SPE-189123-MS

Reliable SCAL Data for Reservoir Modeling: Case Study of a Niger Delta
Reservoir

Monica A. Wobo and Mike O. Onyekonwu, Laser Engineering and Resources Consultants Limited, Port Harcourt

Copyright 2017, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the Nigeria Annual International Conference and Exhibition held in Lagos, Nigeria, 31 July – 2 August 2017.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents
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Abstract
Special Core Analysis (SCAL) data has a direct impact on the way fluids are allocated and distributed in
the reservoir and simulation models, which would directly impact reservoirs' STOIIP estimation and their
distribution. Moreover, it directly affects the performance of secondary and EOR flooding processes, and
in turn impacts the accuracy of the oil and gas reserve estimates, and the management of these reserves.
Therefore, SCAL data could be considered as one of the most critical reservoir input data for reservoir
simulation models.
This paper shows how a reliable SCAL data was used for Reservoir Modeling workflow and it's impacts
on the accuracy of the oil and gas reserve estimates results of integrated reservoir studies performed on
XX reservoir of an onshore field in Niger Delta. The studies include petrophysical analysis, static reservoir
models and building Numerical models.
This Paper sheds light on the theoretical and experimental background of SCAL data. It explains the
concept of reservoir wettability and different factors that could induce changes in reservoir wettability.
Further, the concept of capillary pressure and its associated hysteresis for different wettability conditions
were considered. The concepts of two phase water/oil and gas/oil relative permeability curves and how to
generate three relative permeability data for water wet, mixed and oil wet reservoirs were demonstrated.
It clarifies the saturation end point of both capillary pressure and relative curves as a function of reservoir
heterogeneity and wettability, the idea of reservoir wettability profile.

Introduction
Reservoir modelling involves the calculation of volumes and production profiles. Available commercial
dynamic modelling solutions require a function that gives hydrocarbon Special Core Analysis relationship
(Relative Permeability and capillary Pressure) data as a function of reservoirs water saturation for the
calculation of volumes.
In the absence of core data, log derived saturation height functions are used. The most common is the
application of permeability classes to generate this relationship. This approach is prone to subjectivity,
hence error in application. In an attempt to properly manage associated errors, investigation was carried
out to ascertain the possibility of using HFZU plot of wells in the reservoir that cuts across zones in the
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field, thereby linking the flow units and the permeability classes and deriving a relationship between the
permeability, porosity, capillary pressure and hydrocarbon saturation.
This method is useful in appraising reservoir and fields, calculating Stock tank oil initially in place
(STOIIP) and free gas initially in place (FGIIP) where little or no information is known about the formation
type and core analysis. Result obtained with this method was compared with other methods of initializing
and estimating Stock tank oil initially in place (STOIIP) and free gas initially in place (FGIIP). The
difference obtained in calculated volumes using this method was closer to the Static volumes obtained by
G&G by less 3% relative to those estimated using normal method of assigning one Scal data per reservoir
to the model for Initialization.

Purpose of the Study

The aim of this paper is to employ the use of hydraulic flow zone units which is related to distinct
Litho Facies to assign permeability clases which was used to estimate Special Core Analysis relationship
(Relative Permeability and capillary Pressure) thereby numerically linking reservoir fluid flow and geologic
description. In this study Scal relationship was assigned to each HFZU aand modified to reflect each zone
average parameters as opposed to conventionanal practice of assuming the entire reservoir as one flow unit
and assigning a single Special Core Analysis relationship (Relative Permeability and capillary Pressure This
technique provides reservoir engineers a method to determining more acurately Stock tank oil initially in
place (STOIIP) and free gas initially in place (FGIIP).

Special Core Analysis (SCAL)

Special core analysis (SCAL) is one of the main sources of data available to guide the reservoir simulation
engineer in assessing the economic potential of a hydrocarbon accumulation. Special Core Analysis
attempts to extend the data provided by routine measurements to situations more representative of reservoir
conditions. SCAL data is used to support log and well test data in gaining an understanding of individual well
and overall reservoir performance. However, SCAL measurements are more expensive, and are commonly
only done on a small selected group of samples, or if a difficult strategic reservoir management decision
has to be made (e.g. to gasflood or not to gasflood).
Tests are carried out to measure fluid distribution, electrical properties and fluid flow characteristics in
the two and occasionally three phase situation, and are made on preserved core. A schematic diagram of
common SCAL measurements is given in Fig. 1.

Figure 1—Special Core Analysis

SPE-189123-MS 3

Porosity and single phase gas or liquid permeabilities were measured at overburden loadings so that
the room condition data can be corrected. Wettability and capillary pressure data were generated by
controlled displacement of a wetting phase by a non-wetting phase e.g., brine by air, brine by oil or air by
mercury. These systems usually have known interfacial tension (IFT) and wetting (contact) angle properties.
Conversion to the required reservoir values of IFT and contact angle can then be attempted to give data for
predicting saturation at a given height within a reservoir. Electrical properties are measured at formation
brine saturations of unity and less than unity, to obtain the cementation exponent, resistivity index, and
excess conductivity of samples. These were used to provide data for interpretation of down-hole logs.
Relative permeability attempts to provide data on the relative flow rates of phases present (e.g. oil and
water or gas and water). Fluid flow is strongly influenced by fluid viscosities, and wetting characteristics.
Measurements were carefully made under appropriate conditions, which allow some understanding of the
wetting characteristics. The data generated allows relative flow rates and recovery efficiency to be assessed.

The Flow Zone Indicator Concept

Amaefule et al (1997) postulated that the ratio of permeability to effective porosity was a unique index of
the hydraulic quality of a reservoir rock with respect to the pore geometry and pore throat size distribution
which are functions of mineralogy (i.e. type, abundance, morphology and location relative to pore throats)
and texture (i.e. grain size, grain shape, sorting and packing). These are the key determinants of hydraulic
behavior, thus, by modifying the Kozeny-Carman equation the reservoir quality index (RQI) was defined
by the given expression:

(1)

Equivalently,

(2)

From the equation above, RQI can be estimated using measurements on reservoir rock samples. Amaefule
et al then defined a term now known as the flow zone indicator (FZI) which is given by:

(3)

The FZI can be rearranged in terms of the measurable RQI as given below

(4)

Where

(5)

This FZI is intrinsic to a reservoir and is such that rocks or associations of rocks with identical FZI values
are expected to have identical hydraulic behaviours. According to Amaefule et al (1997), the FZI is a unique
parameter that incorporates the attributes of texture and mineralogy in the discrimination of distinct pore
geometries and facies. In terms of the FZI the permeability can be written as:
4 SPE-189123-MS

(6)

Hydraulic Flow Zone Units (HFZUs)

These are genetic reservoir units (simply lithofacie associations); they are the result of a practical subdivision
of a reservoir into components which have a consistent range of reservoir properties, a consistent external
geometry, and a set of log responses (electrofacies) by which they can be consistently recognised. Dividing
reservoirs into genetic units provides the link that ensures that the reservoir property data measured from
core are properly incorporated into the volume cells (voxels) used in reservoir modelling.

Saturation Height Function Model

Assigning a single saturation table to a model due to reservoir heterogeneity will consequently lead to
unreliable initialization volumes, hence the need for a representative saturation model design to capture the
heterogeneity. Water saturation (Sw) distribution in each zone of the reservoir model should be used in the
reservoir simulation model.
In the absence of core data, log derived saturation height functions are used. A modified lambda function
approach was used. The first step is to have a generic saturation height equation that relates Sw to height
above free water level (h) as presented in equation (7). The associated constants a, b, c, are then defined as
function of permeability and porosity of the reservoir rocks expressed as lambda (λ). The lambda is defined
as the ratio of natural logarithm of permeability to porosity (Equations 7, 8 and 9). The ratio of permeability
to porosity is used in physical terms to define different flow units existing in the reservoir.
(7)
Where,
(8)
(9)
(10)
There is also need for saturation classes that will be tied to permeability classes and HFZU. To achieve
this, plot of Sw log vs. FWL (Height) above free water level was made to generate dynamic rock type
classification. On investigation, a total of six rock types were found from the plots. The data were grouped
and the lower and upper limits were arranged to a corresponding permeability (usually taken from the
geological model; they were assigned in ranges and upper limits of water saturation were assigned to
lower limits of permeability and vice versa (this was done for all six assumed rock types). The geologic
permeability was exported from eclipse to excel according to the different layers taken from the grid
dimensions, the different limits of saturation for the six classes of rock type were conditioned to the
permeability. With this process, each PC group was assigned to a unique cell with Sw. The Pc's curves are
presented in Figure 2.
SPE-189123-MS 5

Figure 2—The Current Design of PC's Curves

Application to Actual Field Example

This paper shows the steps used in an actual field example to demonstrate the process of populating
simulation layers with SCAL relationship. A Representative numerical reservoir simulation was built using
the commercial black-oil simulator Eclipse 100.
Flow Chart of the Process.
6 SPE-189123-MS

Description of the Model

The Grid was discretized into 50×50×7 grid blocks, each of dimensions 40×40×100 ft. The average porosity
is 0.2 and the horizontal permeability is 200 md, which coincides with the absolute permeability of the log
from which the relative permeability data and Capillary pressure was estimated in this study. The total pore
volume is 2×107 ft3. PVT data, (i.e. formation volume factor and viscosity) were estimated using Standing
Correllation. The initial reservoir pressure is 2000 psia. A pictorial view of the grid blocks can be seen in
Fig. 3.

Figure 3—The 10 × 5 × 10 grid blocks with two equilibrium regions

Table 1—Simulation Grid Properties

Simulation Grid properties

Average Reservoir Properties Grid Block Dimensions, Dx×Dy× Dz 1000 ft × 1000 ft × 10 ft

Porosity, ϕ 0.22

Permeability, kx = ky = kh 633 mD

kv/kh 0.1

Initial Reservoir Pressure, pi 4764 psia

Initial Water Saturation, Swi 0.52

Formation Water Compressibility, Cw 2.8817 × 10−6 psia−1

Rock Compressibility, cf 1.0776 × 10−6 psia−1

Fault Transmissibility Modifier 0.1

Initial Fluid Properties Viscosity, μoi 0.2074 cp

Formation Volume Factor, Boi 1.660 rb/stb

Oil Gravity 0.824 Mscf/stb

Saturation Pressure, pb 4764 psia

Formation Volume Factor of Water, Bw 1.0001 rb/stb

Oil Initially in Place, N 19.65 MMstb

SPE-189123-MS 7

Figure 4—Hydraulic Flow Zone Units for Field-A with no core data

Figure 5—Permeability distribution histogram and table of permeability class defined for for Field-X
8 SPE-189123-MS

Figure 6—Special Core Analysis Relationship (Relative Permeability and capillary Pressure) for Field-X

Figure 7—Comparison of Field-X Permeability, Porosity from log and dynamic model
SPE-189123-MS 9

Figure 8—Comparison between Sw from log and calculated Sw from dynamic model

Figure 9—Comparison of STOIIP(MMSTB) Volume from SCALrelationship input with Staic Volume
10 SPE-189123-MS

Figure 10—Comparison of FGIIP (BSCF) Volume from SCALrelationship input with Staic Volume

Conclusions
A Special Core Analysis relationship (Relative Permeability and capillary Pressure) technique for reservoir
simulation, that uses HFZU to assign permeability classes, has been investigated. This technique is based on
FZIs and is recommended for application especially in the area with no core data since it is linking reservoir
fluid flow and geologic description. The technique it serves as a reliable basis to estimate Stock tank oil
initially in place (STOIIP) and free gas initially in place (FGIIP).

Acknowledgements
The authors appreciate the suggestions and discussions of the research and development team of Laser
Engineering during the preparation of this manuscript.

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