Chapter 1

The Earth in Context

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 The Earth in Context

Updated by: Based on slides prepared by:

Rick Oches, Professor of Geology & Environmental Sciences Ronald L. Parker, Senior Geologist
Bentley University Fronterra Geosciences
Waltham, Massachusetts Denver, Colorado
 Introduction
 Complex, conscious thought distinguishes humans from
all other species.
 It gives us curiosity about ourselves and our universe.
 Universe—defined by astronomers as:
 All of space
 All of the matter and energy within it

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Introduction
 Cosmology: the scientific study of the Universe.
 Structure
 History

Earth 4 Part 1 Opener

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 What Is the Structure of the Universe?
 Three thousand years ago, people knew the heavens.
They knew:
 The stars are fixed relative to each other.
 All the stars rotate about a fixed point.
 The planets move against the background of stars.

 They did not know that Earth is a planet, however.

 They did not know how heavenly bodies move.

Earth 4 Part 1 Opener

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 What Is the Structure of the Universe?
 The ancients thought the Universe was geocentric.
 Earth sat at the center of the universe.
 The moon, planets, and stars circled a motionless Earth.
 Ptolemy (100–170 C.E.) proposed equations to predict the
movements of planets.
 The heliocentric model gained
acceptance during the
Renaissance (15th century).
Sun
 The sun lay at center of the
universe.
Stars
 Earth and planets orbited
Earth
the sun.

Fig. 1.1a

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
Further to “Structure of the Universe”
 Pythagoras (570-500BC) discovered that the planet Earth
was a sphere and that the heavenly bodies moved in
circular paths, though following Plato (428-347BC),
about the central Earth.
 Aristotle (384-322BC) obtained proof that the Earth was a
sphere.
 Aristarchus (310-230BC) was the first to adopt the Sun
as the centre of the universe and Solar System. He
measured the relative sizes of the Earth whose actual
size was later accurately measured by Eratosthenes
(273-?BC), and of the Moon and Sun.
 Still, the Aristotilean/Ptolomeic view that the Earth
centred everything would hold until the Renaissance in
Europe in the 1500s.
 What Is the Structure of the Universe?
 The heliocentric model gained acceptance during the
Renaissance (15th century).
 The sun lay at center of the universe.
 Earth and planets orbited the sun.

 Renaissance: a new age of discovery in 1400s Europe

 Copernicus & Galileo—studies led to acceptance that Earth
and planets orbit the sun
 Newton—planet motion was
explained by Theory of Gravity Earth

Sun

Fig. 1.1b

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 What Is the Structure of the Universe?
 Modern era: Universe is made up of matter and energy.
 Matter—substance of the universe; takes up space.
Mass
Density
Weight (accelerated mass)
 Energy—the ability to do work.
Heat
Light
Pull of gravity
 Energy <> Mass equivalence

E = mc2

Fig. 1.2a

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Stars and Galaxies
 Stars are immense balls of incandescent gas.
 Gravity binds stars together into vast galaxies.
 Over 100 billion galaxies exist in the visible universe.

 The Solar System is on an arm of the Milky Way galaxy.

 Our sun is one of 300 billion stars in the Milky Way.

Fig. 1.2b, c

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Distance to Celestial Objects
 The dimensions of the Universe are staggering!
 We must consider huge expanses of space and time.
 The sun is “only” 150 million km (~ 93 million miles) away.
 A light-year is the distance light travels in one year.
equal to about 10 trillion km (~ 6 trillion miles).
 The closest star beyond our sun is over 4 light-years away.
 Our Milky Way galaxy is 120,000 light-years across.
 Edge of the visible universe: >13 billion light-years away!

Earth 4 Part 1 Opener

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 The Nature of Our Solar System
 Our sun is a medium-sized star, orbited by 8 planets.
 The sun accounts for 99.8% of our solar system mass.
 Planet—a planet:
Is a large solid body orbiting a star (the Sun).
Has a nearly spherical shape.
Has cleared its neighborhood of other objects (by gravity).
 Moon—a solid body locked in orbit around a planet
 Millions of asteroids, trillions of icy bodies orbit the sun.

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 The Nature of Our Solar System
 Two groups of planets occur in the solar system.
 Terrestrial Planets—small, dense, rocky planets
Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars
 Giant Planets—large, low-density, gas and ice giants
Gas giants: Jupiter, Saturn (hydrogen and helium)
Ice giants: Uranus, Neptune (frozen water, ammonia, methane)
 The Solar System is held together by gravity.

Fig. 1.3a

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 A third group of planets

There are 5 officially

recognised dwarf planets
in our solar system, they are
Ceres, Pluto, Haumea,
Makemake and Eris. With
the exception of Ceres,
which is located in the
asteroid belt, the other
dwarf planets are found in
the outer solar system.
 The Solar System
 The terrestrial planets are the four most interior.
 The giant planets occupy the four outermost orbits.
 All but two planets have moons (Jupiter has 63!).
 The asteroid belt lies between Mars and Jupiter.
 Clouds of icy bodies lie beyond Neptune’s orbit.
 Icy fragments pulled into the inner solar system
become comets.

Fig. 1.3b

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Forming the Universe
 The vastness of the Universe is staggering.
 Earth is a planet orbiting a star on the arm of a galaxy.
 The sun and over 300 billion stars form the Milky Way.
 Over 100 billion galaxies exist in the visible universe.
 Where did all this “stuff” come from?
 The Big Bang initiated the expanding universe
13.7 billion years ago.

Fig. 1.2a

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 The Doppler Effect
 Sound waves compress or relax with relative motion.
 Compressed: shorter wavelength; higher frequency
 Relaxed: longer wavelength; lower frequency
 A stopped train sounds different from a moving train.
As the train approaches, a person hears a higher pitch.
As the train passes, the pitch drops (higher to lower).
As the train recedes, a person hears a lower pitch.
This is commonly heard as cars whiz by on a road.

Fig. 1.4a, b

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 The Doppler Effect
 The Doppler effect influences light waves, too.
 Visible light is electromagnetic radiation.
 Red light = longer wavelength = lower frequency.
 Blue light = shorter wavelength = higher frequency.

 Moving light waves reveal the Doppler effect.

 Light moving toward an observer compresses (blue).
 Light moving away from an observer expands (red).

Fig. 1.4d

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 The Doppler Effect
 A moving star displays Doppler-shifted light.
 Approaching starlight is compressed (higher frequency):
Blue shift
 Receding starlight is expanded (lower frequency):
Red shift

This observer sees light waves This observer sees light waves
compressed—blue-shifted. “spread out”—red-shifted.

No Doppler shift

Fig. 1.4c

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 The Expanding Universe
 Light from galaxies was observed to be “red-shifted.”
 Edwin Hubble recognized the red shift as a Doppler effect.
He concluded that galaxies were moving away at great speed.
No galaxies were found heading toward Earth.
 Hubble deduced that the whole Universe must
be expanding (analogous to raisin-bread dough).
The expanding Universe theory.
Did expansion start at some time in the past?
If so, how far back?
How small was the Universe before expansion?

Fig. 1.5a

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Big Bang
 An expanding Universe? “When did it all begin?”
 The Big Bang: all mass and energy in a single point
 It exploded ~13.79 Ga and has been expanding ever since.

Fig. 1.5b

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Aftermath of the Big Bang
 Researchers have developed a model of the Big Bang.
 During the first instant, only energy—no matter—was
present.
 Started as a rapid cascade of events.
 Hydrogen nuclei (protons) within a few seconds
 At 3 minutes, protons are fused to form helium nuclei.
 Light nuclei (atomic no. < 5) by Big Bang nucleosynthesis

 The Universe expanded and cooled.

Fig. 1.5b

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 After the Big Bang
 After abut 380 000 years of expansion and cooling,
atoms began to bond; electrons attached to the nuclei.
 Hydrogen formed H2 molecules—the fuel of stars.
 Atoms and molecules coalesced into gaseous nebulae.

 Gravity caused collapse of gaseous nebulae.

 Collapse resulted in
increases in:
 Temperature.
 Density.
 Rate of rotation.

Earth, 4th ed., Fig. 1.7

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 After the Big Bang
 Mass in nebulae was not equally distributed.
 An initially more massive region began to pull in gas.
 This region gained mass and density.
 Mass compacted into a smaller region and began to rotate.
 Rotation rate increased, developing a disk shape.
 The central ball of the disk became hot enough to glow.
 A protostar was born!

Geology at a Glance

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Birth of the First Stars
 The protostar continued to grow,
 pulling in more mass and creating a denser core.
 Temperatures soared to 10 million degrees.
 At these temps, hydrogen nuclei fused to create helium.
 With the start of nuclear fusion, the protostar “ignited.”

Chapter 1 Opener

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Birth of the First Stars
 Nebulae from which first-generation stars formed
consisted entirely of light elements.
 These first-generation stars exhausted H fuel rapidly.
 As the stars became H-starved, they initiated:
 Collapse and heating.
 Catastrophic supernova.

 Where did heavy elements

(atomic no. > 5) come from?
 Note that within stars, H is
completely ionized to leave
the proton or deuteron
nucleus
Fig. 1.6a

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Where Do Elements Come From?
 Big Bang nucleosynthesis formed the lightest elements.
 Atomic #s 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 (H, He, Li, Be, and B)
 Heavier elements are from stellar nucleosynthesis.
 Atomic #s 6–26 (C to Fe)
 Stars are “element factories.”

 Elements with atomic #s >26 form during supernovae.

Fig. 1.6b

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Where Do Elements Come From?
 First-generation stars left a legacy of heavier elements.
 Second-generation stars repeated heavy element
genesis.
 Succeeding generations contain more heavy elements.
 The sun may be a third-, fourth-, or fifth-generation star.
 The mix of elements found on Earth include:
Primordial gas from the Big Bang.
The disgorged contents of exploded stars.
 We really ARE all made out of stardust!

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Nebular Theory of the Solar System
 The nebular theory of Solar System formation
 A third-, fourth-, or nth-generation nebula forms ~4.6 Ga.
 Hydrogen and helium are left over from the Big Bang.
 Heavier elements are produced via:
Stellar nucleosynthesis.
Supernovae.
 The nebula condenses into a protoplanetary disk.

Geology at a Glance

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Solar System Formation
 The ball at the center grows dense and hot.
 Fusion reactions begin; the sun is born.
 Dust in the rings condenses into particles.
 Particles coalesce to form planetesimals.
Fig. 1.7

Geology at a Glance

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Differentiation of Earth
 Planetesimals clump into a lumpy protoplanet.
 The interior heats, softens, and forms a sphere.
 The interior differentiates into:
 A central iron-rich core, and
 A stony outer shell—a mantle.

Geology at a Glance

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Formation of the Moon
 ~4.53 Ga, a Mars-sized protoplanet collides with Earth.
 The planet and a part of Earth’s mantle are disintegrated.
 Collision debris forms a ring around Earth.
 The debris coalesces and forms the moon.
 The moon has a composition similar to Earth’s mantle.

Geology at a Glance

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 The Atmosphere and Oceans
 The atmosphere develops from volcanic gases.
 When Earth becomes cool enough:
 Moisture condenses and accumulates.
 The oceans come into existence.

Geology at a Glance

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 The Earth System
 Orbiting around Earth, space visitors would notice:
 Atmosphere—the gaseous envelope.
 Hydrosphere—the blue liquid water.
 Biosphere—the wealth of life.
 Lithosphere—the solid Earth.

 Interaction of these components interactions,

comprises the Earth System.
 Heat from radioactive decay
fuels internal processes.
 Sunlight powers atmosphere,
biosphere, and hydrosphere.

Fig. 1.8

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Magnetic Field
 Space visitors would notice Earth’s magnetic field.
 Earth’s magnetic field is like a giant dipole bar magnet.
 The field has north and south ends.
 The field grows weaker with distance.
 The magnetic force is directional.
It flows from S pole to N pole along the bar magnet.
It flows from N to S along field lines outside the bar.

Fig. 1.9a

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Magnetic Field
 Earth’s magnetic field is like a giant dipole bar magnet.
 The N pole of the bar is near Earth’s geographic S pole.
 A compass needle aligns with the field lines.
 The N compass arrow points to the bar magnet S pole.
Opposites attract.
 Magnetic field lines:
 Extend into space.
 Weaken with distance.
 Form a shield around
Earth (magnetosphere).

Fig. 1.9b

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Magnetic Field
 The solar wind distorts the magnetosphere.
 Shaped like a teardrop
 Deflects most of the solar wind, protecting Earth
 The strong magnetic field of the Van Allen belts
intercepts dangerous cosmic radiation.

Fig. 1.9c

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Magnetic Field
 The magnetic field is revealed by spectacular aurorae.
 Some charged particles make it past the Van Allen belts.
 These are channeled along magnetic field lines.
 They cause atmospheric gases in polar regions to glow.
 Northern lights: aurora borealis
 Southern lights: aurora australis

Fig. 1.9d

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 The Atmosphere
 Our atmosphere is mostly nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2).
 The remaining gases (totaling less than 1%) include:
 Argon (0.93%), carbon dioxide (0.039%), neon (0.0018%)
 Other, less common gases (helium, methane, krypton).

 The atmosphere thins away from Earth.

 Atmospheric layers have distinct characteristics.
 Pressure, temperature, density, moisture composition

Fig. 1.10a, b

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 The Atmosphere
 The atmosphere is more dense closer to Earth.
 Sea-level atmospheric pressure:
 14.7 pounds per square inch (psi)
 101.3 kPa (kilo Pascal); 1Pa = 1N/m2
 1.01 bar
 With increasing elevation:
 Pressure decreases.
 Density decreases.
 Oxygen content decreases.

Fig. 1.10c

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 The Atmosphere
 Atmospheric layers are separated by pauses.
 Troposphere (0–11 km):
Wind and clouds.
Weather is confined to this layer.
Temperature decreases upward.
 Stratosphere (12–47 km)
 Mesosphere (47–82 km)
 Thermosphere (82 km+)
Outermost layer.
 99.9% of the atmosphere lies below
100 km elevation.

Fig. 1.10d

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Earth’s Surface
 Land (30%) and water (70%) are the most prominent
surface features.
 Topography (land) defines plains, mountains, and valleys.
 Bathymetry (sea-floor variations) defines mid-ocean
ridges, abyssal plains, and deep-ocean trenches.

Fig. 1.11

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 What is Earth Made Of?
 91.2% of Earth’s mass comprises just four elements:
 Iron (Fe)—32.1%
 Oxygen (O)—30.1%
 Silicon (Si)—15.1%
 Magnesium (Mg)—13.9%

 The remaining 8.8% of Earth’s mass consists of the

remaining 88 elements.
Editorial comment (OJ)
Three significant figures?
Take these numbers
with a grain of salt:
Say 32%/30%/15%/14%

Fig. 1.12

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Earth Materials
 Elements combine in a variety of Earth materials.
 Organic chemicals – carbon-containing compounds.
Most are residue from once-living creatures.
These include wood, peat, lignite, coal, and oil.

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Earth Materials
 Elements combine in a variety of Earth materials.
 Minerals—naturally-occurring crystalline solids
Crystal—a single coherent mineral with geometric faces
Grain—an irregularly shaped fragment of a larger crystal
Minerals comprise rocks and, therefore, most of the earth.
 Glasses—noncrystalline solids
Glasses form by rapid cooling—too fast for crystal growth.

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Earth Materials
 Elements combine in a variety of Earth materials.
 Rocks—aggregates of minerals, grains, and/or glass
Igneous—cooled from a liquid (melt)
Sedimentary—debris cemented from preexisting rock.
Metamorphic—rock altered by pressure and temperature
 Rocks may be made of a single mineral.

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Earth Materials
 Elements combine in a variety of Earth materials.
 Sediment—an accumulation of loose mineral grains
Weathered and eroded from preexisting rocks
Precipitated from evaporating water
 Metals—solids composed of metal atoms (Al, Fe, Cu, Sn).
Metals have high density, are shiny, and conduct electricity.
An alloy contains more than one type of metal atom.

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Earth Materials
 Elements combine in a variety of Earth materials.
 Melts—rocks that have been heated to a liquid
Magma—molten rock beneath the surface
Lava—molten rock at the surface
 Volatiles—materials that turn into gas at the surface
H2O, CO2, and SO2
Volatiles are released from volcanic eruptions.

Fig. 5.11a Fig. 5.6e

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Earth Materials
 Most rocks on Earth are silicates (based on Si and O).
 There are four classes of igneous silicate rocks.
 Based on proportion of Silica to Iron + Magnesium,
 as proportion of silica increases, density decreases.
Felsic (most Si-rich)
Granite (coarse-grained)
Intermediate
Diorite (coarse-grained)
Andesite (fine-grained)
Mafic
Gabbro (coarse-grained)
Basalt (fine grained)
Ultra-mafic (most Fe+Mg–rich)
Peridotite (coarse-grained)

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 A Layered Earth
 How do we know that Earth has a layered interior?
 Early speculations sought to explain:
 The source of lava.
 Gem and mineral enrichment.
 Spring waters.
 Earthquakes.

 Early guesses were wrong.

 Open caverns to the interior
 Flowing lava, air, water

Earth, 4th ed., Fig. 2.9

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 A Layered Earth
 The first key to understanding Earth’s interior: density.
 When scientists first determined Earth’s mass they realized:
Average density of Earth >> average density of surface rocks.
Deduced that metal must be concentrated in Earth’s center.
 These ideas led to a layered model:
Earth is like an egg.
Thin, light crust (eggshell)
Thicker, more dense mantle (eggwhite)
Innermost, very dense core (yolk)

Fig. 1.13

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 A Layered Earth
 Earthquakes: seismic energy from fault motion
 Seismic waves provide insight into Earth’s interior.
Seismic wave velocities change with density.
We can determine the depth of seismic velocity changes.
Hence, we can tell where densities change in Earth’s interior.

Fig. 1.14a, b

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 A Layered Earth
 Changes with depth
 Pressure (P)
The weight of overlying
rock increases with depth.
 Temperature (T)
Heat is generated in
Earth’s interior.
 T increases with depth.
 Geothermal gradient
 The rate of T changes with depth.
 The geothermal gradient varies.
~ 20-30°C per km in crust
< 10°C per km at greater depths
Earth’s center may reach 4,700°C!

Earth, 4th ed., Fig. 2.13

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 The Crust
 The outermost “skin” of our planet is highly variable.
 Thickest under mountain ranges (70 km or 40 miles)
 Thinnest under mid-ocean ridges (7 km or 4 miles)

 Relatively as thick as the membrane of a toy balloon

 The Mohorovičić discontinuity (Moho) is the base.
 Seismic velocity change between crust and upper mantle
 The crust is the upper part of a tectonic plate.

Fig. 1.15a

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 The Crust
 There are two kinds of crust: continental and oceanic.
 Continental crust underlies the continents.
Average thickness 35–40 km
Felsic (granite) to intermediate in composition
 Oceanic crust underlies the ocean basins.
Average thickness 7–10 km
Mafic (basalt and gabbro) in composition
More dense than continental crust

Fig. 1.15a

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Crustal Composition
 98.5% of the crust is composed of just eight elements.
 Oxygen is the most abundant element in the crust.
 This reflects the importance of silicate (SiO4) minerals.
 Oxygen is abundant. It occupies ~93% of crustal volume.

Fig. 1.16

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 The Mantle
 Solid rock, 2,885 km thick, 82% of Earth’s volume
 The mantle is entirely the ultra-mafic rock peridotite.
 Convection below ~ 100 km mixes the mantle.
 Like oatmeal on a stove: hot rises, cold sinks.
 Convection aids tectonic plate motion.

 Divided into two sub-layers:

 Upper Mantle
 Transitional zone
 Lower Mantle

Fig. 1.15b

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 The Core
 An iron-rich sphere with a radius of 3,471 km
 Seismic waves segregate two radically different parts.
 The outer core is liquid; inner core solid.
 Outer core
Liquid iron alloy
2,255 km thick
Liquid flows
 Inner core
Solid iron-nickel alloy
Radius of 1,220 km
Greater pressure keeps solid
 Outer core flow generates
Earth’s magnetic field. Fig. 1.15b

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Lithosphere-Asthenosphere
 We can also regard layering based on rock strength.
 Lithosphere—the outermost 100–150 km of Earth
Behaves rigidly, as a nonflowing material
Composed of two components: crust and upper mantle
This is the material that makes up tectonic plates.
 Asthenosphere—upper mantle below the lithosphere
Shallow under oceanic lithosphere; deeper under continental
Flows as a soft solid.

Fig. 1.17

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Useful Web Resources
 NASA Solar System Exploration
 http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/index.cfm
 AGU Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism
 www.agu.org/sections/geomag/background.html
 NOAA Weather and Atmosphere
 www.education.noaa.gov/Weather_and_Atmosphere/
 NESTA Structure of the Interior of the Earth
 www.windows2universe.org/earth/Interior_Structure/interior.html
 NASA / JPL Solar System Missions
 www.jpl.nasa.gov/solar-system/index.cfm
 BBC Big Bang Theory Program
 www.bbc.co.uk/science/space/universe/questions_and_ideas/big
_bang/
 Scientific American Article: “Misconceptions about the Big Bang”
 www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=misconceptions-
about-the-2005-03

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
 Photo Credits
 Ronald L. Parker, slides 3, 11, 26, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47.
 Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, slides 21, 48, 51.

Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context
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Essentials of Geology
4th Edition (2013)
by Stephen Marshak

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Essentials of Geology, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak © 2013, W. W. Norton Chapter 1: The Earth in Context