Chapter 20 - Microprogrammed Control (9th edition)

Luis Tarrataca
[email protected]

CEFET-RJ

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Table of Contents I

1 Motivation

2 Basic Concepts

Microinstructions

Microprogrammed Control Unit

Advantages and Disadvantages

µ-Instruction sequencing
Two address fields

Two address fields

Variable Format

µ-Instruction Execution

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Table of Contents I

3 Where to focus your study

4 Where to focus your study

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 Motivation

Motivation

Remember what we talked about in the last class?

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 Motivation

Remember what we talked about in the last class?

• µ-operations - the most basic instruction executed by a processor:

• Control signals - to send data from the various locations;

• Control unit operation - how to control signals and micro-operations.

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 Motivation

We saw that it was possible to operate the control unit through:

• An hardwired version:
• Complete boolean circuit;

• Difficult to implement for complex systems.

• Impossible to add an instruction after implementing the circuit.

So what is the alternative? Any ideas?

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 Motivation

Alternative: µ-programmed control unit

• The logic of the control unit is specified by a microprogram;

• Also known as firmware.

• A microprogram consists of a sequence of µ-operations.

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 Basic Concepts Microinstructions

Microinstructions

How can we use the concept of microprogramming to implement a

control unit?

For each µ-operation:

• Control unit is allowed to generate a set of control signals;

• Each control line is either on / off;

• This state can be represented by a binary digit for each control line.

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 Basic Concepts Microinstructions

Idea: construct a control word (a.k.a. µ-instruction)

• Bit represents one control line

• Each µ-op would be represented by a different pattern of 1s and 0s.

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 Basic Concepts Microinstructions

Format of the µ-instruction or control word is as follows:

Figure: Microinstruction (Source: [Stallings, 2015])

• One bit for each internal processor control line;

• One bit for each system bus control line;

• Condition field indicating the condition under which there should be a branch (JMP);

• Field with the address of the µ-instruction to be executed next when a branch is taken.

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 Basic Concepts Microinstructions

Such a microinstruction is interpreted as follows:

• Activate control lines indicated by a 1 bit;

• Deactivate control lines indicated by a 0 bit;

• If condition indicated by the condition bits is

• False: execute the next microinstruction in sequence;

• True: execute the instruction indicated in the address field.

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 Basic Concepts Microprogrammed Control Unit

Microprogrammed Control Unit

How can we process these µ-instructions?

Processing a µ-program requires:

• Going through a sequence of µ-instructions;

• Jumping to other addresses of µ-instructions;

• I.e. normal procedure for processing instructions:

• Only difference is that these instructions are comprised of µ-operations.

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 Basic Concepts Microprogrammed Control Unit

Lets take a look at one possible architecture:

Figure: Control Unit Microarchitecture (Source: [Stallings, 2015])

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 Basic Concepts Microprogrammed Control Unit

• Control memory:
• Containing the set of µ-instructions;

• Control address register (CAR):

• Containing the address of the next µ-instruction to be read;

• Remember MAR?

• Control buffer register (CBR):

• Containing the µ-instruction read from the control memory;

• After µ-instruction is read it can be executed;

• Remember MBR?

• Sequencing logic:
• Loads CAR and issues a read command.

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 Basic Concepts Microprogrammed Control Unit

In greater detail:

Figure: Function of microprogrammed control unit (Source: [Stallings, 2015])

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 Basic Concepts Microprogrammed Control Unit

The control unit functions as follows to execute an instruction:

1 Sequencing logic unit:

• Loads an address to be read into CAR;

• Issues a READ command to the control memory;

2 Word is read into CBR;

3 Content of the CBR generates:

• Control signals for the CPU;

• Next address for the sequencing logic unit;

4 Sequencing logic unit:

• Loads a new address into the CAR;

• Based on the next-address information from the CBR and the ALU flags.

All this happens during one clock pulse.

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 Basic Concepts Microprogrammed Control Unit

Does all of this sound strangely familiar? Sense of déjà vu?

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 Basic Concepts Microprogrammed Control Unit

Does all of this sound strangely familiar? Sense of déjà vu?

• Similar to how control unit processed different stages of an instruction.

• Remember?
• MAR • Fetch cycle

• MBR • Indirect cycle

• PC • Interrupt cycle
• But now are doing it in a ‘‘smaller’’ scale within the control unit:
• Instead of a system-wide: processor, bus, ram...

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 Basic Concepts Microprogrammed Control Unit

Advantages and Disadvantages

Main advantage of the use of µ-programming:

• Simplifies the design of the control unit;

• Both cheaper and less error prone to implement.

• Hardwired control unit must contain complex logic:

• Microprogrammed control unit components are simple pieces of logic.

Main disadvantage of a µ-programmed unit:

• Slower than a hardwired unit of comparable technology;

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 Basic Concepts µ-Instruction sequencing

µ-Instruction sequencing

Tasks performed by a microprogrammed control unit are:

• µ-instruction sequencing:
• Get next µ-instruction from the control memory.

• µ-instruction execution:
• Generate control signals needed to execute the µ-instruction.

Lets focus on the first one.

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 Basic Concepts µ-Instruction sequencing

Address of next µ-instruction to be executed is:

• Determined by instruction register or;

• Next sequential address or;

• Branch (JMP).

Decision is based on:

• Current µ-instruction;

• Condition flags;

• Contents of the instruction register;

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 Basic Concepts µ-Instruction sequencing

Wide variety of techniques to generate the next µ-instruction address:

• Two address fields

• Single address field

• Variable format

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 Basic Concepts µ-Instruction sequencing

Two address fields

Figure: Branch Control Logic: Two Address Fields (Source: [Stallings, 2015])
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 Basic Concepts µ-Instruction sequencing

Simplest approach: provide two address fields:

• Multiplex between both address fields and IR:

• Updating CAR accordingly.

• CAR is decoded to produce the next µ-instruction address;

• Branch logic module selects the address-selection signals:

• Based on control unit flags and

• Bits from the control portion of the µ-instruction.

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 Basic Concepts µ-Instruction sequencing

Single address field

Luis Tarrataca
Figure: Branch Control Logic: Chapter
Single Address 20 (Source:
Field - Microprogrammed Control
[Stallings, 2015]) 25 / 47
 Basic Concepts µ-Instruction sequencing

Two-address approach is simple but:

• Requires more bits in the µ-instruction than other approaches.

• Idea: Use additional logic to have only one address field;

Options for next address are as follows:

• Address field;

• IR code;

• Next sequential address (+1).

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 Basic Concepts µ-Instruction sequencing

However:

Often, the address field will not be used... Can we do better? Any ideas?

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 Basic Concepts µ-Instruction sequencing

Variable Format

Figure: Branch Control Logic: Variable Format (Source: [Stallings, 2015])

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 Basic Concepts µ-Instruction sequencing

Provide for two entirely different microinstruction formats:

• Format 1: bits are used to activate control signals:

• Next address is either: {next sequential address, address derived from IR}.

• Format 2: some bits drive the branch logic, remaining provide address:
• Either a conditional or unconditional branch is being specified.

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 Basic Concepts µ-Instruction Execution

µ-Instruction Execution

Tasks performed by a microprogrammed control unit are:

• µ-instruction sequencing:
• Get next microinstruction from the control memory.

• µ-instruction execution:
• Generate control signals needed to execute the µ-instruction.

Lets focus on the second one.

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 Basic Concepts µ-Instruction Execution

From the previous classes:

Do you remember what is the function of the control unit?

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 Basic Concepts µ-Instruction Execution

Remember this?

Figure: Data paths and control signals (Source: [Stallings, 2015])

Execution of a µ-instruction: generate control signals.

• Some signals control points internal to the processor;

• Other signals go to the system bus;

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 Basic Concepts µ-Instruction Execution

We can now update our previous Figure 3:

Figure: Function of microprogrammed control unit (Source: [Stallings, 2015])

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 Basic Concepts µ-Instruction Execution

With this one:

Figure: Control Unit Organization (Source: [Stallings, 2015])

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 Basic Concepts µ-Instruction Execution

What is the difference between pictures?

First picture focused on the sequencing logic module:

• Containing logic to generate address of next µ-instruction using:

• as inputs the IR, ALU flags, CAR, CBR.

• Driven by a clock that determines the timing of the µ-instruction cycle.

Second picture introduces control logic module:

• Generates control signals as a function of the µ-instruction;

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 Basic Concepts µ-Instruction Execution

Control signals can be transmitted in various ways (1/2):

• K control signals:
• Can be controlled using K lines, allowing for 2k possibilities;

• Not all of these possibilities are valid, e.g.:

• Two sources cannot be gated to the same destination;
• A register cannot be both source and destination;
• Only one pattern of control signals can be presented to the ALU at a time.
• Only one pattern of control signals can be presented to the external control
bus at a time.

• We can do better than this...

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 Basic Concepts µ-Instruction Execution

Control signals can be transmitted in various ways (2/2):

• Let Q represent all allowable combinations of control signals:

• Possible combinations: Q with Q < 2K possibilities;

• We can encode these Q combinations using log2 Q bits;

• Therefore log2 Q < 2K

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 Basic Concepts µ-Instruction Execution

Advantages / Disadvantages:

• Unencoded format:
• Advantage:
• Little or no decode logic is needed;
• Each bit generates a particular control signal.

• Disadvantage:
• Requires more bits than necessary.

• Encoded format:
• Advantage:
• Requires less bits.

• Disadvantage:
• Requires complex logic to encode / decode resulting in loss of performance.

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 Basic Concepts µ-Instruction Execution

Example (1/5)

Assume a processor with:

• Single accumulator register;

• Several internal registers:

• Such as a program counter and a temporary register for ALU input.

• Instruction format where:

• First 3 bits indicate the type of operation;

• Next 3 encode the operation;

• Final 2 select an internal register

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 Basic Concepts µ-Instruction Execution

Example (2/5)

Figure: Simple register transfers (Source: [Stallings, 2015])

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 Basic Concepts µ-Instruction Execution

Example (3/5)

Figure: Memory Operations (Source: [Stallings, 2015])

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 Basic Concepts µ-Instruction Execution

Example (4/5)

Figure: Special sequencing operations (Source: [Stallings, 2015])

* CSAR = channel system address register, special register for controlling bus
lines that exists in some processors.

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 Basic Concepts µ-Instruction Execution

Example (5/5)

Figure: ALU operations (Source: [Stallings, 2015])

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 Where to focus your study

Where to focus your study (1/2)

After this class you should be able to understand that:

• Execution of an instruction involves the execution of substeps:

• Each cycle is in turn made up of µ-operations;

• Control unit causes the processor to go through a series of µ-operations:

• in the proper sequence;

• and generating the appropriate control signals;

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 Where to focus your study

Where to focus your study (2/2)

After this class you should be able to understand that:

• Alternative to a hardwired control unit is a µ-programmed control unit:

• logic is specified by a µ-program:
• which consists of a sequence µ-operations.

• µ-programmed control unit is a simple logic circuit capable of:

• sequencing through µ-instructions;

• generating control signals to execute each µ-instruction.

• As in a hardwired control unit:

• Control signals generated by a µ-instruction are used to cause register
transfers and ALU operations.

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 Where to focus your study

Less important to know how these solutions were implemented:

• details of specific hardware solutions.

Your focus should always be on the building blocks for developing a solution
=)

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 References

References I

Stallings, W. (2015).

Computer Organization and Architecture.

Pearson Education.

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