INTRODUCTION TO OPERATING SYSTEM

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 What is an Operating System?
 Computer-System Organization

 Operating-System Structure

 Operating-System Operations

 Process Management

 Computing Environments

 Open-Source Operating Systems

 Computer-System Architecture
OBJECTIVES
 To describe the basic organization of computer
systems
 To provide a grand tour of the major components of
operating systems
 To give an overview of the many types of computing
environments
 To explore several open-source operating systems
WHAT IS AN OPERATING SYSTEM?
 A program that acts as an intermediary between a
user of a computer and the computer hardware
 Operating system goals:
 Execute user programs and make solving user
problems easier
 Make the computer system convenient to use
 Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner
COMPUTER SYSTEM STRUCTURE
 Computer system can be divided into four
components:
 Hardware – provides basic computing resources
 CPU, memory, I/O devices
 Operating system
 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
 Application programs – define the ways in which the
system resources are used to solve the computing
problems of the users
 Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
systems, video games
 Users
 People, machines, other computers
FOUR COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
WHAT OPERATING SYSTEMS DO

 The operating system controls the hardware and

coordinates its use among the various application programs
for the various users.
 We can also view a computer system as consisting of
hardware, software, and data.
 The operating system provides the means for proper use of
these resources in the operation of the computer system.
 An operating system simply provides an environment
within which other programs can do useful work.
 To understand more fully the operating system's role, we
explore operating systems from two viewpoints:
 The user
 The system.
USER VIEW
The user's view of the computer varies according to the
interface being used

 Single user computers (e.g., PC,

workstations). Such systems are designed
for one user to monopolize its resources.
 Ease of use
 Performance efficient.
 Multi user computers (e.g., mainframes,
computing servers). These users share
resources and may exchange information.
The operating system in such cases is
designed to maximize resource utilization --
to assure that all available CPU time,
memory, and I/O are used efficiently.
USER VIEW (CONT.)

 Handheld computers (e.g., smartphones and

tablets). The user interface for mobile
computers generally features a touch screen.
The systems are resource poor, optimized for
usability and battery life.
 Embedded computers (e.g., computers in
home devices and automobiles) The user
interface may have numeric keypads and may
turn indicator lights on or off to show status.
The operating systems are designed primarily
to run without user intervention.
SYSTEM VIEW

From the computer's point of view, the operating system is

the program most intimately involved with the hardware.
There are two different views:

 The operating system is a resource

allocator
 Manages all resources
 Decides between conflicting requests for efficient
and fair resource use
 The operating systems is a control program
 Controls execution of programs to prevent errors
and improper use of the computer
DEFINING OPERATING SYSTEM

No universally accepted definition of what an OS:

 Operating systems exist to offer a reasonable

way to solve the problem of creating a usable
computing system.
 The fundamental goal of computer systems is to
execute user programs and to make solving user
problems easier.
 Since bare hardware alone is not particularly
easy to use, application programs are
developed.
 These programs require certain common operations,
such as those controlling the I/O devices.
 The common functions of controlling and allocating
resources are brought together into one piece of
software: the operating system.
DEFINING OPERATING SYSTEM (CONT.)
No universally accepted definition of what is part of the OS:

 A more common definition, and the one

that we usually follow, is that the
operating system is the one program
running at all times on the computer --
usually called the kernel.
 Along with the kernel, there are two
other types of programs:
 System programs, which are associated
with the operating system but are not
necessarily part of the kernel.
 Application programs, which include all
programs not associated with the operation
of the system.
EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS

Users

Applications

Database System
Operating System
Hardware
MODERN COMPUTER SYSTEM
COMPUTER-SYSTEM ORGANIZATION

 A modern general-purpose computer system

consists of one or more CPUs and a number of
device controllers connected through a common
bus that provides access to shared memory.
 Each device controller is in charge of a specific
type of device (for example, disk drives, audio
devices, or video displays). Each device controller
has a local buffer.
 CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from
local buffers.
 The CPU and the device controllers can execute
in parallel, competing for memory cycles. To
ensure orderly access to the shared memory, a
memory controller synchronizes access to the
memory.
COMPUTER STARTUP

 Bootstrap program is loaded at power-up

or reboot
 A bootstrap is the program that initializes
the operating system (OS) during startup.

 Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally

known as firmware
 Initializes all aspects of system
 Loads operating system kernel and starts
execution
COMPUTER-SYSTEM OPERATION

 Once the kernel is loaded and executing, it can

start providing services to the system and its
users.
 Some services are provided outside of the
kernel, by system programs that are loaded into
memory at boot time to become system
processes, that run the entire time the kernel
is running.
 The occurrence of an event is usually signaled
by an interrupt.
INTERRUPTS

 There are two types of interrupts:

 Hardware -- a device may trigger an interrupt by
sending a signal to the CPU, usually by way of
the system bus.
 Software -- a program may trigger an interrupt
by executing a special operation called a system
call.
 A software-generated interrupt (sometimes
called trap or exception) is caused either by
an error (e.g., divide by zero) or a user
request (e.g., an I/O request).
 An operating system is interrupt driven.
COMMON FUNCTIONS OF INTERRUPTS

 When an interrupt occurs, the operating system

preserves the state of the CPU by storing the
registers and the program counter
 Determines which type of interrupt has occurred
and transfers control to the interrupt-service
routine.
 An interrupt-service routine is a collection of
routines (modules), each of which is responsible
for handling one particular interrupt (e.g., from a
printer, from a disk)
 The transfer is generally through the interrupt
vector, which contains the addresses of all the
service routines
 Interrupt architecture must save the address of
the interrupted instruction.
INTERRUPT TIMELINE
COMPUTER-SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

 Single general-purpose processor

 Most systems have special-purpose processors as well
 Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance
 Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
 Advantages include:
 Increased throughput: more work done in less time

 Economy of scale: cost less

 Increased reliability – graceful-degradation/fault-tolerance

 Two types:
 Symmetric Multiprocessing – each processor performs all
tasks
 Asymmetric Multiprocessing – each processor is assigned
a specific task.
SYMMETRIC MULTIPROCESSING ARCHITECTURE
MULTICORE SYSTEMS

 Most CPU design now includes multiple

computing cores on a single chip. Such
multiprocessor systems are termed
multicore.
 Multicore systems can be more efficient
than multiple chips with single cores
because:
 On-chip communication is faster than between-
chip communication.
 One chip with multiple cores uses significantly
less power than multiple single-core chips.
A dual-core with two cores placed on the same chip
CLUSTERED SYSTEMS
Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working
together

 Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network

(SAN)
 Provides a high-availability service which survives
failures
 Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby
mode
 Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running
applications, monitoring each other
 Some clusters are for high-performance
computing (HPC)
 Applications must be written to use parallelization
 Some have distributed lock manager (DLM) to
avoid conflicting operations
CLUSTERED SYSTEMS
MULTIPROGRAMMED SYSTEM

 Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices

busy at all times
 Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and
data) so CPU always has one to execute
 A subset of total jobs in system is kept in
memory
 Batch systems:
 One job selected and run via job scheduling
 When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS
switches to another job
 Timesharing systems:
 Logical extension of batch systems -- CPU switches
jobs so frequently that users can interact with each
job while it is running, creating interactive
computing
TIMESHARING SYSTEMS

 Timesharing is also referred to as

multitasking.
 Response time should be < 1 second
 Each user has at least one program executing
in memory. Such a program is referred to as a
process
 If several processes are ready to run at the
same time, we need to have CPU
scheduling.
 If processes do not fit in memory, swapping
moves them in and out to run
 Virtual memory allows execution of
processes not completely in memory
MODES OF OPERATION

 A mechanism that allows the OS to protect itself

and other system components
 Two modes:
 User mode
 Kernel mode
 Mode bit (0 or 1) provided by hardware
 Provides ability to distinguish when system is running
user code or kernel code
 The dual mode operation provide us with the means
for protection operating system from errant users
and errant users from one another.
 Some instructions designated as privileged, only
executable in kernel mode.
 Systems call by a user asking the OS to perform
some function changes from user mode to kernel
mode.
 Return from a system call resets the mode to user
mode.
TRANSITION FROM USER TO KERNEL MODE
TIMER

To prevent process to be in infinite loop , a timer is used,

which is a hardware device.
 Timer is a counter that is decremented by the physical
clock.
 Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time
period
 Operating system sets the counter (privileged
instruction)
 When counter reaches the value zero, and interrupt is
generated.
 The OS sets up the value of the counter before
scheduling a process to regain control or terminate
program that exceeds allotted time
PROCESS MANAGEMENT
 A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within
the system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active
entity.
 Process needs resources to accomplish its task
 CPU, memory, I/O, files, etc.
 Initialization data
 When the Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable
resources
 A thread is a basic unit of CPU utilization within a process.
 Single-threaded process. Instructions are executed sequentially, one at a
time, until completion
 Process has one program counter specifying location of next
instruction to execute
 Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread.
 A process is the unit of work in the system .A system consists of
a collection of processes.
 Typically, a system has many processes, some user, some
operating system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
PROCESS MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in

connection with process management:

 Creating and deleting both user and system

processes
 Suspending and resuming processes
 Providing mechanisms for process
synchronization
 Providing mechanisms for process
communication
 Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling
PROTECTION AND SECURITY

 Protection – A mechanism for controlling access of

processes (or users) to resources defined by the
OS
 Security – A defense of the system against internal
and external attacks
 Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses,
identity theft, theft of service
 Systems generally first distinguish among users, to
determine who can do what
 User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and
associated number, one per user
 User ID is associated with all files and processes of that
user to determine access control
 Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be
defined and controls managed, then also associated with
each process, file
 Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective
ID with more rights
COMPUTING ENVIRONMENTS - TRADITIONAL

 Stand-alone general purpose machines

 But blurred as most systems interconnect
with others (i.e., the Internet)
 Portals provide web access to internal
systems
 Network computers (thin clients) are like
Web terminals
 Mobile computers interconnect via wireless
networks
 Networking becoming ubiquitous – even
home systems use firewalls to protect home
computers from Internet attacks
COMPUTING ENVIRONMENTS - MOBILE

 Handheld smartphones, tablets, etc

 What is the functional difference between them
and a “traditional” laptop?
 Extra features – more OS features.

 Allows new types of apps like augmented

reality
 Use IEEE 802.11 wireless, or cellular data
networks for connectivity
 Leaders are Apple iOS and Google Android
COMPUTING ENVIRONMENTS – DISTRIBUTED

 Collection of separate, possibly heterogeneous,

systems networked together
 Network is a communications path, TCP/IP most
common
 Local Area Network (LAN)
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Personal Area Network (PAN)
 Network Operating System provides features to
allow sharing of data between systems across a
network.
 Communication scheme allows systems to exchange
messages
 Illusion of a single system
COMPUTING ENVIRONMENTS – CLIENT-SERVER

 Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs

 Many systems now servers, responding to
requests generated by clients
 Compute-server system provides an interface to
client to request services (i.e., database)
 File-server system provides interface for clients to
store and retrieve files
COMPUTING ENVIRONMENTS - PEER-TO-PEER
 Another model of distributed system. P2P does not distinguish clients and
servers
 Instead all nodes are considered peers
 Each node may act as client, server, or both
 Node must join P2P network
 Registers its service with central lookup service on network, or

 Broadcast request for service and respond to requests for service

via discovery protocol

 Examples include Napster and Gnutella, Voice over IP (VoIP) such as
Skype
COMPUTING ENVIRONMENTS – CLOUD COMPUTING

 Delivers computing, storage, even apps as a service across a network

 Logical extension of virtualization because it uses virtualization as the base
for it functionality.
 Amazon Elastic Compute cloud has thousands of servers, millions of
virtual machines, petabytes of storage available across the Internet, pay
based on usage
 Many types
 Public cloud – available via Internet to anyone willing to pay
 Private cloud – run by a company for the company’s own use
 Hybrid cloud – includes both public and private cloud components
 Software as a Service (SaaS) – one or more applications available via
the Internet (i.e., word processor)
 Platform as a Service (PaaS) – software stack ready for application use
via the Internet (i.e., a database server)
 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) – servers or storage available over
Internet (i.e., storage available for backup use)
 COMPUTING ENVIRONMENTS – CLOUD COMPUTING

 Cloud computing environments composed of traditional

OSes, plus VMMs, plus cloud management tools
 Internet connectivity requires security like firewalls
 Load balancers spread traffic across multiple applications
COMPUTING ENVIRONMENTS – REAL-TIME SYSTEMS

 Real-time embedded systems most prevalent form of

computers
 Vary considerable, special purpose, limited purpose OS,
real-time OS
 Use expanding

 Many other special computing environments as well

 Some have OSes, some perform tasks without an OS
 Real-time OS has well-defined fixed time constraints
 Processing must be done within constraint
 Correct operation only if constraints met