Quantum universes

R. C. Havens

Author’s address: 3605 Kingswood Ct, Clermont, FL 34711 USA

ORCID iD: 0000-0001-6215-5153

email address: [email protected]

Phone: 352 243 8225

Mobile phone: 352 978 6858

Abstract. The purpose of this work was to investigate the possibility of physical objects traveling faster than the speed of
light in a vacuum c, without violating Albert Einstein’s theory of special relativity. The investigation led to the theoretical
discovery of possible quantum universes where the possibility of physical objects traveling faster than the speed of light in a
vacuum c was found to be true for some quantum universe quantum states. Limitless quantum universes were shown to have
discrete speeds of light in a vacuum that were much greater than or much less than in our known quantum universe. Atoms of
quantum universes were shown to be scale models of atoms of our quantum universe. The value of physical constants like the
mass of subatomic particles, Planck’s constant, and the elementary charge were derived for quantum universes. Schrödinger
equations along with physical constants of quantum universes were used to analytically determine wave functions and
properties of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes. A new concept, atomic particle transitions, remotely similar to atomic
electron transitions was determined and discussed. Atomic particle transitions were shown to transition the hydrogen atom
between quantum universes. It was demonstrated that quantum universes have extremely less discrete atomic densities or
extremely greater discrete atomic densities that are related to the fine structure constant. Quantum universes exhibit discrete
dilated or hastened time periods that are related to the fine structure constant. Moreover, discretely different frequencies,
wavelengths, and propagation velocities of electromagnetic waves of quantum universes were determined that are related to
the fine structure constant. Thrust and power of hydrogen photon engines that use enormous ecological economic radiant
energy were determined. These engines operate on the principle of the before mentioned atomic particle transitions.
Consequences of special relativity as related to quantum universes were discussed.

Keywords. Properties, laws, and physical constants of quantum universes; Schrödinger equations of quantum universes; Wave
functions and properties of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes; Atomic particle transitions of the hydrogen atom
between quantum universes; Hydrogen photon engines that operate on the principle of atomic particle transitions.

1. Introduction

I’m not a historian, but UFOs have been dotting our sky since 1947, and possibly before, in ever increasing numbers. They
are seen these days by many thousands of persons per year in the United States, and all over the planet. They are seen to
conduct extraordinary maneuvers and move with unbelievable speeds. They are sometimes possibly seen with aliens. The
United States, Britain, France, Russia, and Australia, among others, have released UFO files. My belief that UFOs were real
was my motivation to speculate on the reality of flight faster than the speed of light.
I read an article a long time ago in the green sheet of the Milwaukee Journal about flying saucers. It was Kenneth Arnold’s
UFO sighting that occurred on June 24, 1947. Sometime between 1949 to 1951 I had determined for myself that UFOs were
real. I felt they must be able to fly faster than the speed of light, even though I knew science said this was an absolute
impossibility. I was motivated, by speculation of flight faster than the speed of light, to learn what I could from UFOs and
possibly aliens. I figured eventually I would learn something that would be very important. My interest in UFOs was a
fascination that lasted a life time up to now. Not a decade went by that I didn’t learn more and become more convinced of the
reality of flight faster than the speed of light. From then until now, I studied everything I could on the subject, e.g., newspaper
articles, magazine articles, books, the World Wide Web, etc. This fascination never wavered through graduate school, a long

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successful career, and a decade of retirement. My belief that UFOs were real, was my motivation for speculating on how it
was possible to fly faster than the speed of light.
I reasoned if UFOs are in our planet’s air as often as they are, for as long as they have been, they must be real and they
must come from planets outside our solar system. If they come from planets outside our solar system then they must be able
to travel faster than the speed of light c. However, Albert Einstein published the theory of special relativity in 1905. He used
the Lorentz factor to determine relativistic mass-energy equivalence in our known quantum universe. This proved that the
closer to the speed of light you get a particle, the more massive it becomes and the more energy is required to achieve its
velocity. It proved that particles in our known quantum universe can never reach or exceed the speed of light in a vacuum c.
Thus, if a particle can travel faster than the speed of light, I reasoned it must be in concert with Albert Einstein’s theory of
special relativity. And, this reasoning motivated the new speculation for this paper.
The new concept of quantum universes is introduced because it could explain some of the technology exhibited by UFOs.
Incidentally, you may have guessed by now; I believe our known universe is but one of many limitless quantum universes.
The new concept of different discrete values for the physical constants of quantum universes, e.g., discrete masses of
subatomic particles, discrete elementary charges of electrons or protons, discrete Bohr radii, discrete Planck’s constants and
discrete reduced Planck’s constants are introduced so that physical laws and Schrödinger equations of quantum universes can
be determined.
The new concept of different discrete quantum universe speeds of light in a vacuum integrated with Einstein’s special
theory of relativity is introduced because it explains how UFOs can travel here from planets outside the solar system.
The new concept of an atomic particle transition is introduced because it helps explain what quantum universes are. An
atomic particle transition is introduced because the concept shows how the size of, atoms and subatomic particles, can be
discretely changed. An atomic particle transition is introduced because the concept shows how the mass of subatomic
particles can be discretely changed. It is introduced because the concept shows how a quantum universe quantum state of a
quantum system can be changed into another quantum universe quantum state. It is introduced because the concept shows
how a quantum system can transition from one quantum universe to another. The concept of an atomic particle transition is
introduced for other reasons. It is introduced because the concept helps explain why quantum universes are invisible to each
other. It is introduced because the concept helps explain, in more than one way, how UFOs can move at unbelievable speeds.
This paragraph is a further introduction to the new concept of an atomic particle transition as it applies to the hydrogen
atom: The hydrogen atom under goes an atomic particle transition by the absorption or emission of a photon by its electron.
An atomic particle transition is similar in this respect to an atomic electron transition. The end result of an atomic particle
transition of the hydrogen atom, is an enormously different discrete energy level of its electron, enormously different discrete
subatomic particle sizes, enormously different discrete subatomic particle masses, and an even more enormously different
discrete atomic density. An atomic particle transition of the hydrogen atom is accomplished by different discrete wavelength
photons than that associated with an atomic electron transition of the hydrogen atom.
The new concept of discrete time, dilation and hastening, is introduced because it is an important law of quantum
universes.
Direct observation has been made of UFOs instantaneously disappearing from our air space. That this can really happen
or is real, is experimentally distinguishable from existing knowledge. Thus, it is concluded that a physical system that
instantaneously disappears from our air space because it is transitioned by multiple simultaneous atomic particle transitions to
another quantum universe quantum state, is experimentally distinguishable from existing knowledge.
UFOs have been observed exhibiting unbelievable air speeds. That this is true or real, is experimentally distinguishable
from existing knowledge. Thus, it is concluded that multiple atomic particle transitions that produce sufficiently energetic
propulsion systems with enough thrust to exhibit unbelievable air speeds, are experimentally distinguishable from existing
knowledge.
UFOs do not leave exhaust or contrails in our atmosphere. That this is true or real, is experimentally distinguishable from
existing knowledge. Thus, propulsion systems that operate on the concept of multiple atomic particle transitions, that do not
leave exhaust or contrails in our atmosphere, are experimentally distinguishable from existing knowledge.
UFOs do not exhibit any audible sound. That this is true or real, is experimentally distinguishable from existing
knowledge. Thus, propulsion systems that operate on the concept of multiple atomic particle transitions, that do not exhibit
any audible sound, are experimentally distinguishable from existing knowledge.
It should be possible to transition hydrogen from our known quantum universe, to quantum universe number negative one,
by multiple atomic particle transitions, so as to make the hydrogen disappear from our known quantum universe, by
experiment in a high-tech laboratory. This could be accomplished by irradiating hydrogen with the exact appropriate
electromagnetic frequency. This frequency is approximately 3.30 x 1015 Hz (9.10 x 10−8 m wavelength). That this could be
done, is experimentally distinguishable from existing knowledge. Thus, it is concluded that hydrogen atoms transitioned to

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quantum universe number negative one, by multiple atomic particle transitions, so as to make hydrogen atoms disappear from
our known quantum universe, are experimentally distinguishable from existing knowledge.
The assumed risky under taking of this paper was undertaken because of my belief that there might be some kind of
physical objects, with mass, that could travel faster than the speed of light in a vacuum c, without violating the theory of
special relativity. Thus, it was hypothesized that there could be physical objects, with mass, in the three-dimensional vacuum
of space, that could travel faster than the speed of light in a vacuum c, that do not violate the theory of special relativity. This
work did indicate that physical objects of some quantum universe quantum states can travel faster than the speed of light in a
vacuum c, without violating the theory of special relativity.
The search for physical objects that could travel faster than the speed of light in a vacuum c led, theoretically, to
subatomic particles of atoms of quantum-mechanical systems of quantum universes that had discretely, much greater mass
and much less mass than those in our known quantum universe. The subatomic particles defined discrete quantum states of
quantum systems that were both discretely much larger and much smaller in size than those in our known quantum universe.
These discrete quantum states of quantum systems defined limitless multiple universes, called quantum universes.
Three-dimensional space could be teeming with quantum universes. Quantum universes are probably close to and
intermixed with other quantum universes. Still, they are believed to be independent and invisible to each other. Quantum
universes are inherently located more by density than by distance. Atomic density of quantum universes going up is
discretely very rare and atomic density of quantum universes going down is discretely very dense. Quantum universes are
probably relatively the same, quantum universe to quantum universe. Most anything found in our known quantum universe
could probably be found in other quantum universes. Quantum universes would seem to be, so much the same, that a
resident person would probably have difficulty telling the difference between quantum universes. Most everything would
work the same in quantum universes; life processes, chemical reactions, electronics, mechanical machinery, etc. except for
time. Most everything would work the same because the discrete quantum states of quantum systems are scale models of
themselves in quantum universes. It is also because the relative states of matter, and the relative states of electromagnetic
waves, act the same in quantum universes except for time.
Quantum universes are much like our known quantum universe, except for the speed of light in a vacuum that takes on
discrete values, much greater than and much less than our known quantum universe. This is because displacements and time
periods, that determine velocity, take on different discrete values in quantum universes that modify the speed of light. This is
also because it is hypothesized that photons of light in quantum universes have discrete values of mass that are much greater
than and much less than in our known quantum universe. The theory of Special relativity applies the same in quantum
universes as it does in our known quantum universe, only with different discrete speeds of light in a vacuum. Thus, physical
objects of some quantum universes, with much less atomic masses and much greater speeds of light in a vacuum, can travel
way beyond the speed of light in our known quantum universe.
Subatomic particles, atoms, and molecules of quantum universes are predominately related to the fine structure constant.
This is normal since the fine structure constant, alpha, has physical interpretations that are related to the Bohr model of the
atom and the Standard Model.
This work is an extension of the work of Erwin Schrödinger. His nonrelativistic Schrödinger equation is shown to be
capable of determining the discrete quantum states of quantum systems in quantum universes. The Schrödinger equation is
solvable in quantum universes. This is because of the theoretical discovery of the discrete masses of subatomic particles in
quantum-mechanical systems of quantum universes and the theoretical discovery of values of other physical constants, like
the elementary charge e and the reduced Planck’s constant ℏ of quantum universes.
It is hypothesized that multiple simultaneous atomic particle transitions (remotely similar to atomic electron transitions,
see Sect. 5.) can cause a physical object to “jump” from one quantum universe quantum state to another quantum universe
quantum state. This jump between quantum universe quantum states would have the net effect of transitioning the physical
object from one quantum universe quantum state to another. This alteration in quantum universe quantum state would make
the physical object disappear from its original quantum universe and reappear in its final quantum universe. The time
constants for these transitions would be related to the quantum universes.
The organization of the paper is as follows: Sect. 1. Introduction. Sect. 2. determines the physical constants required to
develop the physical laws of quantum universes. Sect. 3. derives the Schrödinger equations of quantum universes. Sect. 4.
derives wave functions and properties for the hydrogen atom in quantum universes. Subsect. 4.1. is a mathematical check of
the wave functions of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes. Sect. 5. discusses atomic particle transitions. Sect. 6. shows
physical laws of quantum universes. Sect. 7. discusses electromagnetic waves, photons of quantum universes, and hydrogen
photon engines. Sect. 8. shows some of the consequences in quantum universes resulting from Albert Einstein’s special
theory of relativity. Sect. 9. is Conclusions.
The Gaussian system of units (Gs) is used for deriving equations rather than the International System of Units (SI). Use of
the Gaussian system of units importantly ensures that mechanical and electromagnetic units can be unambiguously derived

3
from the same three base units. This is very important, in that it is necessary to derive important physical laws of quantum
universes, e.g., Schrödinger equations in quantum universes and their wave functions.

2. Physical Constants of Quantum Universes

It was hypothesized that quantum states of quantum systems of quantum universes were made up of the same chemical
elements as our known quantum universe. It was hypothesized that each quantum universe has its own universe quantum
number k. It was hypothesized that quantum states in quantum universes are described by the same common quantum
numbers; universe k, principal n, azimuthal l, and magnetic m. It was hypothesized that quantum universes, universe quantum
states, electromagnetic waves or photons, and physical constants of quantum universes are described by universe quantum
numbers. It was hypothesized that subatomic particles, atoms, molecules, quantum systems, or physical objects of quantum
universes are never described by more than one universe quantum number. It was hypothesized that atoms or quantum
systems and electromagnetic waves or photons of the same universe quantum number belong to the same quantum universe.
It was hypothesized that if a quantum system changed its universe quantum number it also changed the quantum universe to
which it belongs. It was hypothesized that the universe quantum number k was equal to zero for our known quantum
universe. It was hypothesized that the makeup of quantum universes is similar to the makeup of our known quantum universe
except for differences due to age. It was hypothesized that universe quantum numbers k are all integers.
It was hypothesized that quantum numbers, universe k, principal n, azimuthal l, and magnetic m describe values of
conserved quantities in the dynamics of a quantum system in quantum universes. It was hypothesized that quantum numbers
can be defined as the sets of numerical values which give acceptable solutions to Schrödinger equations for the hydrogen
atom in quantum universes. This was the same definition, of quantum numbers of quantum universes, as is widely accepted
for the definition of quantum numbers in our known quantum universe. Sect. 4. showed that quantum numbers, universe k,
principal n, azimuthal l, and magnetic m met this definition of quantum numbers in quantum universes.
Physical constants of quantum universes were used throughout the paper where they replaced classical physical constants
that formed physical laws of quantum universes.
The mass of subatomic particles m, the reduced Planck’s constant ħ, the elementary charge e, and the speed of light in a
vacuum c are thought to be physical constants whose numerical values never change with time. In this work, it was
hypothesized that the discrete values of these physical constants depend on the quantum universe where they never change
with time.
It was hypothesized that physical constants, physical properties, and physical gaussian units took on the following
equation format in quantum universes:

k   k  11\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where k was a universe quantum number that was an integer, β k were β in the kth quantum universe, α was the fine structure
constant, µ was the coefficient of k where µ was an integer or a fraction of integers, and β was a physical constant, physical
property, or physical gaussian unit in our known quantum universe. If two different β had identical gaussian units then the
value of µ was the same.
This work was based on the following three hypotheses: First, and most important, was that most everything, e.g.,
subatomic particles, atoms, and physical objects of quantum universes, were discrete scale models of themselves in quantum
universes. This hypothesis was identical with the equation

xk    k x 22\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where Δx was a displacement in our known quantum universe, Δ x k was the same discrete displacement in the kth quantum
universe, and µ equaled negative one. Thus, atoms, molecules, and physical objects of quantum universes would be discrete
exact scale models of each other but they would vary greatly in discrete size. A quantum system that would change its
universe quantum number would modify the discrete displacements of the quantum system.

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 Second, velocities were

vk   2k v 33\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where v was a velocity in our known quantum universe, v kwas the same velocity in the kth quantum universe, and µ was
equal to negative two. A physical object that would change its universe quantum number would discretely modify the
velocity of the physical object.
Third, it was proposed that momentum of mass was conserved in quantum universes. This yielded the equations in
quantum universes,

pk  mk vk   ak m 2 k v   0k p , 44\* MERGEFORMAT ()
where p was momentum in our known quantum universe, pk was same momentum in the kth quantum universe, m was a mass
in our known quantum universe, m k was the same discrete mass in the kth quantum universe, µ for momentum p was zero
because momentum of mass was conserved between quantum universes, and µ for mass was a.
What is uniquely different for quantum states of quantum systems of quantum universes besides size, is the vastly
different value of discrete masses of the subatomic particles of the atoms of the quantum states of the quantum systems of
quantum universes. The following derives the value of discrete masses of subatomic particles and various other discrete
values of physical constants of quantum universes:
The concept of mass-energy equivalence allows mass to be converted to energy and vice-versa. Thus, matter can
discretely change its mass due to this concept. The coefficient μ for a mass equaled two when a was solved for in Eq. Error:
Reference source not found so that
mk   2k m 55\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where discrete masses of matter in quantum universes were m k and a mass of matter in our known quantum universe was m.
Masses of subatomic particles in quantum universes were the same as Eq. Error: Reference source not found. Then

mk   2k m 66\*
MERGEFORMAT ()

where discrete masses of subatomic particles in quantum universes were m k , and the mass of a subatomic particle in our
known quantum universe was m . Subatomic particle masses in quantum universes would be discretely created by atomic
particle transitions (remotely similar to atomic electron transitions, see Sect. 5.).
Electrons were subatomic particles and had units of mass; hence discrete rest masses of electrons in quantum universes
were

mek   2k me 77\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where discrete rest masses of electrons in quantum universes were m ek , and the rest mass of an electron in our known
quantum universe was m e . Discrete rest masses of electrons would be formed by atomic particle transitions between quantum
universe quantum states.
Table 1. shows the rest mass of the electron in quantum universes m ek .

Table 1. Calculated approximate values of the rest mass of an electron in quantum universes.

Universe k m ek Mass
5
8
4 α me 7.34 ×10−45 g
 Protons were subatomic particles and had units of mass; hence discrete rest masses of protons in quantum universes were

m pk   2k m p
88\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where discrete rest masses of protons in quantum universes were m pk and the rest mass of a proton in our known quantum
universe was m p. Discrete masses of protons would be formed by atomic particle transitions between quantum universe
quantum states.
The speed of light in a vacuum for quantum universes had units of velocity, so that µ equaled negative two the same as
Eq. Error: Reference source not found. Thus, discrete speeds of light in a vacuum were

ck   2k c 99\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where discrete speeds of light in a vacuum in quantum universes were c k and the speed of light in a vacuum in our known
quantum universe was c.

Table 2. shows the speed of light in a vacuum for quantum universes c k .

Table 2. Calculated approximate values of the speed of light in a vacuum for quantum universes.

Universe k c k Speed of light

4 α −8 c 3.72 ×1025 m/s

3 α −6 c 1.98 ×1021 m/s

2 α −4 c 1.06 ×1017 m/s

1 α −2 c 5.63 ×1012 m/s

0 α0c 3.00 ×108 m/ s

−1 α 2c 1.60 ×10 4 m/ s

−2 α4c 8.52 ×10−1 m/ s

−3 α6 c 4.54 ×10−5 m/s

−4 α 8 c 2.42× 10−9 m/s

The large values of the speed of light in a vacuum c k for positive quantum universe numbers were noted. It was noted,
that light for quantum universe number one, traveled a distance of one light year in approximately twenty-eight minutes.

6
Also, it was noted, that light for quantum universe number two, traveled a distance of one light year in approximately 1.49
milliseconds.
The “classical electron radius” can be found from classical mechanics by equating E=m e c 2 to E=e 2 /r e. It is

e2
re 
me c 2 1010\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where the classical electron radius is r e and elementary charge is e. This equation was written in quantum universes as

rek  ek 2 / mek ck 2  ( jk e) 2 /  2 k me ( 2 k c )2    k re    k e 2 / me c 2 1111\* MERGEFORMAT

()

where r e was the classical electron radius in our known quantum universe, r ek was the discrete electron radius in the kth
quantum universe, discrete elementary charges of electrons and protons in quantum universes were e k , the elementary charge
in our known quantum universe was e, µ for r e was negative one because r e had units of a displacement, and µ for the
elementary charge was j.
Table 3. shows the “classical electron radius” in quantum universes r ek .

Table 3. Calculated approximate values of the classical electron radius in quantum universes.

Universe k r ek Radius

4 α −4 r e 9.93 ×10−7 m

3 α −3 r e 7.25 ×10−9 m

2 α −2 r e 5.29 ×10−11 m

1 α −1 r e 3.86 ×10−13 m

0 α 0r e 2.82 ×10−15 m

−1 α 1r e 2.06 ×10−17 m

−2 α 2r e 1.50 ×10−19 m

−3 α 3r e 1.10 ×10−21 . m

Discrete elementary charges of electrons and protons in quantum universes were

7
 3
 k
ek   2
e 1212\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where µ for e was equal to j that was equal to negative three halves when j was solved for in Eq. Error: Reference source not
found.
The Bohr radius [1] is

a0   2 / me e2 1313\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where a 0 is the Bohr radius and ħ is the reduced Planck’s constant. This same equation in quantum universes was

3
 k
ak   k 2 / mek ek 2  ( bk  ) 2 /  2 k me (e )    k  2 / me e 2    k a0 1414\* MERGEFORMAT
2 2

()

where a k were the discrete Bohr radii in quantum universes, discrete reduced Planck’s constants in quantum universes were
ℏ k, µ for a 0 was negative one because a 0 had units of a displacement, and µ for the reduced Planck’s constant was b.
Table 4. shows the Bohr radius in quantum universes a k .

Table 4. Calculated approximate values of the Bohr radius in quantum universes.

Universe k ak Radius

4 α −4 a 0 1.87 ×10−2 m

3 α −3 a0 1.36 ×10−4 m

2 α −2 a0 9.94 × 10−7 m

1 α −1 a0 7.25 ×10−9 m

0 α 0 a0 5.29 ×10−11 m

−1 α 1a0 3.86 ×10−13 m

−2 α 2a0 2.82 ×10−15 m

−3 α 3 a0 2.06 ×10−17 . m

Then, reduced Planck’s constants in quantum universes were

 k   k  1515\* MERGEFORMAT ()

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where µ for ħ was equal to b that was equal to negative one when b was solved for in Eq. Error: Reference source not found.
From Eq. Error: Reference source not found Planck’s constants in quantum universes were

hk    k h 1616\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where discrete Planck’s constants in quantum universes were h k and Planck’s constant in our known quantum universe was
h.

The fine structure constant α [2] is

  e 2 / c . 1717\* MERGEFORMAT ()

The fine structure constants in quantum universes were

 32k
 k  ek 2 /  k ck  ( e) 2 /   k  2 k c   fk   1818\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where α k were the fine structure constants in quantum universes and µ for α was equal to f that was equal to zero when f was
solved for in Eq. Error: Reference source not found. In other words, the dimensionless fine structure constant α would be of
the same value in all quantum universes.
The physical constants; the discrete rest masses of electrons m ek Error: Reference source not found, the discrete speeds of
light in a vacuum c k Error: Reference source not found, the discrete elementary charges of electrons or protons e k Error:
Reference source not found, the discrete Bohr radii a k Error: Reference source not found, the discrete reduced Planck’s
constants ℏ k Error: Reference source not found, the discrete Planck’s constants h k Error: Reference source not found, of
quantum universes were substituted for physical constants of our known quantum universe to form laws of quantum
universes.

3. Schrödinger Equations of Quantum Universes

It was hypothesized that all immutable laws of physics, including the Schrödinger equation, applied to quantum universes.
Laws of physics for quantum universes were found by replacing the classical physical constants in physical laws of our
known quantum universe with the appropriate physical constants of quantum universes. In this manner the nonrelativistic
Schrödinger equations of quantum universes were found by replacing the classical physical constants in the Schrödinger
equation with physical constants of quantum universes. This method was used liberally throughout the paper to derive other
laws of physics that applied to quantum universes. It should be noted that when this was done for any immutable physical law
the results were consistent.
The time-dependent Schrödinger equation [3] is usually given as a postulate of quantum theory.


i  (r , t )  Hˆ  (r , t )
t 1919\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where the imaginary unit is i , a partial derivative with respect to time is indicated by ∂ /∂ t , the Hamiltonian is Ĥ, the wave
function is ψ (r , t ), the radius of a wave function is r, and time is t.
Time-dependent Schrödinger equations for quantum universes were also given as a postulate when ħ, ψ (r , t ), Ĥ were
replaced with ℏ k Error: Reference source not found, ψ k (r , t), Ĥk.

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 
 k (r , t )  Hˆ k k (r , t )
i k
t 2020\* MERGEFORMAT ()
where reduced Planck’s constants in quantum universes were ℏ k, wave functions in quantum universes were ψ k (r , t), and
Hamiltonians in quantum universes were Ĥk. These Schrödinger equations are entirely general, and can be theoretically
solved for quantum systems of quantum universes.
The preceding equations were expanded into three-dimensional time-dependent Schrödinger equations for one electron
quantum systems.
  2
i k  k (r , t )   k  2 k (r , t )  Vk (r , t ) k (r , t )
t 2mek 2121\* MERGEFORMAT ()
where the Laplacian was ∇ , rest masses of electrons in quantum universes were m ek Error: Reference source not found, and
2

electrostatic potential energies of one electron quantum systems in quantum universes were V K (r , t). They described how
quantum universe quantum states evolved over time. While Eq. Error: Reference source not found was written for a one
electron quantum system it could have been written for more complex quantum systems.
Physical constants Eqs. Error: Reference source not found, Error: Reference source not found were inserted into Eq.
Error: Reference source not found to put it in terms of physical constants of our known quantum universe that gave
 4 k 
2
i   k (r , t )  
k
 2 k (r , t )  Vk (r , t ) k (r , t )
t 2me . 2222\* MERGEFORMAT ()
These were three-dimensional time-dependent Schrödinger equations of quantum universes for one electron quantum systems
in terms of classical physical constants.
Now ψ k (r , t) was written as the product of ψ k (r ) and f k (t ). Eq. Error: Reference source not found was written as
df k (t )  2 2 
 k (r )i  k   f k (t )   4 k   Vk (r )  k (r )
dt  2me  2323\* MERGEFORMAT ()
where the functions of time in quantum universes were f k (t ), time-independent wave functions in quantum universes were
ψ k (r ), and the time-independent electrostatic potential energies of a one electron quantum system in quantum universes
were V k (r ).
Then variables were separated that gave
i  k  df k (t ) 1  4 k  2 2 
     Vk (r )  k ( r )
f k (t ) dt  k (r )  2me  . 2424\* MERGEFORMAT ()

The left-hand sides of Eq. Error: Reference source not found were only a function of time and the right-hand sides were only
a function of r. This was because both sides were equal to the same constants. Because the right-hand sides of Eq. Error:
Reference source not found had the units of energy, the constants (that were total energy eigenvalues) were designated Ek .
The right-hand sides of Eq. Error: Reference source not found now became ordinary differential equations.

2 2
 4 k   k (r )  Vk (r ) k (r )  Ek k (r )
2me 2525\* MERGEFORMAT ()
where the total energy eigenvalues in quantum universes were Ek . The latter equations were time-independent Schrödinger
equations of quantum universes, of one electron quantum systems, in terms of classical physical constants and rectangular
coordinates.

10
4 Wave functions and properties of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes

Time-independent Schrödinger equations Error: Reference source not found for the hydrogen atom (a one electron quantum
system) in quantum universes were converted into polar coordinates;

 2 1    2  k  r   1    k  r   1  k  r 
2

  sin    Vk (r ) k  r 
4 k
 r  
2me r 2  r  r  sin      sin 2   2 
 Ek k  r 
2626\*
MERGEFORMAT ()
where the polar coordinates were r , θ , ∅ . These Schrödinger equations for the hydrogen atom assumed that the protons were
at fixed positions (the Born-Oppenheimer approximation [4]). Slightly more accurate solutions resulted when the protons
were taken into account where the rest masses of the protons were given by Eq. Error: Reference source not found .
Electrostatic potential energies for the hydrogen atom in quantum universes were found by inserting elementary charges
e k Error: Reference source not found into the formula for potential energies.
3
 k
e2 ( 2 e)2
Vk ( r )   k  
r r . 2727\* MERGEFORMAT ()
Then V k (r ) were substituted into Eq. Error: Reference source not found that gave

 2 1    2  k  r   1    k  r   1  k  r 
2 2
3 k e
 4 k  r   sin       k  r
2me r 2  r  r  sin      sin  
2 2
 r
 Ek k  r  .
2828\*
MERGEFORMAT ()

These were nonrelativistic time-independent Schrödinger equations for the hydrogen atom in quantum universes, in terms of
classical physical constants, that were solved to find the radial wave functions and spherical harmonics of the hydrogen atom
in quantum universes.
Wave functions ψ k (r ) were factored into R ( r )(k ) nl Y ml (θ , ∅), where R(r )( k ) nl were radial wave functions in quantum
m
universes and Y l (θ , ∅) were spherical harmonics. Here universe k, principal n, azimuthal l, and magnetic m were quantum
numbers.
Radial wave functions R(r )( k ) nl then obeyed

 2 1  d  2 dR(r )( k ) nl   3 k e
2
 4 k  r   l (l  1) R ( r ) ( k ) nl    R (r )( k ) nl  Ek R (r ) ( k ) nl
2me r 2  dr  dr   r
. 2929\*
MERGEFORMAT ()
The latter equations were radial type equations for the hydrogen atom for quantum universes in terms of classical physical
constants.
Analytically solving Eq. Error: Reference source not found for the radial wave functions R(r )( k ) nl of the hydrogen atom
in quantum universes could be very difficult and laborious. However, this was not necessary. The method of replacing a
physical constant of our known quantum universe with the physical constants of quantum universes was used to find the
radial wave functions R(r )( k ) nl of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes. The radial wave function R(r )nl [5] of the
hydrogen atom in our known quantum universe is

11
 3 1

 2  2  ( n  l  1)!   nr 2 l
 2r  2l 1  2r 
R( r ) nl      e 0   Ln l 1  
 na0   2n  (n  l )! 3  na
 0  na0 
  3030\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where Bohr radius in our known quantum universe is a 0 Error: Reference source not found and the functions
L2n−l−1
l+1
(2 r /n a0 ) are the associated Laguerre polynomials of degree n-l-1. The radial wave functions R(r )(k)nl of the
hydrogen atom in quantum universes were found by replacing the physical constant, the Bohr radius a 0 Error: Reference
source not found of our known quantum universe, with the physical constants, the Bohr radii a k Error: Reference source not
found of quantum universes. Then

3 1

 2   (n  l  1)!  2  nak  2r  2l 1  2r 
r l
2
R(r ) ( k ) nl      e   Ln l 1  
 nak   2n  (n  l )! 
3
 nak   nak 
3131\* MERGEFORMAT ()
where Bohr radii in quantum universes were a k Error: Reference source not found. Eq. Error: Reference source not found
were the radial wave functions of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes R(r )(k)nl.
The associated Laguerre polynomials were obtained according to the following formula:
i
 2r 
(  1) [( n 
i
l )!]  
2

2 l 1  2r  nak 
n l 1

Ln l 1   
 nak  i 0 i !(n  l  1  i )!(2l  1  i )! . 3232\* MERGEFORMAT ()
The total energy eigenvalue E [6] of the hydrogen atom is
me e 4
E
2 2 n 2 . 3333\* MERGEFORMAT ()
Discrete total energy eigenvalues Ek of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes from Eqs. Error: Reference source not
found, Error: Reference source not found, Error: Reference source not found were
3

m e4 ( 2 k me )( 2 e) 4  2 k me e 4
Ek   ek 2 k 2    
2 k n 2(  k )2 n2 2 2 n 2 . 3434\* MERGEFORMAT ()
4
The term e was replaced by its equivalent from the fine structure constant Eq. Error: Reference source not found that gave
me c 2
Ek   2 2 k

2n 2 . 3535\* MERGEFORMAT ()

Table 5. shows the total energy eigenvalues Ek ; allowed energy levels of the of the ground state of the hydrogen atom in
quantum universes.

Table 5. Calculated approximate values of allowed energy levels for the ground state of the hydrogen atom in quantum
universes.

Universe k Ek Energy level

me c 2
−1.69 ×1018 eV
−6
4 −α
2
12
2
−4 m e c
3 −α −8.99 ×1013 eV
2
 The left-hand sides of Eq. Error: Reference source not found were other ordinary differential equations for the hydrogen
atom in quantum universes where the independent variable was time. This gave
1 df k (t ) E
 i k k
f k (t ) dt  . 3636\* MERGEFORMAT ()

These equations were solved to yield

Ek
 i k t
f k (t )  e 
. 3737\* MERGEFORMAT ()
Substituting Ek Error: Reference source not found into f k (t ) Error: Reference source not found gave f k (t ) for the hydrogen
atom.
me c 2
  2 2 k
2 n2 t me c 2
 i k i 2k t
f k (t )  e 
e 2 n 2
. 3838\* MERGEFORMAT ()

From above, the wave functions ψ k (r ) were the product of R(r )( k ) nl and Y ml (θ , ∅). From Sect. 3., the wavefunctions of
the hydrogen atoms in quantum universes ψ k (r , t) were the product of ψ k (r ) and f k (t ). Thus, ψ k (r , t) in terms of its
m
three factors R(r )( k ) nl Error: Reference source not found, Y l (θ , ∅), f k (t ) Error: Reference source not found were

3 1

 2   (n  l  1)!  2  nak
r l mc 2
2  2r  2l 1  2r  m i 2k e 2 t
 k (r , t )      e   Ln l 1   Yl ( ,  )e
2 n

 nak   2n  (n  l )! 
3
 nak   nak 
. 3939\*
MERGEFORMAT ()

Eq. Error: Reference source not found were the wavefunctions of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes ψ k (r , t). The
only difference between the wave functions for the hydrogen atom of quantum universes ψ k (r , t) Error: Reference source
not found and the wave function for the hydrogen atom in our known quantum universe ψ (r , t) was that zero was k and a 0
was a k . Thus, universe k, principal n, azimuthal l, and magnetic m quantum numbers gave acceptable solutions to
Schrödinger equations for the hydrogen atom in all quantum universes. And, the quantum numbers of quantum universes met
the same definition as the quantum numbers of our known quantum universe.
Conservation of energy says, the energy of a particle is equal to its kinetic energy plus its potential energy. In other words,
the kinetic energy plus the electrostatic potential energy of the electron of the hydrogen atom is equal to its total energy
eigenvalue where the potential energy and total energy eigenvalue are negative. And, total energy eigenvalues are equal to
one half potential energies for the hydrogen atom. This means that the total energy eigenvalues except for sign were equal to
the rotational kinetic energies of the electron of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes. This was true whether the electron
orbital was circular or not (consequence of the virial theorem [7]). Thus, it was hypothesized that for the hydrogen atom the
absolute values of total energy eigenvalues Ek were equal to rotational kinetic energies of the electron in quantum universes.

Ek  12 mek vk 2
4040\* MERGEFORMAT ()
where Ek were discrete total energy eigenvalues of the hydrogen atom of quantum universes, discrete masses of the electron
of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes were m ek , and discrete tangential velocities of the electron of the hydrogen atom
in quantum universes were v k. Solving for v k gave

13
 2 Ek 2 Ek
vk    k
mek me
. 4141\* MERGEFORMAT ()
Substituting total energy eigenvalues Error: Reference source not found into Eq. Error: Reference source not found gave
me c 2
2( 2 2 k ) 2
vk    k 2n 2    k  2 2 k c   1 2 k c
me n2 n
. 4242\* MERGEFORMAT ()
The ratio of the discrete tangential velocities of the electron of the hydrogen atom v k Error: Reference source not found to the
discrete speeds of light in a vacuum c k Error: Reference source not found in quantum universes were
vk  12 k c 
 
ck  2 k cn n . 4343\* MERGEFORMAT ()
Thus, the ratio of the tangential velocities of the electron of the hydrogen atom to the speeds of light in a vacuum were α
divided by the principal quantum number n for all quantum numbers in all quantum universes.
From Eq. Error: Reference source not found discrete angular frequencies of the wave function of the hydrogen atom in
quantum universes were
me c 2
k    2  k
2 n 2 4444\* MERGEFORMAT ()
where the discrete angular frequencies of the wave function of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes were ω k ' . And
discrete ordinary frequencies, from Eq. Error: Reference source not found, of the wave function of the hydrogen atom in
quantum universes, were
me c 2 2  k me c
2
f k   2k  
2 2n 2 2hn2 4545\* MERGEFORMAT ()
where the discrete ordinary frequencies of the wave function of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes were f k ' .
The discrete de Broglie wavelengths [8] of the wavefunction of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes were
hk h
k    k
pk mek vk 4646\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where the discrete de Broglie wavelengths were the wavelengths of the wavefunction of the hydrogen atom in quantum
universes λ k ' and the momentum of the electron of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes was pk . Then m ek was
replaced by its equivalent from a k Error: Reference source not found, ℏ k was replaced by α −k h Error: Reference source not
found, and v k Error: Reference source not found was replaced by its equivalent that gave

 k h h 2 ak ne 2
k    
 2 12 k c 2 c  c
k 2
 2

ak e n ak e n .
Then, because e 2=αℏc Error: Reference source not found, the wavelengths of the wave function of the hydrogen atom in
quantum universes λ k ' were
k   2 ak n . 4747\* MERGEFORMAT ()

14
 It was hypothesized that the wave function of hydrogen atom in quantum universes followed a circular orbit. So, the
discrete radii of the wave function of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes were

rk   ak n 4848\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where the discrete radii of the wave function of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes were r k ' . Then, it was hypothesized
that the electron of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes also followed a circular orbit and the discrete radii of the
electron orbit of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes were the same as the radii of the wave function Eq. Error:
Reference source not found. Thus,

rk  ak n 4949\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where the discrete radii of the electron orbit of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes were r k .
Then the discrete tangential velocities of the electron of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes were

2 rk
vk 
tk 5050\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where the discrete tangential velocities of the electron of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes were v k, and the time
periods for one rotation of the electron orbit of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes were t k . Then, because t k were equal
to one divided by the discrete ordinary frequencies of the electron orbit of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes,

vk  2 rk f k 5151\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where the discrete ordinary frequencies of the electron orbit of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes were f k . Then,

vk
fk 
2 rk . 5252\* MERGEFORMAT ()

Substituting v k Eq. Error: Reference source not found, and r k Eq. Error: Reference source not found into Eq. Error:
Reference source not found the discrete ordinary frequencies of the electron orbit were

 1 2 k c
fk 
n 2 ak n . 5353\* MERGEFORMAT ()

ℏ2 /me e 2 Error: Reference source not found into Eq. Error: Reference source not found and
−k
Now substituting a k =α
e 2=αℏc GOTOBUTTON ZEqnNum767421 ¿ MERGEFORMAT REF ZEqnNum 767421¿ Charformat ¿ ¿ MERGEFOR
into Eq. Error: Reference source not found the discrete ordinary frequencies of the electron orbit became

 1 2 k cmee 2  1 2 k cme c 2  k me c
2
fk    
2 n 2  k  2 2 n 2  k  2 hn2 . 5454\* MERGEFORMAT ()

Thus, the discrete ordinary frequencies of the electron orbit Eq. Error: Reference source not found were twice the discrete
ordinary frequencies of the wave function Eq. Error: Reference source not found of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes.

15
 The discrete tangential velocities of the wave function of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes were

2 rk 
vk    2 ak nf k 
tk  5555\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where the tangential velocities of the wave function of the hydrogen atom of quantum universes were v k ' , the radii of the
wave function in quantum universes were r k ' =ak n Error: Reference source not found, the time periods for one rotation of
the wave function of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes were t k ' , and t k ' were equal to one divided by the discrete
ordinary frequencies f k ' of the wave function orbit of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes,

ℏ2 n/m e e 2 Error: Reference source not found and f 'k =α 2−k me c 2 /2 h n2 Error: Reference source not found
−k
When a k =α
were substituted into Eq. Error: Reference source not found the latter equations became
2  k  2 n  2 k me c 2  2 2 k c 2
vk   
me e 2 2hn 2 2e 2 n . 5656\* MERGEFORMAT ()
When e 2=αℏc Error: Reference source not found was substituted into Eq. Error: Reference source not found the discrete
velocities of the wave function of the hydrogen atom of quantum universes v k ' became
 c
2 2 k 2
c
vk     1 2 k
2 cn 2n . 5757\* MERGEFORMAT ()
Thus, the discrete velocities of the wave function of the hydrogen atom Eq. Error: Reference source not found were half the
discrete velocities of the electron of the hydrogen atom Eq. Error: Reference source not found in quantum universes.
Thus, discrete physical properties; the Bohr radii a k Error: Reference source not found, the velocities of the electron vk
Error: Reference source not found, the ratio of the velocities of the electron to the speeds of light in a vacuum v k /c k Error:
Reference source not found, the ordinary frequencies of the wave function f k ' Error: Reference source not found, the
wavelengths of the wavefunction λ k ' Error: Reference source not found, the radii of the wave function r k ' Error: Reference
source not found, the radii of the electron orbit r k Error: Reference source not found, the ordinary frequencies of the electron
orbit f k Error: Reference source not found, the velocities of the wave function v k ' Error: Reference source not found, of the
hydrogen atom were obtained for all quantum universes.
The wave functions ψ k (r , t) Eq. Error: Reference source not found and properties of the hydrogen atom in quantum
universes were shown to be real. Therefore, wave functions or quantum universe quantum states of all atoms of the chemical
elements were real in quantum universes, by virtue of Schrödinger Eq. Error: Reference source not found for quantum
universes. And therefore, it was realized that quantum universes were possible.
The wave functions ψ k (r , t) Eq. Error: Reference source not found of the hydrogen atoms in quantum universes were
mathematically checked in Subsect. 4.1.

4.1. A Mathematical Check of the Wave Functions of the Hydrogen Atom of Quantum Universes

Only one radial wave function R( k ) nl Eq. Error: Reference source not found could be checked at a time. The radial wave
function R(k)10 (k=k, n=1, l=0), corresponding to the ground state of the hydrogen atom, was selected to be checked. Thus,

16
the wave functions of the ground state of the hydrogen atom of quantum universes ψ (k ) 10m needed to be looked at. These
wave functions were made up of factors R( k ) 10, Y m0 , f k ( t).
Checking the radial wave functions R( k ) 10, determined from the radial wave functions Eq. Error: Reference source not
m
found , were complex. The spherical harmonics Y 0 weren’t checked because they remained unchanged and were not related
to the universe quantum number. The function f k (t ) Error: Reference source not found was checked once for all quantum
numbers.
The ground state radial wave functions R( k ) 10 for the hydrogen atoms were compiled from the radial wave functions Eq.
Error: Reference source not found.
3 1
r r
 2 2  1 2   2r  2   2r 
R(r )( k )10      e ak L10    3 e ak L10  
 ak   2   ak  a 2  ak 
k . 5858\* MERGEFORMAT ()
And, the associated Laguerre polynomial Error: Reference source not found with n=1 and l=0 of degree zero were
0
 2r 
(1) [1!]   0 2

 2r  0
 ak   1
L10  
 nak  i  0 0!(0)!(1)!
. 5959\* MERGEFORMAT ()
Thus, the ground state radial wave functions R( k ) 10 from Eqs. Error: Reference source not found, Error: Reference source not
found were
r

ak
2e
R( k )10  3
ak 2 . 6060\* MERGEFORMAT ()
−k 2 2
Bohr radii a k =α ℏ /m e e Error: Reference source not found were substituted into ground state radial wave functions
R( k ) 10 Error: Reference source not found to put them in terms of classical physical constants.
r
2 r
k 3 3
 2 k
me e2  k me e 2 r
2 me e
k
 2 3
2e 2 2
2
R( k )10  3
 3
e me e
 e 2
3
 
3
 k
 k 2  2
 2 2 2
  me e2
 me e 2 
. 6161\* MERGEFORMAT
()
Then, radial wave functions R( k ) 10 Error: Reference source not found were shown to be solutions of the radial type Eq. Error:
Reference source not found. This was accomplished in three steps. Radial wave function R( k ) 10 Error: Reference source not
found were substituted into the left hand sides of the radial type Eq. Error: Reference source not found to obtain left hand
side expressions. Radial wave functions R( k ) 10 Error: Reference source not found were substituted into the right hand sides of
the radial type Eq. Error: Reference source not found to obtain right hand side expressions. When the two expressions
matched the radial wave functions R( k ) 10 Error: Reference source not found were solutions.
R( k ) 10 Error: Reference source not found were substituted into the left-hand sides of radial type Eq. Error: Reference
source not found that had l equal to zero and the expressions were

17
    32 k 32 3  k mee2r   
 
d  2 me e e 2   
   3   3 3
 1 d  2     k  k me e2 r
3 k e 2 me 2 e3
2 2 2
 4 k 
  
2

2  r 3
e 
2me r  dr  dr  r 
  
  
   . 6262\*
MERGEFORMAT ()
These were simplified. The latter expressions became
   32 k 32 3  k mee2r   
   2 me e e 2   
  d 3   3 3
 4 k  2 1  d  2     2  2 k m 2 e5  k mee2r
 
 e 2

2  r  3
e 
2me r  dr  dr  r
  
  
   . 6363\*
MERGEFORMAT ()
Next the first inner derivatives were evaluated and we had
  5
k
5
 k m e 2 r  
3
 k
3
 k mee 2 r
 4 k  2 1  d  2 2 me 2 e5 2  2e   2 2 me 2 e5
 2 
 re  e 2
2me r dr  5  r3
 
 
 . 6464\* MERGEFORMAT
()
Then the second remaining derivatives were evaluated and the latter expressions became
 5
k
5
k 2
2 5  me e r
7
k
7
 k me e 2r 
3
 k
3
k 2
2 5  me e r
  1  4 me e
4 k 2 2
2 2
m 2 7
e  2 2
m e
  e  r 2

2 e 2 e 2
re  e 
2me r 2  5 7  3r
  . 6565\*
MERGEFORMAT ()
The two terms in the brackets were multiplied by the initial terms and the latter expressions were
3 3 1 5 3 3
 k  k me e 2 r  k  k me e2 r  k  k me e2 r
2 2
me 2 e5  2
me 2 e 7 2 2
me 2 e5
 e 2
 e 2
 e 2
3 r 5  3r . 6666\* MERGEFORMAT
()
Because the first and third terms were equal except for sign, the left-hand sides of radial type Eq. Error: Reference source not
found in terms of classical physical constants were
1 5
 k  k me e2 r
 2
me 2 e7
 e 2
5 . 6767\* MERGEFORMAT ()
Next the right-hand sides of the radial type Eq. Error: Reference source not found were addressed. When R( k ) 10 Error:
Reference source not found and Ek Error: Reference source not found were substituted into the right hand sides of the radial
type Eq. Error: Reference source not found, these expressions became

18
 3 3
k  k me e2 r
me c 2 2 2 me 2 e3
 22 k e 2
2n 2 3 . 6868\* MERGEFORMAT ()
When Eq. Error: Reference source not found was substituted for α we had
3 3
k  k me e 2 r
me e4 2 2 me 2 e3
 2 k
e 2
2 2 n 2
. 3 6969\* MERGEFORMAT ()
When n equaled one and terms were simplified the latter expressions became
1 5
 k  k me e2 r
 2
me 2 e7
 e 2
5 . 7070\* MERGEFORMAT ()
Thus it was seen that the left hand sides of the radial type Eq. Error: Reference source not found, expressions Error:
Reference source not found, matched the right hand sides of the radial type Eq. Error: Reference source not found,
expressions Error: Reference source not found. Therefore, ground state radial wave functions R( k ) 10 Error: Reference source
not found and the total energy eigenvalue Ek Error: Reference source not found of the hydrogen atom were correct for
principal quantum number one, azimuthal quantum number zero, and any universe quantum number.
The functions of time f k (t ) Error: Reference source not found were checked as solutions to their source Eq. Error:
Reference source not found for all quantum numbers. Ek Error: Reference source not found and f k (t ) Error: Reference
source not found were substituted into source Eq. Error: Reference source not found and we had
 i 2k me c 2 t 
2

2
d  e 2 n  2  2 k me c
  
1 2n 2
me c2
 i k
i 2 k
t dt 
2 n 2
e . 7171\* MERGEFORMAT ()
When Eq. Error: Reference source not found was substituted for α in Eq. Error: Reference source not found we had

 i 2 3mne2e t 
k 4

d e 
1     k me e 4
k i
i
 me e4
t dt 2 3 n 2
2 3 n 2
e . 7272\* MERGEFORMAT ()
Derivatives were taken on the left-hand sides of the latter equations and we had
  k me e 4   k me e 4
i  i
2 3 n 2 23 n 2 . 7373\* MERGEFORMAT ()
The left hand sides of Eq. Error: Reference source not found matched the right hand sides and hence f k (t ) Error: Reference
source not found checked for all quantum numbers.
m
It was now shown that ground state wave functions of the hydrogen atom ψ (k ) 10m =R(k ) 10 Y 0 f k (t) were correct for
principal quantum number one, azimuthal quantum number zero, any magnetic quantum number, and any universe quantum
number. This means the wave functions for the ground state of the hydrogen atom ψ k (r , t) Error: Reference source not
found in quantum universes were correct and real. Thus, wave functions or quantum universe quantum states of quantum

19
systems of the chemical elements were real in quantum universes by virtue of the Schrödinger Eq. Error: Reference source
not found. And, it was validated that quantum universes were possible.
In addition, this checked physical constants of quantum universes; the discrete rest masses of electrons m ek Error:
Reference source not found, the discrete speeds of light in a vacuum c k Error: Reference source not found, the discrete
elementary charges of electrons or protons e k Error: Reference source not found, the discrete Bohr radii a k Error: Reference
source not found, the discrete reduced Planck’s constants ℏ k Error: Reference source not found.
Other wave function solutions to Schrödinger equations characterized by greater magnitude principal and azimuthal
quantum numbers were checked and all were found to be valid.

5. Atomic Particle Transitions of Quantum Universes

An atomic particle transition of the hydrogen atom would be a change of the electron, from one energy level to another, along
with a change in the discrete mass and size of the electron and proton. It changes the electron to a vastly different discrete
energy level. An atomic particle transition of the hydrogen atom would produce a hydrogen atom that was a scale model of
its self. It would appear discontinuous as the electron “jumps” from one energy level to another, where the time constant of
the jump would be related to the quantum universe (see Eq. Error: Reference source not found, Sect. 6). An atomic particle
transition of the hydrogen atom would change the universe quantum number, the quantum universe state, and the quantum
universe of the hydrogen atom. One atomic particle transition would jump the hydrogen atom from one quantum universe
quantum state to another quantum universe quantum state.
An atomic particle transition and/or an atomic electron transition of the hydrogen atom would result in the emission or
absorption of a discrete photon. Because total energy needs to be conserved, the discrete energy of a photon emitted or
absorbed would be equal to the difference in total energy eigenvalues from Eq. Error: Reference source not found.
me c 2  22 k f mec 2  2 me c
2   2 k f  2 ki 
Eki / k f   2 2 ki        2  2 
2ni 2  2n f 2  2  n f ni  7474\* MERGEFORMAT
()

where the energy of the photon emitted or absorbed from the electron of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes was Ek /k ,
i f

k i was initial universe quantum number of the atomic particle transition of the hydrogen atom, k f was the final universe
quantum number of the atomic particle transition of the hydrogen atom, k i /k f represents the initial and final universe
quantum number of the atomic particle transition of the hydrogen atom to which something refers, and initial and final values
of k and n were designated by the subscripts i (initial) and f (final). If the energy was positive the photon was emitted and
conversely if the energy was negative the photon was absorbed.
An electron of a hydrogen atom would absorb or emit electromagnetic energy in a discrete packet or photon that had a
definite energy. Table 6. shows the magnitude of the discrete energy of a photon Ek i /k f Eq. Error: Reference source not found
that would be required to be emitted or absorbed when the ground state of the hydrogen atom jumped between quantum
universes.

Table 6. Calculated approximate values of the magnitude of the discrete energy of a photon that would be required to be
emitted or absorbed by the electron of the ground state of the hydrogen atom that jumped between quantum universes.

Universe k Ek / k absorbed /emitted Magnitude of E k / k

i f i f

m e c2
0 /4 1.69 ×1018 eV
−6
α
2
20
me c 2
0 /3 8.99 ×1013 eV
−4
α
2
 The large amount of photon energy emitted when the ground state of the hydrogen atom jumped to a positive quantum
universe, as shown in Table 6, was noted. When the ground state of the hydrogen atom jumped from quantum universe
number zero to quantum universe number one the photon energy emitted by the electron was approximately equal to one half
2
the equivalent energy (as in mass-energy equivalence E=mc 2) of the rest mass of the electron, m e c /2, as shown in Table
6. This photon energy emitted was essentially equal to the magnitude of the allowed energy level of the ground state of the
2
hydrogen atom for quantum universe number one, −m e c /2, as shown in Table 5.
In general, when the ground state of the hydrogen atom would jump to a greater quantum universe number the magnitude
of the final allowed discrete energy level of the electron of the hydrogen atom would be essentially equal to the photon
energy emitted. The greater the jump of the atomic particle transition the greater the energy emitted. When the ground state
of the hydrogen atom would jump to a lessor quantum universe number, the magnitude of the initial discrete allowed energy
level of the electron of the hydrogen atom would be approximately equal to the magnitude of the photon energy absorbed.
Since the photon absorbed or emitted by the electron of the hydrogen atom that jumped between quantum universes
would require a definite energy, the electromagnetic energy of the photon absorbed or emitted must have a definite
wavelength. This wavelength was found from the Planck-Einstein relation E=hν [9] and the wave equation f =c / λ .

hki cki   ki h 2 ki c 2 23ki h

ki / k f   
m c 2   f  2 k i    2 k f  2 ki 
2 k
Eki / k f
 2 e  2  2  me c  2  2 
2  n f ni   n f ni 
7575\* MERGEFORMAT
()

where λ k / k was the wavelength of the photon absorbed or emitted by the electron of the hydrogen atom in quantum universe
i f

k i, h k was Eq. Error: Reference source not found, c k was Eq. Error: Reference source not found, and ¿ Ek /k ∨¿ was the
i i i f

absolute value of the energy of the photon, defined by Eq. Error: Reference source not found, that was absorbed or emitted.
Table 7. shows the discrete wavelength λ k i / k f Eq. Error: Reference source not found of the photon whose energy would be
absorbed or emitted by the electron of the ground state of the hydrogen atom when the hydrogen atom jumped between
quantum universes.

Table 7. Calculated approximate values of the discrete wavelength of the photon whose energy would be absorbed or
emitted by the electron of the ground state of the hydrogen atom that jumped between quantum universes.

Universe k λk /k Wavelength
i f

0 /4 2 α 6 h /me c 7.33 ×10−25 m

0 /3 2 α 4 h/m e c 1.38 ×10−20 m

0 /2 2 α 2 h/me c 2.58 ×10−16 m

0 /1 2 h/m e c 4.85 × 10−12 m

0 /−1 2 α −2 h /me c 9.10 ×10−8 m

21
−1/−2 2 α −1 h /me c 6.64 × 10−10 m
 The discrete wavelength of the photon absorbed or emitted when the ground state of the hydrogen atom jumped between
quantum universe numbers zero and one, of 4.85 × 10−12meters ( 6.19 x 1019 Hz) as shown in Table 7, would be an X-ray.
The discrete wavelength of the photon absorbed or emitted when the ground state of the hydrogen atom jumped between
quantum universes numbers zero and negative one, of 9.10 ×10−8meters (3.30 x 1015 Hz) as shown in Table 7, would be
ultraviolet light.
It was assumed that appropriate relative ultra violet light (see Sect. 7) would be available from stars in greater numbered
quantum universes. Thus, it was assumed that hydrogen would be transitioned naturally, by multiple atomic particle
transitions from greater numbered quantum universes to lessor numbered quantum universes.
It was hypothesized that multiple atomic particle transitions would produce a reaction engine, producing thrust by ejecting
photon mass (see Sect. 7.) rearward, in accordance with Newton's third law. The reaction engine thrust would be used to
propel the vehicle. There would be no exhaust or contrails. There would be no sound coming from the reaction engine. These
propulsion systems operate on hydrogen fuel. Then their only byproduct would be hydrogen transitioned into quantum
universe k f . The concept provides energetic economic ecological electromagnetic energy that propagates at the speed of light
in a vacuum c k i.

Other types of hydrogen photon engines that operate on the principle of atomic particle transitions can be envisioned for
terrestrial and marine applications. For example, one can envision power plant stationary hydrogen photon engines that
provide mechanical energy. This mechanical energy could run generators to generate electrical energy. These hydrogen
photon engines could provide enormous ecological economic radiant energy to provide mechanical energy for different types
of terrestrial and marine applications.
Electrons in atoms and molecules of quantum universe quantum states can make atomic particle transitions in quantum
universe energy levels by emitting or absorbing photons of electromagnetic radiation, whose energy must be exactly equal to
the energy difference between two quantum universe levels.
Using the multiple simultaneous atomic particle transitions concept, an advanced civilization might have mastered the
technology to transition atoms, quantum systems, and physical systems between quantum universe quantum states. This
would provide them with the advantages of velocity in quantum universe quantum states described by Eq. Error: Reference
source not found and acceleration in quantum universe quantum states described by Eq. Error: Reference source not found
(see Sect. 6).
In other words, UFOs probably come from planets where UFOs can transition between quantum universe quantum states
by multiple simultaneous atomic particle transitions. Once it was possible to transition the UFO up or down one quantum
universe quantum state it would automatically be possible to transition the UFO up or down to the next quantum universe
quantum state. This happens because what works in one quantum universe quantum state, works relatively the same in
another quantum universe quantum state. And this would allow UFOs to operate in any quantum universe quantum state up
to the speed of light in a vacuum c k .
Thus, atomic particle transitions would be as real as atomic electron transitions. Therefore, it was emphasized that
quantum universes were possible. And, it was assumed that quantum universes were probable.

6. Physical Laws of Quantum Universes

From Eqs. Error: Reference source not found, Error: Reference source not found and the fact that velocities are displacements
divided by the corresponding time periods, the following equations were written for quantum universes:

xk   k x   k x
tk   2 k    k t
vk  v  2 k x
t 7676\* MERGEFORMAT ()

22
where discrete time periods in quantum universes were ∆ t k and the time period in our known quantum universe was ∆ t .
This was interpreted to mean that a time period depended on the particular universe quantum number of the physical system
involved. In other words, a time period, as demonstrated by the time between ticks of a clock was determined by the universe
quantum number of the physical system of the clock. A positive universe quantum number would hasten time and a negative
universe quantum number would dilate time in a discrete manner. Thus, it would seem logical that the greater the quantum
universe number the older the quantum universe and the lessor the quantum universe number the newer the quantum
universe.
Frequency is one divided by the time period. Thus, discrete frequencies of quantum universes were

1 1 1
fk   k   k   k f
tk  t t 7777\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where discrete frequencies of quantum universes were f k , and frequency in our known quantum universe was f. Discrete
frequencies would jump significantly between quantum universes. This would account for the significantly different discrete
time periods in quantum universes.
Acceleration is the derivative of velocity; thus, substituting Eq. Error: Reference source not found and the equivalent
from Eq, Error: Reference source not found gave

d d d
ak  vk  k  2 k v   3k v
dtk  dt dt 7878\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where accelerations in quantum universes were a k . Acceleration of quantum universe states of quantum universe quantum
systems increases exponentially with greater universe quantum numbers.

Atomic density of matter is mass per unit volume; thus, substituting Eqs. Error: Reference source not found, Error:
Reference source not found gave

mk  2k m
k   3k 3   5 k 
Vk  x 7979\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where discrete atomic densities in quantum universes were ρk , atomic density in our known quantum universe was ρ, and
discrete volumes in quantum universes were V k . This is a huge factor between quantum universes.
When masses of matter Error: Reference source not found and the speeds of light in a vacuum Error: Reference source not
found in quantum universes were substituted into the equations for mass-energy equivalence [10] in quantum universes,

Ek  mk ck 2   2 k m( 2 k c) 2   2 k mc 2 8080\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where discrete equivalent energies of particles in quantum universes were Ek , Thus, a particle of a greater universe quantum
number had less discrete mass but more discrete equivalent energy. Particles of a lesser universe quantum number had more
discrete mass but less discrete equivalent energy.

7. Electromagnetic Waves and Photons of Quantum Universes

23
Discrete ordinary frequencies of electromagnetic waves and photons in quantum universes were given by f k =α −k f Error:
Reference source not found. It was hypothesized that the electromagnetic waves with discrete ordinary frequencies f k were
of the same nature as the electromagnetic waves with ordinary frequency f. The “same nature” meant that if an
electromagnetic wave with ordinary frequency f exhibited properties like those of a radio wave, light wave, microwave, X-
ray, or gamma ray then the electromagnetic waves with discrete ordinary frequencies f k exhibited the same properties in its
own quantum universe. Thus, it would be that interactions of electromagnetic waves and quantum systems were relatively
similar no matter which quantum universe you were in except for time.
When Eqs. Error: Reference source not found, Error: Reference source not found were substituted into the wave equation
for quantum universes we had

ck  2k c
k     k 
fk  k f 8181\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where discrete wavelengths of the electromagnetic wave in quantum universes were λ k , and the wavelength of an
electromagnetic wave in our known quantum universe was λ. This was the electromagnetic wave equation for quantum
universes. It was hypothesized that electromagnetic waves and photons of quantum universes, related by the fine structure
constant to other physical properties besides frequency, were of the same nature. Thus, the electromagnetic waves of
quantum universes with discrete wavelengths λ k would be of the same nature as the electromagnetic waves of our known
quantum universe with wavelength λ.
A photon has no rest mass but a photon was hypothesized to have mass due to its propagation velocity. It was
2k
hypothesized in quantum universes that the masses of photons m phok in quantum universes equaled α m pho in quantum
universes, the same as masses of subatomic particles in quantum universes Error: Reference source not found. Thus,

m phok   2k m pho
8282\* MERGEFORMAT ()
where discrete masses of photons in quantum universes were phok and the mass of a photon was m pho in our known
m
quantum universe.

And, it was hypothesized that the momentum of a photon was the same as the momentum of a subatomic particle; that
was equal to its mass multiplied by its velocity. Then, substituting Eq. Error: Reference source not found into Eq. Error:
Reference source not found pk , a corollary to equations for the momentum of a photon in quantum universes
pk =E K /c k = p, derived from the rearranged energy-momentum relation [11] for quantum universes that had zero rest mass
was

pk  m phok ck   2 k m pho 2 k c  m pho c  p

8383\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where momentum of photons in quantum universes were pk , momentum of a photon in our known quantum universe was p,
and discrete energy of photons in quantum universes were Ek . Thus, photons of the same nature would be of the same
momentum and vice versa.
Eq. Error: Reference source not found was substituted into the energy-momentum relation [12] for quantum universes that
had zero rest mass, that gave

Ek  pk ck  m phok ck 2   2 k m pho ( 2 k c ) 2   2 k m pho c 2   2 k E

8484\* MERGEFORMAT ()

24
where discrete energy of photons in quantum universes were Ek and energy of a photon in our known quantum universe was
2
E. Thus, were the equations Ek =m phok c Error: Reference source not found for photons symbolically the same as
k
2
Ek =mk c Error: Reference source not found for particles. The photons of quantum universes with discrete energies Ek
k
would be of the same nature as a photon of our known quantum universe with energy E.
Formulas for masses of photons in quantum universes, were found by equating Eq. Error: Reference source not found,
immediately above, to the Planck-Einstein relation E=h υ[13] in quantum universes. Thus,

hk f k   k h  k f hf
m phok  2    2 k 2   2 k m pho
ck  c 4 k 2
c 8585\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where frequency was υ , discrete frequencies in quantum universes were f k , and frequency in our known quantum universe
was f . Thus, photons of quantum universes with discrete masses m phok would be of the same nature as the photons of our
known quantum universe with masses m pho.
It was assumed that a photon reaction engine, that runs on hydrogen, could be obtained in quantum universes by
harnessing the energy of photons emitted from the electrons of hydrogen atoms during multiple atomic particle transitions.
Substituting the absolute value of Ek i /k f Eq. Error: Reference source not found into the rearranged Planck-Einstein
relation [14] in quantum universes, the frequency f k / k of emitted or absorbed photons of atomic particle transitions of the
i f

hydrogen atom in quantum universes was

Eki / k f Eki / k f me c 2   2 k f  2 ki 
f ki / k f    ki
  2 ki  2  2 
hki  h 2h  n f ni  8686\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where the frequencyf k / k was also the frequency of photons being emitted from the hydrogen photon reaction engine for one
i f

second in quantum universe k i. Only emitted photons of the electron of the ground state of the hydrogen atom are significant
for hydrogen photon engine applications.
Newton’s second law of motion is F=ma . The equation for thrust of a hydrogen photon reaction engine in quantum
universes was derived from this law. Thus,

f ki / k f m phoki f ki / k f Dki m phoki Dki

Tki / k f  Fki / k f  M phoki aki  2
  m phoki vki  m phoki cki
( f ki / k f tki ) t ki t ki
8787\*
MERGEFORMAT ()

where T k i / k f was the thrust caused by a stream of photons emitted from the photon reaction engine, at frequency f k / k , for
i f

one second in quantum universe k i, F k / k was the total force caused by a stream of photons emitted from the photon reaction
i f

engine, at frequency f k / k , for one second in quantum universe k i, M phok was the total photon mass emitted by the reaction
i f i

engine in one second in quantum universe k i, a k was the hypothetical acceleration of the photons being emitted from the
i

reaction engine in quantum universe k i, m phok was the mass of a single photon being used in the reaction engine in quantum
i

universe k i, D k was the distance a single emitted photon would radiate during one rotation of the electron of the hydrogen
i

atom in quantum universe k i, t k was the reciprocal of f k / k ; equal to the time period for one photon to be emitted from the
i i f

reaction engine in quantum universe k i, ṁ pho k was the mass flow rate of photons being emitted from the reaction engine at
i

25
frequency f k / k for one second in quantum universe k i, and v k was the velocity of photons emitted from the reaction engine
i f i

in quantum universe k i that was equal to the speed of light in a vacuum c k . i

From Eq. Error: Reference source not found the mass flow rate of the photons being emitted from the reaction engine in
quantum universes was

m phoki
m phoki   m phoki f ki / k f
tki
8888\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where the time period t k i was equal to one divided by the frequencyf k / k of the emitted photons for one second in quantum
i f

universe k i. Substituting Eq. Error: Reference source not found m phok and Eq. Error: Reference source not found f k / k into i f

Eq. Error: Reference source not found, the mass flow rate of photons emitted from the reaction engine was

hf ki / k f 2  ki me c 2   2 k f  2 ki  2 3k
f ki / k f me   2 k f  2 ki 
m phoki   2 ki
  2  2   i  2  2 
c2 2h  n f ni  2  n f ni 
. 8989\*
MERGEFORMAT ()

Substituting Eq. Error: Reference source not found f k / k into Eq. Error: Reference source not found, the mass flow rate
i f

ṁ pho k of the photons emitted from the reaction engine was

i

2  ki me c 2   2 k f  2 ki 
  2  2  me 2
2  3 ki
2h  n f ni    2 k f  2 ki  2 2  2 k f
4  4 ki me c   2 ki 
m phoki    2  2     2 
2  n f ni  4h  n f 2 ni 
. 9090\*
MERGEFORMAT ()

Substituting Eq. Error: Reference source not found ṁ pho k iand Eq. Error: Reference source not found c k i into Eq. Error:
Reference source not found T k i / k f the hydrogen photon reaction engine thrust was

2 2
4  4 ki me 2 c 2   2 k f  2 ki  2 k 2 3  2 k f
4  2 ki me c   2 ki 
Tki / k f    2  2   i
c     
4h  n f ni  4h  n f 2 ni 2  9191\*
MERGEFORMAT ()

where T k i / k f was the thrust caused by a stream of photons emitted from the hydrogen photon reaction engine, at frequency
f k / k , for one second in quantum universe k i,. The number f k / k would be the number of hydrogen atoms transitioned in one
i f i f

second to obtain the thrust generated for one second in quantum universe k i. Multiple atomic particle transitions of greater
than one universe quantum number will give exponentially more thrust from the same hydrogen.
Power is work divided by time. Work is force multiplied by distance. Distance divided by time is velocity. Thrust has the
same units as force. Thus, the power of the hydrogen photon reaction engine Pk /k for one second was
i f

26
 Wki / k f Fki / k f f k / k Dki
Pki / k f   i f
 Fki / k f vki  Tki / k f cki
f k / k t ki f k / k t ki
i f i f
9292\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where Pk /k was the power of the hydrogen photon reaction engine streaming photons, at frequency f k / k , for one second in
i f i f

quantum universe k i and W k /k was the total work done by the photon reaction engine streaming photons, at frequency f k / k ,
i f i f

for one second in quantum universe k i. Then substituting Eq. Error: Reference source not found T k i / k f and Eq. Error:
Reference source not found c k i into Eq. Error: Reference source not found, the power of a hydrogen photon reaction engine
was

2 2
4  2 ki me 2c 3   2 k f  2 ki  2 k 2 4  2 k f
4 me c   2 ki 
Pki / k f    2  2   c  i
  2 
4h  n f ni  4h  n f 2 ni 
. 9393\*
MERGEFORMAT ()

The number f k / k would be the number of hydrogen atoms transitioned in one second to obtain the power generated for one
i f

second Pk /k in quantum universe k i. Multiple atomic particle transitions of greater than one universe quantum number will
i f

give exponentially more power from the same amount of hydrogen.

Eq. Error: Reference source not found derives the power P0 /2. Thus,

2
m 2c 4   2 k f  2 ki  2 4
4 me c 2
P0/2   4 e  2  2    4  1
4h  n f ni  4h
9494\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where, the power generated for one second in our known quantum universe, of the hydrogen photon reaction engine,
streaming photons at frequency f 0/ 2 was P0 /2, the hydrogen atoms were in the ground state, k i was zero, and k f was two.
The frequency f 0/ 2 would be from Eq. Error: Reference source not found,

mec 2   2 k f  2 ki  2 me c
2
f 0/2   2 ki  2  2     4  1
2h  n f ni  2h
9595\* MERGEFORMAT ()

Where, f 0/ 2 would be the number of hydrogen atoms transitioned for one second in our known quantum universe by the
hydrogen photon reaction engine to obtain the power P0 /2, the hydrogen atoms were in the ground state, k i was zero, and k f
was two. This frequency from Eq. Error: Reference source not found would be essentially f 0/ 2=α −2 m e c 2 /2 h . Numerically
it would be approximately f 0/ 2=( 137)2 x (9.11 x 10−31 kg) x ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ Hz.
Then the mass of hydrogen atoms needed to generate 3.15 x 1013 watts for one minute by this photon reaction engine
was calculated. This is the power required to be generated during takeoff by a Boeing 737-300.
It would take approximately f 0/ 2=1.16 x 1024 hydrogen atoms to generate for one second, the power P0 /2 from Eq.
Error: Reference source not found, that was approximately the power P0 /2=α −4 me 2 c 4 /4 h. This power numerically would
be approximately P0 /2=(137)4 x (9.11 x 10−31 kg)2 x ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ 8.93 x 1014 watts for one second.

27
 To generate 3.15 x 1013 watts of power for one second you would need approximately
24
3.15 x 1013 /8.93 x 1014 =3.53 x 10−2 multiplied by f 0/ 2=1.16 x 10 equal to 4.09 x 1022 hydrogen atoms to be
transitioned in one second of time.
In one gram of hydrogen there are 6.02 x 1023 atoms. So 4.09 x 1022 /6.02 x 1023 equals approximately 6.80 x 10−2
grams per second of hydrogen that would be needed to generate 3.15 x 1013 watts of power for one second. Then
approximately 60 x 6.80 x 10−2=4.08 grams of hydrogen would be required to power a Boeing 737-300 during takeoff for
one minute where the hydrogen atoms were in the ground state, k i was zero, and k f was two.
This photon reaction engine would not leave exhaust, carbon dioxide, or a contrail in our atmosphere. Nor would there be
any audio sounds coming from this reaction engine.
Each quantum universe would generate its own discrete incompatible frequencies, wavelengths, and propagation
velocities of light and electromagnetic waves. Thus, it would be that light waves that impinged on another quantum universe
would be so different that they probably couldn’t be recognized. Also, it was assumed that quantum universes would be
invisible to each other because of their drastically different atomic densities and the fact that they wouldn’t reflect or emit
each other’s light.
The mass of photons of the same nature, would discretely vary greatly between quantum universes. This would account
for the large discrete shifts, in speeds of light in a vacuum c k and the propagation velocities of electromagnetic waves in
quantum universes.

8. Consequences of Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity in Quantum Universes

The following would be a few significant consequences of Albert Einstein’s special theory of relativity [15] in quantum
universes:
Lorentz factors in quantum universes were found by substituting instantaneous velocities Error: Reference source not
found and speeds of light in a vacuum Error: Reference source not found into the formula for the Lorentz factor [16].

1 1 1
k    
1  vk 2 / ck 2 1  ( 2 k v) 2 / ( 2 k c) 2 1  v2 / c2
9696\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where Lorentz factors in quantum universes were γ k and the Lorentz factor in our known quantum universe was γ . Thus, the
Lorentz factor would be a dimensionless physical factor that would not depend on the universe quantum number. This means
that if a moving physical object underwent a change in its universe quantum number or multiple simultaneous atomic particle
transitions, its Lorentz factor would remain the same.
The equation for relativistic mass-energy equivalence is given from Albert Einstein’s special theory of relativity as,

1
E  mrel c 2  mc 2   mc 2
2
v
1
c2 9797\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where E is the relativistic equivalent energy of a particle and m rel is the relativistic mass of a particle. Relativistic mass of a
particle from equation Error: Reference source not found is

28
 1
mrel  m m
v2
1 2
c . 9898\* MERGEFORMAT ()

Substituting Eqs. Error: Reference source not found, Error: Reference source not found, Error: Reference source not found
into Eq. Error: Reference source not found, relativistic mass-energy equivalence in quantum universes were

1
Ek   k mk ck 2   2 k m( 2 k c ) 2   2 k  mc 2   2 k mc 2
1 v / c
2 2
9999\* MERGEFORMAT
()

where E K were discrete relativistic equivalent energy of a particle in quantum universes. Thus, velocity of a particle in a
quantum universe would be limited to below the speed of light in a vacuum for its universe quantum number. This would be
because the energy required for a particle to reach the speed of light in a vacuum c k , for any universe quantum number k ,
from Eq. Error: Reference source not found, would be infinite.
Relativistic time dilation indicates that, for an observer in an inertial frame of reference, a clock that is moving relative to
them will measure a difference in elapsed time less than a clock that is at rest in its frame of reference. When time periods of
quantum universes Error: Reference source not found were inserted for a classical time period the concept of relativistic, time
dilation (∆ t '=γ ∆ t ), was written in quantum universes as

tk   tk   k t 100100\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where discrete relativistic time periods in quantum universes, for physical objects traveling at nonzero velocities in quantum
universes, were ∆ t k ' . Relativistic time in quantum universes would be dilated or hastened in a discrete manner. It was
hypothesized that time would be a property of a quantum system where a quantum universe relativistic time period was
related to the electron orbital frequencies of the atoms of the quantum system.
Relativistic length contraction is the phenomenon where the length of a moving object undergoes a contraction along the
dimension of motion as seen from the stationary reference frame. When displacements in quantum universes Δx kEq. Error:
Reference source not found were substituted for the classical displacement Δx the concept of relativistic, length contraction (
∆ x '=∆ x /γ ), was written in quantum universes as

xk x
xk     k
  101101\* MERGEFORMAT ()
where discrete relativistic lengths along the dimension of motion in quantum universes, of objects traveling at nonzero
velocities in quantum universes, were Δ x k ' . Thus, relativistic length in quantum universes would be contracted or extended
in a discrete manner between quantum universes. But it was believed, as shown in the next paragraph, that length contraction
was part of size contraction.
The relativistic mass of the electron would be, from Eq. Error: Reference source not found,
merel   me 102102\* MERGEFORMAT ()
where the relativistic mass of an electron is m erel . The equations developing the properties of the hydrogen atom in quantum
universes were nonrelativistic. But the hypothesis was made that if the relativistic mass of subatomic particles was used
rather than the rest mass, Eq. Error: Reference source not found would be relativistic in quantum universes. Thus, substituting

29
the relativistic mass of the electron Eq. Error: Reference source not found m erel into Eq. Error: Reference source not found
and substituting Eq. Error: Reference source not found into Eq. Error: Reference source not found we had
rrelk    k  2 n /  me e2 103103\* MERGEFORMAT ()
where the relativistic discrete radii of the electron orbit of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes were r relk . It was
hypothesized from Eq. Error: Reference source not found that relativistic radii of atoms in quantum universes were
rrelk    k r /  104104\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where ṙ relk were relativistic radii, from the nucleus to an electron, of atoms in quantum universes and ṙ was the same radius
with the atom at rest, from the nucleus to an electron, of an atom in quantum universes. It was hypothesized that atoms of
quantum universes would remain scale models of themselves under relativistic conditions. Thus, relativistic radii of atoms in
quantum universes were

rrelk    k r / 
105105\* MERGEFORMAT ()

where r̈ relk were relativistic radii of atoms in quantum universes and r̈ was a radius of an atom at rest in quantum universes.
It was seen, from Eq. Error: Reference source not found, that relativistic radii of atoms in quantum universes could cause
relativistic continuous size contraction or quantum universe discrete size inflation of physical systems in quantum universes.
Thus, when α −k /γ from Eq. Error: Reference source not found equaled one there would be no change in the shape or size of
a physical system that traveled way beyond the speed of light in a vacuum c . And, if α −k /γ from Eq. Error: Reference
source not found equaled one, then α k γ from Eq. Error: Reference source not found would equal one, and there would be no
change in the shape, size, or time of the physical system that traveled way beyond the speed of light in a vacuum c .

9. Conclusions

In summary, this work has provided the first plausible theory of possible multiple universes named quantum universes.
Limitless quantum universes would comprise everything that exists; the entirety of space, matter, energy, time, and the
physical constants and laws that describe them. Each quantum universe would be made up entirely and exclusively of its own
discrete quantum universe quantum states of quantum systems.
It is concluded that there could be physical objects, with mass, in the vacuum of space, that could travel faster than the
speed of light in a vacuum c, that do not violate the theory of special relativity. However, the velocity for a physical object is
limited to below the speed of light in a vacuum c k . Discrete speeds of light in a vacuum increase with greater universe
quantum numbers, and decrease with lessor universe quantum numbers. The relative velocity of a particle or photon in
quantum universes is commensurate with its relative mass in quantum universes.
∂
It is concluded that Schrödinger equations of quantum universes i ℏk ψ ( r , t )= ^
H k ψ k (r , t)can theoretically solve
∂t k
quantum systems of quantum universes. Discrete wave functions and discrete properties of the hydrogen atom in quantum
universes, were analytically derived. The wave functions of the hydrogen atom of quantum universes were shown to be valid,
by a mathematical check of the ground state of the hydrogen atom in quantum universes.
It is concluded that time periods in quantum universes depend on the universe quantum number. Positive universe
quantum numbers are associated with the discrete hastening of time, and negative universe quantum numbers are associated
with the discrete dilation of time.

30
 The hydrogen atom can be transitioned between quantum universe quantum states by a single atomic particle transition.
After the transition, the hydrogen atom is a scale model of its self. In this process a photon is emitted or absorbed whose
energy level, frequency, and wavelength were determined.
The wave equations that relate the wavelength of an electromagnetic wave to its frequency in quantum universes were
determined.
Powerful ecological economic hydrogen photon engines are theoretically possible that operate on the principle of multiple
atomic particle transitions.

Acknowledgements

Not applicable

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