to be sent successfully.

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The Email System:
Email infrastructure simplified. Email systems consist of computer servers that process and store
messages on behalf of users who connect to the email infrastructure via an email client or web interface.
When someone sends an email, the message is transferred from his or her computer to the server
associated with the recipient’s address, usually via a number of other servers.
In more detail (please refer to the illustration on the above):

1. A user (Alice) sends an email message and connects to an SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
server as configured in her email client or Mail User Agent (MUA).
2. On the SMTP server, a Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) looks at the recipient address and looks up the
domain part of the address to determine its destination.
3. After querying a Domain Name System (DNS) server for the name of the Mail exchanger (MX) for the
recipient’s domain name…
4. …the SMTP server will send the message to that server via the SMTP protocol.
5. The receiving server will store the message and make it available to the recipient (Bob), who can
access it via web, POP, or IMAP.

15. Email ethics:

Email etiquette refers to the principles of behavior that one should use when writing or answering
email messages. It is also known as the code of conduct for email
communication. Email etiquette depends upon to whom we are writing- Friends & Relatives,
Partners, Customers, Superior or Subordinates.

16. Internet code of conduct:

Internet Society Engagement & Community Rules:
 Treat all users and colleagues fairly and equally. Stimulate conversation, be respectful of others’
views, and refrain from personal attacks..
 Respect legitimate intellectual property rights, do not plagiarize work, and give credit to the
originators of ideas.
 Don’t share the posts of others without permission.

Discussion Group Etiquette:

 All defamatory, abusive, profane, threatening, offensive, or illegal material is strictly prohibited.
 Discriminatory, hostile or intimidating messages or language will not be tolerated, whether based
on a person’s race, ethnicity, culture, national origin, social or economic class, educational level,
sex, sexual orientation, gender identity and expression, age, size, family status, political belief,
religion, or mental or physical ability.
 Internet Society strives to create and maintain a community in which people of many different
backgrounds and cultures are treated with respect.

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  Be mindful and respectful of linguistic background – while the language for online fora discussions
is mostly English (unless otherwise specified), remember not everybody is a native English
speaker / writer.
 Keep subject lines concise and clear so that members can respond appropriately and easily search
the archives.
 Include only relevant portions of the original message in replies.
 Only send a message to the entire list if everyone can benefit from it. Do not send “thank you” and
“me too” replies to the full list.
 Avoid administrative messages, such as remove me from the list (use the web interface to change
your personal settings).
 If relevant, add “Long Message” to the subject line or at the beginning of the message body.
 Do not spam several lists or libraries with the same message.
 Don’t publicly post commercial messages.
 Use caution when discussing products. Information posted on the lists and in the libraries is
available for all members to see. Comments are subject to libel, slander, and antitrust laws.
 Please carefully read the items listed in the disclaimer and legal rules below, particularly regarding
the copyright ownership of information posted.

17. Tips for effective e-mail use:

1. Practice being clear and concise with your message.
2. Before sending, ALWAYS reread your message and double check for grammar and misused
words.
3. Copy back salient points when replying to an earlier message.
4. Use specific subject line descriptions.
5. Realize that once your message is sent, it’s difficult to recall.
6. Practice the 24-hour rule when you’re upset.
7. Avoid shortcuts
8. Don’t Forward Viral Messages.

1.11 Multimedia:
18. Introduction, multimedia in education, entertainment:
Introduction:
Multimedia can be termed as a presentation that involves two or more media performing at the same
time where media can be text, graphics, audio, video, and animation. Multimedia can be defined as
the integration of many media together. The main objective of multimedia is presenting any
presentation interactively.

Components of Multimedia:
1) Text:
Text can be of any type, that may be a world, a single line, or a paragraph. It is the original word and
it is the form of writing of printed work. The text data for multimedia can be developed using any
text editor. The text can have a different type, size, color, and style to meet the professional
requirement of multimedia software.

2) Graphics or Images:
The term graphics refers to the picture or image. Unlike text, graphics don't have a single agreed
format. The image or picture can express the idea of how it works or easily deliver the message. A
proverb saying "A picture is of thousand words", means a picture can describe more than the text.

3) Audio:
Audio has a greater role to play in multimedia development. It is one of the most important features
of multimedia that enhance multimedia usability to its full potential. Several types of sound can be
used in multimedia. They are human voices, instrumental notes, natural sounds, and many more.
While using video and animation, audio is almost important.

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4) Video:
Video is the running frames of still images. Each frame is composed of some event. The computer
reads a particular video clip as a series of still pictures, called frames. Thus, video clop is made of a
series of separate frames, where each frame is slightly different than the previous one. Video is one
of the widely used components of multimedia for delivering ideas and information.

5) Animation:
A computer-based animation is a sequence of still vector images displayed in rapid succession to
provide the visual effect. The animation is created to express ideas where complex explanations need
to be effectively delivered. It is one of the most important components of multimedia to communicate
difficult aspects of the content. Animation can be of two types. They are; Two dimensional and three
dimensional. Some excellent software available for animation is Animator Pro, Auto CAD, Maya 3D,
3D Max, etc.

Application of Multimedia:
1) Education:
Multimedia is widely used in the teaching, learning process. The teaching methodology by only
hearing the lectures in the class makes it difficult to understand the topic so if we can able to use the
multimedia presentation of the topic, we can easily gain the concept. Nowadays, many e-books are
available in the market which consists of multimedia like an electronic encyclopedia, electronic
dictionary, etc.

2) Entertainment:
The entertainment industry has used multimedia technology widely. The mind-blowing graphics like
iRobot, Terminator, Titanic, etc. world endowed movies includes high-resolution graphics and
animation which makes the movies interesting and full of entertainment.

3) Web page:
In the early days, the only text was used on the web page which was static. After the advancement of
multimedia technologies, nowadays web page includes graphics, video, and animation which make s
the web page dynamic, interesting, and eye-catching.

4) Business:
These days different marketing advertisement has been used for the convincing customer about the
products and services. With the help of multimedia, the company can elaborate on the features of
products and services they are given in an easy understanding approach.

5) Office automation:
The activities like meeting, group discussion, conference, and seminar which are the core component
s for the strategic planning for the company must be held in various periods. These jobs can be easily
done with the help of multimedia even though they are dispersed in various geographical locations
with the help of audio conferencing, video conferencing, and sharing the documents.

6) Communication:
Today's communication era. Communication plays a vital role in our daily life in transforming
information. E.g. chatting in the previous days was just simply the text but nowadays chatting can be
done with the use of multimedia like audio chatting and video chatting it is the advantage of
multimedia.

1.12 Computer Securities:

Computer security basically is the protection of computer systems and information from harm, theft,
and unauthorized use. It is the process of preventing and detecting unauthorized use of your computer
system. There are various types of computer security which is widely used to protect the valuable
information of an organization.

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Types of computer securities:
1. Hardware security
2. Software security

 Hardware security is vulnerability protection that comes in the form of a physical device rather
than software that is installed on the hardware of a computer system. Hardware security can pertain
to a device used to scan a system or monitor network traffic.

 Software security is an idea implemented to protect software against malicious attack and other
hacker risks so that the software continues to function correctly under such potential risks. Security
is necessary to provide integrity, authentication and availability.

1.13 IT policy of Nepal:

 Introduction to IT policy:
The Information Technology (IT) Policy of the organization defines rules, regulations and
guidelines for proper usage and maintenance of these technological assets to ensure their
ethical and acceptable use and assure health, safety and security of data, products, facilities as well as
the people using them.

 IT policy in Nepal:
The latest IT policy has been enforced since 2067. It was updated after nine years. The previous
policy 'IT policy 2057' was canceled and the new policy comes into existence. The new policy
emphasizes outsourcing as its principal base. This policy also emphasizes on the use of IT for e-
governance and agencies that deals with health, education, and business which can work with IT-
related strategic plan. The main goals of the IT system of Nepal are as follows:

 To use IT in all types of government activities

 To established IT-based organizations for creating new job opportunities
 To increase the use of IT in social and commercial organization for their development

 Cyber law in Nepal:

After many years of discussion and efforts, recently the government of Nepal has crafted the much-
awaited electronic transaction act 2063(2008), popularly known as the cyber law of Nepal. This law
has provided new trust to the IT sector, computer and IT professionals who are hopeful that it will
create a favorable situation for conducting IT business. It contains strong provisions of punishment
against cybercrime according to the nature of the crime. As per the provision of law, the government
is fully authorized to punish cybercriminals both and individual or organizational.

 Computer Ethics:
The concept of computer ethics was originated in 1950 by MIT professor "Nobert Wiener" for the
first time. He was the inventor of an information feedback system called "cyber ethics" in the book
"The human use of human beings" he published. This book laid the basic foundation of computer
ethics and made "Nobert Wiener" the father of computer ethics.

Computer ethics are the moral and practical issues or general behavior that every computer user
must follow as the norms in the society in the use of ICT. Besides the law, it includes the
consideration of both personal and social policies for the better and safe use of computer related
technologies. So, computer ethics is the set of moral principles practical behaviors that regulate the
use of computers.

The commandments of computer ethics are:

 We should not use a computer to harm others.
 We should not open and disclose the secrecy of computers.
 We should not use proprietary software for which we have no paid.
 We should not spare illegal or false information to society.
 We should not guess the password of others.

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 We should not use the computer to steal data and itself.
 We should not use others computer resources without permission.
 We should not snoop around in other’s files and data.

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