Principles of Public Speaking

Principles of Public
Speaking

Lumen Learning

Developed in conjunction with Christie Fierro, Tacoma Community College and Brent Adrian, Central Community College for
the Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative

Cover Image: “Maxime Dinaux: Speech balloon” by Marc Wathieu from https://flic.kr/p/5HA1C2 licensed under a Creative
Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License.

Principles of Public Speaking by Lumen Learning is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-
NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.
 CONTENTS
About This Course
Course.......................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................... 1
• About This Course ............................................................................................................................................. 1

Introduction to Public Speaking

Speaking...................................................................................................
................................................................................................... 2
• Welcome to Public Speaking ............................................................................................................................. 2
• Objectives, Outline, and Introduction................................................................................................................. 6
• Benefits of Public Speaking ............................................................................................................................... 8
• Models of Communication ................................................................................................................................. 9
• Elements of the Communication Process........................................................................................................ 11
• Types of Speeches and Speaking Occasions ................................................................................................. 16
• Speaking Competencies.................................................................................................................................. 17
• Conclusion, Review Questions, and Activities................................................................................................. 19
• Glossary and References ................................................................................................................................ 21

Informative Speaking
Speaking.................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................. 24
• Objectives, Outline, and Introduction............................................................................................................... 24
• Functions of Informative Speeches ................................................................................................................. 25
• Role of Speaker ............................................................................................................................................... 26
• Types of Informative Speeches ....................................................................................................................... 29
• Developing Informative Speeches ................................................................................................................... 33
• Conclusion, Review Questions, and Activities................................................................................................. 41
• Glossary and References ................................................................................................................................ 44

Listening Effectively
Effectively...................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................... 48
• Video: Selecting a Topic .................................................................................................................................. 48
• Objectives, Outline, and Introduction............................................................................................................... 48
• Hearing Versus Listening................................................................................................................................. 50
• The Value of Listening ..................................................................................................................................... 52
• Three A's of Active Listening ........................................................................................................................... 54
• Barriers to Effective Listening .......................................................................................................................... 57
• Strategies to Enhance Listening ...................................................................................................................... 59
• Providing Feedback to Speakers..................................................................................................................... 61
• Encouraging Effective Listening ...................................................................................................................... 63
• Conclusion, Review Questions, and Activities................................................................................................. 66
• Glossary and References ................................................................................................................................ 67
• Appendix A: Listening Profile........................................................................................................................... 70

Organizing and Outlining

Outlining...........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................... 72
• Video: Sample Demonstration Speeches ........................................................................................................ 72
• Elements of an Excellent Demonstration Speech............................................................................................ 72
• Objectives, Outline, and Introduction............................................................................................................... 73
• The Topic, Purpose, and Thesis...................................................................................................................... 75
• Writing the Body of Your Speech..................................................................................................................... 78
• Organizational Styles....................................................................................................................................... 78
• Connecting Your Main Points .......................................................................................................................... 82
• Outlining Your Speech..................................................................................................................................... 84
• Conclusion and Module Activities .................................................................................................................... 87
• Glossary and References ................................................................................................................................ 89
• Appendix A: Full Sentence Outline .................................................................................................................. 91
• Appendix B: Speaking Outline ......................................................................................................................... 93

Delivering Your Speech

Speech.............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................. 95
• Video: Storytelling............................................................................................................................................ 95
 • Objectives, Outline, and Introduction............................................................................................................... 96
• Methods of Delivery ......................................................................................................................................... 98
• Vocal Aspects of Delivery .............................................................................................................................. 100
• Nonverbal Aspects of Delivery....................................................................................................................... 105
• Mastering the Location .................................................................................................................................. 109
• Preparation, Practice, and Delivery ............................................................................................................... 111
• Conclusion, Review Questions, and Activities............................................................................................... 114
• Glossary and References .............................................................................................................................. 115

Introductions and Conclusions ................................................................................................ 118

• Objectives, Outline, and Introduction............................................................................................................. 118
• Functions of Introductions.............................................................................................................................. 119
• Attention-Getting Strategies........................................................................................................................... 122
• Preparing the Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 128
• Functions of Conclusions............................................................................................................................... 129
• Composing the Conclusion............................................................................................................................ 134
• Conclusion, Review Questions, and Activities............................................................................................... 135
• Glossary and References .............................................................................................................................. 137

Visual Aids
Aids...............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................... 140
• Objectives, Outline, and Introduction............................................................................................................. 140
• Effective Visual Aids ...................................................................................................................................... 142
• Types of Visual Aids ...................................................................................................................................... 143
• Design Principles ........................................................................................................................................... 148
• Implementation .............................................................................................................................................. 160
• Visual Aid Tips ............................................................................................................................................... 161
• Conclusion, Review Questions, and Activities............................................................................................... 162
• Glossary and References .............................................................................................................................. 164

Critical Thinking and Reasoning

Reasoning..............................................................................................
.............................................................................................. 167
• Video: Sample Student Demonstration Speeches......................................................................................... 167
• Thou Shalt Not Commit Logical Fallacies Poster .......................................................................................... 167
• Objectives, Outline, and Introduction............................................................................................................. 168
• Critical Thinking ............................................................................................................................................. 169
• Logic and the Role of Arguments .................................................................................................................. 170
• Understanding Fallacies ................................................................................................................................ 182
• Formal Fallacies ............................................................................................................................................ 183
• Informal Fallacies........................................................................................................................................... 185
• Conclusion, Review Questions, and Activities............................................................................................... 193
• Glossary and References .............................................................................................................................. 194

Audience Analysis ................................................................................................................... 198

• Video: Monroe's Motivated Sequence ........................................................................................................... 198
• Outline for Monroe’s Motivated Sequence..................................................................................................... 198
• Objectives, Outline, and Introduction............................................................................................................. 199
• Approaches to Audience Analysis ................................................................................................................. 201
• Categories of Audience Analysis ................................................................................................................... 206
• Conclusion, Review Questions, and Activities............................................................................................... 213
• Glossary and References .............................................................................................................................. 214

Persuasive Speaking
Speaking...............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................... 217
• Objectives, Outline, and Introduction............................................................................................................. 217
• What is Persuasive Speaking? ...................................................................................................................... 219
• Functions of Persuasive Speeches ............................................................................................................... 220
• Types of Persuasive Speeches ..................................................................................................................... 220
• Choosing a Persuasive Speech Topic........................................................................................................... 224
 • Approaching Audiences................................................................................................................................. 224
• Persuasive Strategies.................................................................................................................................... 227
• Organizing Persuasive Messages ................................................................................................................. 233
• Conclusion and Module Activities .................................................................................................................. 237
• Glossary and References .............................................................................................................................. 239
• Appendix A: Persuasive Speech Topic Ideas................................................................................................ 243

Supporting Your Ideas

Ideas.............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................. 245
• Video: Using Wikipedia for Academic Research ........................................................................................... 245
• Objectives, Outline, and Introduction............................................................................................................. 245
• Personal and Professional Knowledge .......................................................................................................... 247
• Library Resources.......................................................................................................................................... 249
• Internet Resources ........................................................................................................................................ 252
• Evaluating Information ................................................................................................................................... 258
• Citing Sources and Avoiding Plagiarism........................................................................................................ 259
• Conclusion and Module Activities .................................................................................................................. 261
• Glossary and References .............................................................................................................................. 263
• Using Statistics .............................................................................................................................................. 265
• Using Testimony ............................................................................................................................................ 269
• Using Examples............................................................................................................................................. 272
• Gathering Expertise in Your Subject Area ..................................................................................................... 274

Using Language Well .............................................................................................................. 275

• Objectives, Outline, and Introduction............................................................................................................. 275
• Constructing Clear and Vivid Messages........................................................................................................ 278
• Using Stylized Language ............................................................................................................................... 281
• The Importance of Ethical and Accurate Language....................................................................................... 283
• Avoiding Language Pitfalls ............................................................................................................................ 288
• Conclusion, Review Questions, and Activities............................................................................................... 292
• Glossary and References .............................................................................................................................. 294

Ethics in Public Speaking ........................................................................................................ 297

• Citation Tools................................................................................................................................................. 297
• Objectives, Outline, and Introduction............................................................................................................. 300
• Defining Ethics............................................................................................................................................... 302
• Ethical Speaking ............................................................................................................................................ 303
• Ethical Listening............................................................................................................................................. 312
• Conclusion, Review Questions, and Activities............................................................................................... 314
• Glossary and References .............................................................................................................................. 315

Speaking With Confidence ...................................................................................................... 319

• Objectives, Outline, and Introduction............................................................................................................. 319
• Classifying Communication Apprehension (CA)............................................................................................ 321
• Frames of Reference ..................................................................................................................................... 323
• Cognitive Restructuring ................................................................................................................................. 324
• Techniques for Building Confidence .............................................................................................................. 326
• Conclusion, Review Questions, and Activities............................................................................................... 331
• Glossary and References .............................................................................................................................. 332

Group Presentations ............................................................................................................... 335

• Objectives, Outline, and Introduction............................................................................................................. 335
• Communication about Group Interaction ....................................................................................................... 337
• Preparing All Parts of the Assignment ........................................................................................................... 342
• Organizing for Your Audience........................................................................................................................ 345
• Delivering Your Presentation as One ............................................................................................................ 347
• Conclusion, Review Questions, and Activities............................................................................................... 350
 • Glossary and References .............................................................................................................................. 352

The Origins of Public Speaking ............................................................................................... 355

• Objectives, Outline, and Introduction............................................................................................................. 355
• Ancient Greece .............................................................................................................................................. 357
• The Roman Republic's Adoption of Rhetoric ................................................................................................. 360
• The Middle Ages............................................................................................................................................ 363
• The Renaissance........................................................................................................................................... 364
• The Modern Period ........................................................................................................................................ 366
• Conclusion, Review Questions, and Activities............................................................................................... 368
• Glossary and References .............................................................................................................................. 370

Speech Videos and Resources ............................................................................................... 374

• 50 Wise Speakers.......................................................................................................................................... 374
• Video: CC Licensed student example speeches ........................................................................................... 374
• Video: Amy Cuddy "Your body language shapes who you are" .................................................................... 375
• Video: Terry Moore - "How to tie your shoes"................................................................................................ 376
• Video: Demonstration Speech - How to give the perfect man hug ................................................................ 376
• Video: Demonstration Speech - Easy Tube Pillow Case Tutorial.................................................................. 377
• Video: Brene Brown - "The Power of Vulnerability" ....................................................................................... 377
• Video: Elizabeth Lesser - "Take 'the other' to lunch" ..................................................................................... 377
6
 ABOUT THIS COURSE

ABOUT THIS COURSE

How much do the materials for this course cost students?

• $0/student

What is included in this course?

• Course Materials
Materials: OER modules aligned with student learning outcomes for topics developed for this
course from various OER sources. Adopt and adapt or hide/remove.
• Instructor Resources
Resources, including the following. Adopt and adapt to use in modules, ignore or remove:
◦ Example Syllabi
◦ Activities
◦ Assignments
◦ Discussions
◦ Rubrics

Where did this course come from?

Developed for the Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative, a Next Generation Learning Challenges (NGLC) grant-
funded project, by Christie Fierro, Tacoma Community College and Brent Adrian, Central Community
College http://lumenlearning.com/innovative-projects/.

Much of the material for this course comes from The Public Speaking Project virtual textbook, licensed under a
Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License.
Licensing & Attributions
Lumen Learning authored content
• Acknowledgements. Provided by
by: Lumen Learning. Located at License: CC BY: Attribution
at: http://lumenlearning.com/. License

1
 INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC SPEAKING

WELCOME TO PUBLIC SPEAKING

Given the demands for good communication skills in the civic realm and in the workplace, a course in public
speaking is perhaps more important than ever. There is no quick path to a great speech. Good speaking is
developed through practice and hard work.

The public speaking course is a unique course. Unlike, say, a course in the principles of law or the history of
Central Asia, the public speaking course requires you to both know content and be able to perform a skill well.
You will learn important principles of public speaking and argumentation, but simply knowing these principles is
insufficient; you must also be able to apply them well. By the same token, you might be able to get through a
speech without saying “um,” but if the content of the speech is bad, it is not a good speech. The best public
speakers not only speak smoothly, they also say important and interesting things.

HOW TO BE A STUDENT OF PUBLIC SPEAKING

The most successful model for teaching public speaking (and the one this class follows) relies on a mix of
instruction, imitation, and practice.
• Instruction reinforces the lessons learned from the history of public speaking study. The instruction in this
class draws most explicitly from the rhetorical tradition. We will study principles of argumentation,
arrangement, and style.
• Imitation means that when studying a performance skill like speaking, we benefit by identifying and
imitating the best practices of skilled speakers. I don’t mean stealing or plagiarizing, I mean trying to link
phrases together in a manner similar to a speaker we think sounds good. There are a number of
speeches that you will watch this quarter (online and in class). The intent of these speeches is to show
you some best practices. You shouldn’t simply watch a speech like you would a television show; you
should look to find some verbal or nonverbal behaviors that you would like to be able to imitate.
• Practice is the most obvious leg of public speaking study. If you are going to get better at public
speaking, you must be able to apply the lessons of instruction and imitation by practicing your speeches.
The nice thing about public speaking is that you can practice it almost anywhere. However, your practice
time is best spent by speaking in situations where you have an attentive audience (as opposed to a
curious dog or a sleeping roommate).

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MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT PUBLIC SPEAKING
1. You can’t learn to be a good public speaker; you have to be born a naturally good speaker. Everyone
can become a better public speaker through study and practice. I love to ski. I wasn’t born being a good
skier; rather, I grew up skiing. I skied as often as I could and I got better. The same is true of public
speaking. You were born with the basic equipment needed for speaking in public—lungs and a mouth.
2. I can only learn public speaking through practice alone. This misconception often works in conjunction
with the misconception #1 and #3. I see this as a hugely egoistic argument since it assumes that only
you know what good public speaking is and only you know how to improve. Let me return to the skiing
analogy (though you could substitute any sports or skills analogy, like playing a musical instrument).
Most people develop their skiing ability by simply skiing a lot. But if you want to get better, you need to
seek outside information about the principles of skiing. That’s why people pay a lot of money for ski
lessons. Ski instructors can both model good skiing behaviors and they can talk about the physics of
metal on snow and the physiology of your muscles on skis.
3. Public speaking is just delivery (speech content doesn’t matter). This is like saying that a good essay is
simply one that has good grammar or punctuation. A good essay should have good grammar and
punctuation, but it also needs good content. The same holds true of a speech. When we listen to a
speech we judge the speaker according to what they say as well as how they say it. Think about
presidential debates. After any presidential debate, pundits flood the airwaves and pick apart both
content and delivery, but they spend far more time discussing what the candidates said.
4. Reading a speech is the best way to ensure a good speech. You will hear me talking a lot about the
similarities between writing and speaking, but they also differ in many important respects. A speech is an
act of communication with a specific audience. Reading a speech undermines this (and as we will see,
can actually make you more nervous). If you were having a conversation with a friend about your classes
and suddenly started reading a prepared set of comments, the conversation would sink. Why? A
conversation is dynamic and relies on communicating with the other person. A speech is like a
conversation in this way, you are engaging in a shared act of communication with the audience.

RHET
ETOORIC
A class on public speaking is essentially a rhetoric class. The word rhetoric is often used to indicate that the
speaker is lying (“his record doesn’t match his rhetoric”) or that the speaker is filling air with meaningless talk
(“let’s move past all the rhetoric and get down to business”). It is true that term has gotten a lot of bad press over

3
the past 2,000 years or so, but the study of rhetoric is the study of what is persuasive. We are certainly not the
first group to study what goes into a dynamic and persuasive speech. The ancient Greeks and Romans spent a
lot of time thinking and writing about good speaking. Throughout history, thinkers and charlatans alike have
devoted a considerable amount of effort to figuring out what sounds good, looks good, and works to motivate
various audiences.

DEFINITIONS OF RHETORIC
Since the study of rhetoric has been around for so many years, there are a number of different definitions for the
word. Aristotle defined rhetoric as “the faculty of discovering in any particular case the available means of
persuasion.” Plato held that rhetoric is “the art of winning the soul by discourse.” The Roman thinker Quintilian
suggested simply that rhetoric is the art of speaking well. John Locke however held a dimmer view of the art and
wrote that rhetoric is a “powerful instrument of error and deceit.” The contemporary writer Gerard Hauser
suggests, “Rhetoric is communication that attempts to coordinate social action. For this reason, rhetorical
communication is explicitly pragmatic. Its goal is to influence human choices on specific matters that require
immediate attention.”

For the purposes of this class, we will define rhetoric as “the study and art of effective speaking.” This doesn’t
begin to capture all the ways in which rhetoric could be (and has been) defined, but it does focus our study on the
aspects of rhetoric most relevant to our present concern.

5 MAIN PARTS OF RHETORIC/PUBLIC SPEAKING

Earlier thinkers argued that the study and practice of rhetoric involved five main parts.
1. INVENTION
INVENTION: The first thing that must go into a good speech is good material. Invention means finding or
thinking up good speech content. Basically, a good speaker knows what s/he is talking about. There are
a number of different strategies that we will study to help prime the mental pump. Our focus in this class

4
 is on good arguments (solid claims supported with good evidence). Aristotle suggested that the speech
content was either artistic (you had to think it up) or inartistic (it already existed). Proving your claims
requires both inartistic and artistic proofs. We all know that good arguments require evidence, so let’s
look at the artistic proofs. Aristotle saw three main ways to make an argument
◦ LOGOS
LOGOS: We convince people through our use of logic. So, I can argue that it rained last night
by pointing to the puddles on the ground. I use the evidence of rain puddles to make a claim
about something that I didn’t see, relying on the basic logical premise that “puddles generally
indicate recent rain.” This isn’t the most contentious of arguments, you say. Very true, but the
principle is the same. We use appeals to logic to help support our arguments. Economists make
logical arguments all the time. They have evidence about current trends, but they argue about
where to invest money based on logic— they don’t know 100% what the market will do, but they
can try to figure out where to invest based on historical precedent, prevailing wisdom, and
informal logic.
◦ PATHOS
PATHOS: We persuade people by appealing to their emotions. Of course, we are not simply
logical animals, we have emotions, and these often shape how we see and understand the
world. Now an appeal to pathos doesn’t mean that we simply tug at people’s heart strings or we
try to scare them into acting our way. Of course this happens, but you would be hard pressed to
call it good argumentation. Aristotle saw pathos as putting the audience in the right frame of
mind. So, if you are arguing for something that might seem unfamiliar to your audience, you
would be well advised to tell some personal stories that helped people understand the human
element. The commercials you see asking for help in funding starving populations rely a lot on
pathos. They are trying to evoke your compassion by showing you what the living conditions
are like for many in need.
◦ ETHOS
ETHOS: We can persuade people by virtue of good character. Aristotle suggested that of the
three artistic proofs, ethos was potentially the most persuasive. Do we trust the speaker’s
credibility as a person and her/his credibility on the topic? Do we trust that the speaker has our
best interests at heart? We can gain ethos by doing all the research that a good speech needs
and then demonstrating that ethos by being able to talk about the topic intelligently. We can
“borrow” ethos by citing the best research available. Ultimately, though ethos must be earned
by showing the audience that you are a credible source on this topic.
◦ A good speech requires you to think about a host of different issues ranging from possible
arguments, oppositional arguments, and all the different types of evidence you can use. A good
speech also includes a mix of logos, pathos, and ethos. The process of sorting through all this
material and deciding on the best for you case is the process of invention.
2. ARRANGEMENT
ARRANGEMENT: Once you determine what you speech will be about and what types of artistic and
inartistic proofs you will use, then you need to think about the best possible way to arrange your speech.
How much background information do you need to give? How should you arrange your main points?
How long or short should the introduction be? In many ways, arranging a speech is more difficult than
arranging an essay because a reader can jump around in an essay (look at the section headings, jump
back and revisit something s/he was unclear on, etc.), but an audience member must listen to the
speaker’s flow of information in chronological time. Given this, you must think about how your audience
will hear and understand your speech.
3. STYLE
STYLE: Once you know what you will say and the order in which you will say it, then you can begin to
focus more on the details of exactly how you will say it. Some speeches are stylistically rich (Abraham
Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address is a famous example) while others are more stylistically plain (say, a
business presentation), yet both have a type of style. The rhetorician Cicero talked about high, middle,
and low styles in public speaking. We are probably familiar with the high style; many political orators use
it for famous speeches. In the U.S. the State of the Union Address is usually delivered in a middle or
high style. We are also probably familiar with the low style. If not, watch a television talk show; here the
style is very casual. Ultimately, style is governed by the topic and the audience you are addressing. In
this class, we are concerned most with the middle and middle-high style. You should think strategically
about your style and how you audience will hear and understand your words. The three main speech
assignments move from low-middle style (impromptu speech), to middle style (persuasive speech), to
middle- high style (advocacy speech).
4. MEMORY
MEMORY: This part of rhetoric was really important for speakers in classical Greece and Rome because
they delivered really long speeches (often in very high style). It remains important for us because a
speech is spoken not read. If you don’t practice your speech, you won’t be familiar with it. If you aren’t
familiar with your speech, you will probably read it to us. This is not a class in public reading, but in
public speaking. You should not try to memorize your speeches word for word. This will only exacerbate
any fear you have of public speaking. However, you should know the main parts of your speech. This
comes down to a matter of knowledge and practice. You need to know your material well enough so that

5
 you can talk about the topic intelligently (invention). You also need to practice enough so that you know
how best to explain this topic to the audience (arrangement and style).
5. DELIVERY
DELIVERY: The final part of a study of rhetoric is the one that people fear the most: standing up in front
of an audience and actually delivering the speech. Of course, if you have the invention, arrangement,
style, and memory parts down pat, the delivery part shouldn’t give you too many headaches. That said,
there are a number of delivery issues that can help or hurt your speech. We will study some of those
delivery issues that are most distracting and those techniques that are most beneficial. However, the
basic delivery approach we will focus on in this class is conversational delivery. This doesn’t mean
simply speaking as you would with your friends about any subject, but finding a style that looks good,
sounds good, and helps your ethos.

Licensing & Attributions

CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Image of Rhetorica. Authored by
by: falco. Located at
at: https://pixabay.com/en/hildesheim-germany-lower-saxony-711009/. License License: CC0: No Rights Reserved
• Welcome to Public Speaking. Authored by by: Matt McGarrity. Provided by License: CC BY: Attribution
by: University of Washington. License
• Image of students. Authored by
by: Berklee Valencia Campus. Located at License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
at: https://flic.kr/p/oXLyzW. License

Chapter 1: Introduction to Public Speaking

By Lisa Schreiber, Ph.D. and Morgan Hartranft

Millersville University, Millersville, PA

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Articulate at least three reasons why public speaking skills are important.
• Describe the difference between the linear and the transactional model of communication.
• List, define, and give an example of each of the components of communication.
• Differentiate between the major types of speeches.
• Identify the eleven core public speaking competencies.
• Apply chapter concepts in final questions and activities.

Chapter Outline
• Introduction
• Benefits of Public Speaking
◦ Personal
◦ Professional
◦ Public
• Models of Communication
◦ Linear
◦ Transactional
• Elements of the Communication Process
◦ Encoding and Decoding
◦ Communicator
◦ Message
◦ Channel
◦ Noise

6
 ◦ Worldview
◦ Context
• Types of Speeches
• Speaking Competencies
◦ Useful Topic
◦ Engaging Introduction
◦ Clear Organization
◦ Well-Supported Ideas
◦ Closure in Conclusion
◦ Clear and Vivid Language
◦ Suitable Vocal Expression
◦ Corresponding Nonverbals
◦ Adapted to the Audience
◦ Adept Use of Visual Aids
◦ Convincing Persuasion
• Conclusion
• Review Questions and Activities
• Glossary
• References

Introduction
Humans’ ability to communicate using formalized systems of language sets us apart from other living creatures on
the Earth. Whether these language conventions make us superior to other creatures is debatable, but there is no
question that overall, the most successful and most powerful people over the centuries have mastered the ability
to communicate effectively. In fact, the skill of speaking is so important that it has been formally taught for
thousands of years.

The ironic feature of public speaking is that while we recognize that it is an

important skill to have, many of us do not like or want to give speeches. You may
be reading this book because it was assigned to you in a class, or you may be
reading it because you have to give a speech in your personal or professional
life. If you are reading this book because you like public speaking or you have a
burning desire to learn more about it, you’re in the minority.

The good news about public speaking is that although it may not be on the top of
the list of our favorite activities, anyone can learn to give effective presentations.
You don’t have to look like a Hollywood star and you don’t have to use fancy
words to be a successful speaker. What is important is that the audience
understands you and remembers what you have to say. By learning and using
the techniques provided in this reading material, you will discover how to create “Europe for Tibet Solidarity Rally
engaging speeches and present them using your own delivery style. 200 His Holiness, the 14th Dalai
Lama” by Wolfgang H. Wögerer.
Wherever I go meeting the public… spreading a message of human values, CC BY-SA.
spreading a message of harmony, is the most important thing. – Dalai
Lama

Licensing & Attributions

CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 1 Objectives, Outline, and Introduction. Authored by by: Lisa Schreiber, Ph.D. and Morgan Hartranft. Provided by
by: Millersville University, Millersville, PA. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/
psvirtualtext.html. Project License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Project: Public Speaking Project. License
• Image of Dalai Lama. Authored by by: Wolfgang H. Wogerer. Located at at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vienna_2012-05-26_-_Europe_for_Tibet_Solidarity_Rally_200_His_Holiness,_the_14th_Dalai_Lama.jpg.
License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
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7
 BENEFITS OF PUBLIC SPEAKING

According to the Association of American Colleges and

Universities, there are a core set of skills that are necessary
“both for a globally engaged democracy and for a dynamic,
innovation fueled economy.” ( (Note: Rhodes, T. (Ed.)
(2010). Assessing outcomes and improving achievement:
Tips and tools for using rubrics. Washington D. C.:
Association of American Colleges and Universities.)) In the
category of “Intellectual and practical skills” public speaking
is listed as one of these core skills. This is not particularly
surprising given that communication skills are critical for
intellectual development, career trajectory, and civic
engagement. Public speaking is universally applicable to all
types of majors and occupations and is seen by U.S.
employers as a critical employability skill for job seekers. (
(Note: Rockler-Gladen, N. (2009, March 21). Job skills that
every college student needs: Writing, speaking,
professionalism, and other important knowledge. Suite 101.com. Retrieved from http://studyskills.suite101.com/
article.cfm/job_skills_that_every_college_student_needs)) No matter what your ambitions and interests are,
developing speaking skills will benefit your personal, professional, and public life.

Personal
People don’t just give presentations on the job and in classes. At times we are called upon to give speeches in
our personal lives. It may be for a special event, such as a toast at a wedding. We may be asked to give a eulogy
at a funeral for a friend or loved one. As a part of volunteer work, one may have to introduce a guest speaker at
an event or present or accept an award for service. Developing the skill to give these types of speeches can help
us to fulfill essential roles in our family and community. Another great personal benefit of public speaking is that it
builds self- confidence. It’s no surprise that speaking in public is scary, but by engaging in the activity you will
build self-confidence through the experience.

Professional
TV announcers, teachers, lawyers, and entertainers must be able to speak
well, but most other professions require or at the very least can benefit from
the skills found in public speaking. It is believed 70% of jobs today involve
some form of public speaking. ( (Note: Aras, K. (2012). The nuts and bolts of
public speaking: Practical tools for powerful presentations. Retrieved from
http://www.thecommunicationfactory.com/seminars/skills/
PublicSpeaking.php )) With the recent economic shift from manufacturing to
service careers, the ability to communicate with others has become crucial.
Top CEOs advise that great leaders must be able to communicate ideas
effectively, they must be able to persuade, build support, negotiate and
speak effectively in public. ( (Note: Farrell, R. (2011). Soft skills all great
leaders should have. CareerBuilder. http://www.careerbuilder.com/Article/
CB-2335-Leadership-Management-Soft-skillsall-great-leaders-should- “Alice Walker” by Virginia DeBolt. CC-
have/)) The chapters on “Informative Speaking” and “Persuasive Speaking” BY-SA.
can help readers understand how to write presentations that enhance their
leadership skills. But before you even start a career, you have to get a job. Effective speaking skills make you
more attractive to employers, enhancing your chances of securing employment and later advancing within your
career. Employers, career counselors, and the National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE) all list
good communication skills at the top of the list of qualities sought in potential employees. According to NACE’s

8
executive director, Marilyn Mackes, the Job Outlook 2013 Report found that employers are looking for people who
can communicate effectively. ( (Note: Koncz, A. and Allen, C. (2012). Employers look for communication skills,
ability to work in a team in new college grads. www.naceweb.org/pressreleases/.)) Monster.com advises,
“articulating thoughts clearly and concisely will make a difference in both a job interview and subsequent job
performance.” ( (Note: McKay, J. (2005). Employers complain about communication skills. Pittsburgh Post
Gazette. Retrieved from http://www.post-gazette.com/business/businessnews/2005/02/06/Employers-complain-
about-communication-skills/stories/200502060145))

Action is a great restorer and builder of confidence. Inaction is not only the result, but the cause, of fear.
Perhaps the action you take will be successful; perhaps different action or adjustments will have to
follow. But any action is better than no action at all. – Norman Vincent Peale

Public
Learning about public speaking will allow you to participate in democracy at its most basic level. Public speaking
is important in creating and sustaining a society, which includes informed, active participants. Even if you do not
plan to run for office, learning about public speaking helps you to listen more carefully to and critically evaluate
other’s speeches. Listening and critical thinking allow you to understand public dilemmas, form an opinion about
them, and participate in resolving them. The progress of the past century involving segregation, women’s rights
and environmental protection are the result of people advancing new ideas and speaking out to others to
persuade them to adopt changes.
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at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
Project:
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The Public Speaking Project. License
• Michael Rosenbaum. Authored by by: vagueonthehow. Provided by by: Wikimedia Commons. Located at at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Michael_Rosenbaum_(4995506953).jpg. License License: CC BY: Attribution
• Image of Alice Walker. Authored byby: Virginia DeBolt. Provided by
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MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

It should be clear by now that public speaking happens all around us in many segments of our lives. However, to
truly understand what is happening within these presentations, we need to take a step back and look at some of
the key components of the communication process.

Linear Model of Communication

The first theoretical model of communication was proposed in 1949 by Shannon and Weaver for Bell
Laboratories. ( (Note: Shannon, C. E., & Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical theory of communication. Urbana:
University of Illinois Press.)) This three-part model was intended to capture the radio and television transmission
process. However it was later adapted to human communication and is now known as the linear model of
communication. The first part of the model is the sender, and this is the person who is speaking. The second part
of the model is the channel, which is the apparatus for carrying the message (i.e., the phone or TV). The third part
of the model is the receiver, and this is the person who picks up the message. In this model, communication is
seen as a one-way process of transmitting a message from one person to another person. This model can be
found in Figure 1.1. If you think about situations when you communicate with another person face-to-face or when
you give a speech, you probably realize that this model is inadequate—communication is much more complicated
than firing off a message to others.

9
 “Figure 1.1” by Public Speaking Project. CC-BY-NC-ND.

Transactional Model of Communication

Models of communication have evolved significantly since Shannon and Weaver first proposed their well- known
conceptual model over sixty years ago. One of the most useful models for understanding public speaking is
Barnlund’s transactional model of communication. ( (Note: Barnlund, D. C. (2008). A transactional model of
communication. In. C. D. Mortensen (Eds.), Communication theory (2nd Ed), pp. 47–)57. New Brunswick, New
Jersey: Transaction.) In the transactional model, communication is seen as an ongoing, circular process. We are
constantly affecting and are affected by those we communicate with. The transactional model has a number of
interdependent processes and components, including the encoding and decoding processes, the communicator,
the message, the channel and noise. Although not directly addressed in Barnlund’s (2008) original transactional
model, participants’ worldviews and the context also play an important role in the communication process. See
Figure 1.2 for an illustration.

10
“Figure 1.2” by Public Speaking Project. CC-BY-NC-ND.

He who would learn to fly one day must first learn to stand and walk and run and climb and dance; one cannot fly
into flying. ~ Friedrich Nietzsche
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by: Millersville University, Millersville, PA. Located at
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Public Speaking Project. License

ELEMENTS OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Encoding and Decoding

Encoding refers to the process of taking an idea or mental image, associating that image with words, and then
speaking those words in order to convey a message. So, if you wanted to explain to your aunt the directions to
your new apartment, you would picture in your mind the landscape, streets and buildings, and then you would
select the best words that describe the route so your aunt could find you.

11
Decoding is the reverse process of listening to words, thinking about them, and turning those words into mental
images. If your aunt were trying to find her way to your apartment, she would listen to your words, associate these
words with streets and landmarks that she knows, and then she would form a mental map of the way to get to
you. Ramsey’s “Using Language Well” (Chapter 10) provides additional insight into the encoding and decoding
process.

Communicator
The term communicator refers to all of the people in the interaction or speech setting. It is used instead of sender
and receiver, because when we are communicating with other people we are not only sending a message, we are
receiving messages from others simultaneously. When we speak, we observe others’ nonverbal behavior to see if
they understand us and we gauge their emotional state. The information we gain from these observations is
known as feedback. Over the telephone, we listen to paralinguistic cues, such as pitch, tone, volume and fillers
(i.e., “um,” “uh,” “er,” “like,” and so on). This means that communication is not a one-way process. Even in a public
speaking situation, we watch and listen to audience members’ responses. If audience members are interested,
agree, and understand us, they may lean forward in their seats, nod their heads, have positive or neutral facial
expressions, and provide favorable vocal cues (such as laughter, “That’s right,” “Uh huh,” or “Amen!”). If audience
members are bored, disagree, or are confused by our message, they may be texting or looking away from us,
shake their heads, have unhappy or confused expressions on their faces, or present oppositional vocal cues (like
groans, “I don’t think so,” “That doesn’t make sense,” or “You’re crazy!”). Thus, communication is always a
transactional process—a give and take of messages.

Message
The message involves those verbal and nonverbal behaviors, enacted by communicators, that are interpreted
with meaning by others. The verbal portion of the message refers to the words that we speak, while the nonverbal
portion includes our tone of voice and other non-vocal components such as personal appearance, posture,
gestures and body movements, eye behavior, the way we use space, and even the way that we smell. For
instance, the person who gets up to speak wearing a nice suit will be interpreted more positively than a person
giving the exact same speech wearing sweats and a graphic t-shirt. Or if a speaker tries to convince others to
donate to a charity that builds wells in poor African villages using a monotone voice, she will not be as effective as
the speaker who gives the same speech but speaks with a solemn tone of voice. If there is ever a conflict
between the verbal and the non-verbal aspects of a message, people will generally believe the nonverbal portion
of the message. To test this, tighten your muscles, clench your fists at your sides, pull your eye brows together,
purse your lips, and tell someone in a harsh voice, “NO, I’m NOT angry!” See if they believe your words or your
nonverbal behavior.

The message can also be intentional or unintentional. When the message is intentional, this means that we have
an image in our mind that we wish to communicate to an audience or a person in a conversation, and we can
successfully convey the image from our mind to others’ minds with relative accuracy. An unintentional message is
sent when the message that we wish to convey is not the same as the message the other person receives. Let’s
say you are returning from an outing with your significant other and she or he asks, “Did you have a good time?”
You did have a good time but are distracted by a TV commercial when asked, so you reply in a neutral tone,
“Sure, I had fun.” Your significant other may interpret your apathetic tone of voice and lack of eye contact to mean
that you did not enjoy the evening, when in fact you actually did. Thus as communicators, we cannot always be
sure that the message we wish to communicate is interpreted as we intended.

Channel
The channel is very simply the means through which the message travels. In face-to-face communication the
channel involves all of our senses, so the channel is what we see, hear, touch, smell and perhaps what we taste.
When we’re communicating with someone online, the channel is the computer; when texting the channel is the
cell phone; and when watching a movie on cable, the channel is the TV. The channel can have a profound impact
on the way a message is interpreted. Listening to a recording of a speaker does not have the same psychological
impact as listening to the same speech in person or watching that person on television. One famous example of
this is the 1960 televised presidential debate between John F. Kennedy and Richard Nixon. According to

12
History.com (2012), on camera, Nixon looked away from the camera at the reporters asking him questions, he
was sweating and pale, he had facial hair stubble, and he wore a grey suit that faded into the set background.
“Chicago mayor Richard J. Daley reportedly said [of Nixon], ‘My God, they’ve embalmed him before he even
died.” ( (Note: History.com. (2012). The Kennedy-Nixon Debates. History.com. Retrieved from
http://www.history.com/topics/us-presidents/kennedy-nixon-debates)) Kennedy, on the other hand, looked into the
camera, was tanned, wore a dark suit that made him stand out from the background, and appeared to be calm
after spending the entire weekend with aides practicing in a hotel room. Most of those who listened to the radio
broadcast of the debate felt that it was a tie or that Nixon had won, while 70% of those watching the televised
debate felt that Kennedy was the winner.

“Kennedy Nixon Debate” by United Press International. Public domain.

Noise
The next aspect of the model of communication is noise. Noise refers to anything that interferes with message
transmission or reception (i.e., getting the image from your head into others’ heads). There are several different
types of noise. The first type of noise is physiological noise
noise, and this refers to bodily processes and states that
interfere with a message. For instance, if a speaker has a headache or the flu, or if audience members are hot or
they’re hungry, these conditions may interfere with message accuracy. The second type of noise is psychological
noise. Psychological noise refers to mental states or emotional states that impede message transmission or
reception. For example, if someone has just broken up with a significant other, or if they’re worried about their
grandmother who is in the hospital, or if they are thinking about their shopping list, this may interfere with
communication processes as well. The third type of noise is actual physical noise, and this would be simply the
actual sound level in a room. Loud music playing at a party, a number of voices of people talking excitedly, a
lawnmower right outside the window, or anything that is overly loud will interfere with communication. The last
type of noise is cultural noise. Cultural noise refers to message interference that results from differences in
peoples’ worldviews. Worldview is discussed in more detail below, but suffice it to say that the greater the
difference in worldview, the more difficult it is to understand one another and communicate effectively.

13
Worldview
Most people don’t give a lot of thought to the
communication process. In the majority of our interactions
with others, we are operating on automatic pilot. Although
the encoding and decoding process may appear to be
fairly straightforward, it is actually much more complicated
than it seems. The reason for this is because we all have
different worldviews. Worldview is the overall framework
through which an individual sees, thinks about, and
interprets the world and interacts with it. There are five
core components to our worldview.

1. Epistemology is the way that we acquire

knowledge and/or what counts as knowledge.
Think about the process of conducting research.
Thirty years ago, to find a series of facts one had “The 2nd most famous face in Pushkar” by Shreyans
to use a card catalogue and scour the library Bhansali. CC-BY-NC-SA.
stacks for books. Now researchers can access
thousands of pages of information via their computer from the comfort of their own home. Epistemology
is linked to public speaking because it governs audience members’ preferred learning styles and who or
what they consider to be credible sources.

2. Ontology refers to our belief system, how we see the nature of reality or what we see as true or false.
We may (or may not) believe in aliens from outer space, that butter is bad for you, that the Steelers will
win the Superbowl, or that humans will be extinct in 200 years. Speech writers should be careful not to
presume that audience members share the same beliefs. If a speaker claims that illness can be aided
with prayer, but several people in the audience are atheists, at best the speaker has lost credibility and
at worst these audience members could be offended.

3. Axiology represents our value system, or what we see as right or wrong, good or bad, and fair or
unfair. One of the ways that you can tell what people value is to ask them what their goals are, or to ask
them what qualities they look for in a life partner. Our values represent the things that we hope
for—they do not represent reality. Values can have an impact on multiple levels of the public speaking
process, but in particular values impact speaker credibility and effectiveness in persuasion. For
instance, some cultures value modest dress in women, so a female speaker wearing a sleeveless
blouse while speaking could cause her to lose credibility with some audience members. Or if audience
members value the freedom to bear arms over the benefits of government regulation, a speaker will
have a difficult time convincing these audience members to vote for stricter gun control legislation.

4. Cosmology signifies the way that we see our relationship to the universe and to other people.
Cosmology dictates our view of power relationships and may involve our religious or spiritual beliefs.
Controversial speech topics (like universal health care and the death penalty) are often related to this
aspect of worldview as we must consider our responsibilities to other human beings and our power to
influence them. Interestingly, cosmology would also play a role in such logistical points as who is
allowed to speak, the order of speakers on a schedule (e.g., from most to least important), the amount
of time a speaker has to speak, the seating arrangement on the dais, and who gets the front seats in
the audience.

14
 5. Praxeology denotes our preferred method of
completing everyday tasks or our approach to
solving problems. Some speech writers may
begin working on their outlines as soon as they
know they will need to give a speech, while
others may wait until a few days before their
speech to begin preparing (we do not
recommend this approach). Praxeology may
also have an impact on a speaker’s preference
of delivery style, methods of arranging main
points, and choice of slideware (i.e., Power Point
versus Prezi).

It is always good to explore the stuff you don’t agree

with, to try and understand a different lifestyle or
foreign worldview. I like to be challenged in that way,
and always end up learning something I didn’t know. “NFL Superfans” by HMJD02. CC-BY-SA.
– Laura Linney

It is important to understand worldview because it has a profound impact on the encoding and decoding process,
and consequently on our ability to be understood by others. Try this simple experiment. Ask two or three people to
silently imagine a dog while you imagine a dog at the same time. “Dog” is a very concrete word (a word that
describes a tangible object that can be perceived through the senses), and it is one of the first words children in
the United States learn in school. Wait a few seconds and then ask each person what type of dog they were
thinking of. Was it a Chihuahua? A greyhound? Golden retriever? Rottweiler? Or some other dog? Most likely
each person you asked had a different image in his or her mind than you had in yours. This is our worldview at
work.

To further illustrate, you may tell a co-worker, “I can’t wait to go home this
weekend—we are having lasagna!” Seems like a fairly clear-cut statement,
doesn’t it? Unfortunately, it is not. While “lasagna” is also a concrete word,
our worldviews cause us to interpret each word in the statement differently.
Where is “home?” Who is making the meal? What ingredients will be used in
the lasagna? Is this dish eaten as a regular meal or for a special occasion?
Will there be leftovers? Are friends invited? Since everyone who has eaten
lasagna has had a different experience of the cuisine, we all acquire a
different image in our mind when we hear the statement “…we are having
lasagna!” “Lasagna” by David K. CC-BY-SA.

Complicating matters is the fact that the more abstract the word becomes, the more room there is for
interpretation. Abstract words (words that refer to ideas or concepts that are removed from material reality) like
“peace,” “love,” “immoral,” “justice,” “freedom,” “success,” and “honor” can have a number of different meanings;
each of which is predicated on one’s worldview. Communicators have their own unique worldviews that shape
both the encoding and decoding processes, which means that we can never be completely understood by another
person. People from the Midwest may call carbonated beverages “pop,” while those from the East Coast may say
“soda,” and those from Georgia may say “coke.” Even when simple terms are used like “oak tree” or “fire hydrant,”
each listener will form a different mental image when decoding the message. Never take communication for
granted, and never assume your listener will understand you. It takes hard work to make yourself understood by
an audience.

Context is worth 80 IQ points.- Alan Kay

15
Context
The last element of the communication process is the
context in which the speech or interaction takes place. In
the 1980’s context was taught as the actual physical
setting where communication occurred, such as in a place
of worship, an apartment, a workplace, a noisy restaurant,
or a grocery store. People communicate differently in each
one of these places as there are unwritten rules of
communication (called norms
norms) that govern these settings.
More recently the concept of context has evolved and
expanded to include the type of relationships we have with
others and the communicative rules that govern those
relationships. So you do not speak the same way to your
best friend as you do to a small child, your parent, your
boss, your doctor or a police officer. And you may speak to
your best friend differently in your apartment than you do in “Talking technique” by The U.S. Army. CC-BY.
your parents’ home, and your communication may also
change when you are both out with friends on the weekend. In sum, the context refers to the norms that govern
communication in different situations and relationships.
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• Kennedy Nixon Debat 1960. Authored by
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Known Copyright

TYPES OF SPEECHES AND SPEAKING

OCCASIONS

There are three general purposes for speaking in public.

The general purpose of a speech is usually determined by
the occasion in which the speech will be presented. The
first general purpose is to inform your audience. In an
informative speech, the presenter will share information
about a particular person, place, object, process, concept,
or issue by defining, describing, or explaining. Occasions
for which an informative speech would be presented
include a report presented to coworkers, a teacher
presenting information to his or her class, and a training
session for a job. The second purpose for public speaking
is to persuade. In a persuasive speech, the presenter will
attempt to reinforce or change their audiences’ beliefs,
attitudes, feelings, or values. Several occasions where
persuasion is used include a sales pitch to potential “Insider Secrets of Public Speaking” by Nadine Dereza. CC-
customers, a politician’s campaign speech, or a debate BY.
during a public forum. The last general purpose is to
commemorate or entertain. These types of speeches often strengthen the bonds between audience members
from recalling a shared experience or intend to amuse audiences through humor, stories, or illustrations.
Examples of this purpose include a toast, such as a best man’s speech at a wedding reception; a eulogy to praise
the dead; a commencement speech at graduation; or presenting an award. It is important to note that these

16
general purposes may overlap one another. One might wish to use some forms of entertainment while informing
or persuading his or her audience.

A desire presupposes the possibility of action to achieve it; action presupposes a goal which is worth
achieving. – Ayn Rand

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Project: The
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Public Speaking Project. License
• Insider Secrets of Public Speaking. Authored by
by: Nadine Dereza. Located at License: CC BY: Attribution
at: https://flic.kr/p/pz6DEo. License

SPEAKING COMPETENCIES

We assume you are reading this book or chapter because you wish to improve your speaking skills – a worthy
goal. As Ayn Rand alludes to in her quote, a desire to succeed is the first step in achieving this objective.
Nevertheless, you cannot hit a target unless you know what it is. Thus, the final portion of this chapter is devoted
to an overview of eleven speaking competencies which we consider to be the standards for evaluating a variety of
presentations at every level of mastery. These are based on the Public Speaking Competence Rubric [PSCR]. (
(Note: Schreiber, L., Paul, G. & Shibley, L. R. (2012). The development and test of the Public Speaking
Competence Rubric. Communication Education, 61(3), 205–233)) A complete copy of the rubric can be found at
Activities.

1. Useful topic. The first speaking competency is to select a topic that is appropriate to the audience and the
occasion. An advanced speaker selects a worthwhile topic that engages the audience. His topic also
presents the audience with new information that they did not know before the speech. A beginning speaker
selects a topic that lacks originality or is out of date. His topic provides no new information to the audience.
An ineffective speaker may give a speech in which a single topic cannot be deduced by the audience.

2. Engaging introduction. To formulate an introduction

that orients the audience to the topic and the speaker
is the second speaking competency. An advanced
speaker writes an introduction that contains an
excellent attention-getter. She firmly establishes her
credibility. She provides a sound orientation to the
topic, states her thesis clearly, and previews her
points in a cogent and memorable way. For the
beginning speaker, her attention-getter is mundane
and she somewhat develops her credibility. Her
thesis is awkwardly composed and she provides little
direction for the audience. The ineffective speaker
has no opening technique, no credibility statement
and provides no background on the topic. In addition
she has no thesis statement and no preview of her
points. “Untitled” by Krystle. CC-BY.

3. Clear organization. Competency three is to use an effective organizational pattern. An advanced speaker
is very well organized and delivers a speech with clear main points. His points are mutually exclusive and
directly related to the thesis. Further, he employs effective transitions and signposts to help the speech flow
well. The beginning speaker has main points that are somewhat organized, but the content of these points
may overlap. Transitions may also be present in his speech, but they are not particularly effective. In the
ineffective speaker’s speech, there is no clear organizational pattern, there are no transitions, and it sounds
as if the information is randomly presented.

Don’t leave inferences to be drawn when evidence can be presented. -Richard Wright

17
 4. Well-supported ideas. Fourth on the list of speaking competencies is to locate, synthesize, and employ
compelling supporting materials. In the advanced speaker’s speech, her key points are well supported with a
variety of credible materials, and her sources provide excellent support for her thesis. In addition, all of her
sources are clearly cited. A beginning speaker has points that are generally supported with a fair mix of
materials. Only some of her evidence supports her thesis, and her source citations need to be clarified. An
ineffective speaker gives a speech with no supporting materials or no source citations.

5. Closure in conclusion. The fifth speaking

competency is to develop a conclusion that reinforces
the thesis and provides psychological closure. The
advanced speaker provides a clear and memorable
summary of his points, and he refers back to the
thesis or big picture. His speech also ends with a
strong clincher or call to action. A beginning speaker
provides some summary of his points, but there is no
clear reference back to his thesis. The closing
technique of his speech can also be strengthened. In
an ineffective speaker’s speech, there is no
conclusion. His speech ends abruptly and without
closure.

6. Clear and vivid language. To demonstrate a careful

choice of words is the sixth speaking competency. An “Speaking Out – Public speaking made easy” by Christian
advanced speaker’s language is exceptionally clear, Heilmann. CC-BY.
imaginative and vivid. Her language is also
completely free from bias, grammatical errors and inappropriate usage. The beginning speaker selects
language that is adequate to make her point. She has some errors in grammar and occasionally uses slang,
jargon or awkward sentence structure. The ineffective speaker has many errors in her grammar and syntax.
She also mispronounces words and extensively uses slang, jargon, and/or sexist or racist terms.

7. Suitable vocal expression. Competency number seven is to effectively use vocal expression and
paralanguage to engage the audience. Excellent use of vocal variation, intensity and pacing are
characteristics of the advanced speaker. His vocal expression is also natural and enthusiastic, and he avoids
fillers. Some vocal variation is evident in the beginning speaker’s speech. He also enunciates clearly, speaks
audibly, and generally avoids fillers (e.g., “um,” “uh,” “like,” etc.). An ineffective speaker is inaudible,
enunciates poorly, and speaks in a monotone voice. His speech also has poor pacing, and he distracts
listeners with fillers.

8. Corresponding nonverbals. Eighth on the list of competencies is to demonstrate nonverbal behavior that
supports the verbal message. An advanced speaker has posture, gestures, facial expression and eye
contact that are natural, well developed, and display high levels of poise and confidence. Some reliance on
notes is seen with the beginning speaker, but she has adequate eye contact. She also generally avoids
distracting mannerisms. The ineffective speaker usually looks down and avoids eye contact. She has
nervous gestures and other nonverbal behaviors that distract from or contradict the message.

Body language is a very powerful tool. We had body language before we had speech, and apparently,
80% of what you understand in a conversation is read through the body, not the words. – Deborah Bull

9. Adapted to the audience. The ninth speaking competency is to successfully adapt the presentation to the
audience. The advanced speaker shows how information is important to audience members, and his speech
is tailored to their beliefs, values and attitudes. He may also make allusions to culturally shared experiences.
A beginning speaker assumes but does not articulate the importance of the topic. His presentation is
minimally adapted to the audience, and some of the ideas presented in the speech are removed from the
audience’s frame of reference or experiences. An ineffective speaker’s speech is contrary to the audience’s
beliefs, values and attitudes. His message may be generic or canned and no attempt is made to establish
common ground.

18
 10. Adept use of visual aids. To skillfully make use of
visual aids is the tenth competency. Exceptional
explanation and presentation of visual aids is
characteristic of the advanced speaker. Her speech
has visuals that provide powerful insight into the
speech topic, and her visuals are of high professional
quality. The beginning speaker’s visual aids are
generally well developed and explained, although
there may be minor errors present in the visuals. An
ineffective speaker uses visual aids that distract from
her speech. Her visuals may not be relevant, or her
visuals may be of poor professional quality. “Space Apps NYC Hackathon-2014” by jonny goldstein.
CC-BY.
11. Convincing persuasion. The eleventh and final
speaking competency is to construct an effectual persuasive message with credible evidence and sound
reasoning. An advanced speaker articulates the problem and solution in a clear, compelling manner. He
supports his claims with powerful and credible evidence while completely avoiding reasoning fallacies. His
speech also contains a memorable call to action. In the beginning speaker’s speech, the problem and
solution are evident, and most claims are supported with evidence. He also has generally sound reasoning
and a recognizable call to action. For the ineffective speaker, the problem and/or solution are not defined.
His claims are not supported with evidence, his speech contains poor reasoning, and there is no call to
action. Readers should note that the competencies listed above are not all inclusive. Ultimately one must
adjust, expand, and apply these competencies as best fits the requirements of the speaking situation. But
they do provide a starting point for new or less experienced speakers to begin to understand all of the
interrelated components of a speech.

Being ignorant is not so much a shame, as being unwilling to learn. – Benjamin Franklin

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• Speaking Out - Public speaking made easy. Authored by by: Christian Heilmann. Located at License: CC BY: Attribution
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CONCLUSION, REVIEW QUESTIONS, AND

ACTIVITIES

Our capacity to communicate through systems of language differentiates us from other species, but the use of
that language to communicate effectively is actually harder than anticipated, particularly in front of an audience.
Fortunately, by reading this book, you can learn the skills required to communicate more effectively one-on-one
and in a speaking situation.

The speeches you present will be given in a particular context. In your role as communicator, you will encode and
deliver a message which will then be decoded by audience members (also communicators). At the same time you
are speaking, you will be receiving verbal and nonverbal feedback from the audience. The way that the message
is decoded will depend entirely on the amount of noise interfering with the message as well as the worldviews of
audience members.

Every new speaker should work to become skilled at the eleven core public speaking competencies. These
competencies include: selecting a useful topic, writing an engaging introduction, organizing the points of the
speech, finding effective supporting materials for the points, adding a conclusion that provides closure, using clear
and vivid language, making sure that one’s vocal expression corresponds to the goals of the speech, using
nonverbals that complement the message, adapting the message to one’s audience, using visual aids effectively,

19
and using credible evidence and sound reasoning in persuasive messages. Each one of the competencies just
listed is covered in depth in one or more chapters in this book.

The authors of this textbook hope that readers will find the chapters useful in developing their own communication
competence. Whether you are new to giving presentations, or a more experienced speaker, it is important to
remember that the best way to improve your public speaking skills is through preparation and practice. Although it
may take time to learn effective speaking skills, the effort is well worth the benefits you will reap in your personal,
professional, and public life.

“Untitled” by clarita. morgueFile.

An effective speaker knows that the success or failure of his talk is not for him to decide—it will be
decided in the minds and hearts of his hearers. – Dale Carnegie

Review Questions
1. What are the personal, professional and public benefits of enhancing your public speaking skills?
2. What is the difference between the linear and transactional model of communication?
3. Define and give an original example of each of the elements of the communication process.
4. Which of the elements of the communication process do you think has the greatest impact on the
way a message is interpreted. Explain.
5. What are the three types of speeches? For each of the three types of speeches, give two examples
of an occasion or situation in which that type of speech might be given.
6. List the eleven speaking competencies. For each competency listed, describe the differences
between the advanced speaker and the inexperienced speaker.

20
 Activities
1. Working in groups of 3–5, generate a list of the characteristics of ineffective speakers you have seen.
Next, generate a list of the characteristics of the effective speakers you have seen. What three
qualities do you believe are most important to be a successful speaker? Explain.
2. Locate a speech on YouTube. While watching the speech, identify the strengths and weaknesses of
the speaker’s content and delivery? What three things could the speaker improve on? What three
things did you like about the speaker? If you were to deliver the speech, how would you do things
differently?
3. Locate a copy of the Public Speaking Competence Rubric. Read through each of the levels of each
of the competencies, and try to determine what your level of skill is for each of the speaking
competencies. If you are able, have a friend or colleague watch one of your speeches and ask him or
her to evaluate your level of skill for each of the competencies. Compare your responses to see how
much correspondence there is between your responses and the evaluator’s responses. In what
areas are you strongest? What do you need to improve upon?

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GLOSSARY AND REFERENCES

Glossary

TERM DEFINITION

Abstract Word Words that refer to ideas or concepts that are removed from material reality.

Axiology A part of worldview; refers to an individual or group’s value system.

Channel The means through which the message travels.

The people in the interaction or speech setting who encode and decode messages
Communicator
simultaneously.

Concrete
A word that describes a tangible object that can be perceived through the senses.
Word

The communication rules that govern different physical settings and/or different types of
Context
relationships.

A part of worldview; refers to the way individuals and groups see themselves in relation to
Cosmology
other people and their view of their place in the universe.

Cultural Noise Differences in worldview that cause message interference.

21
 The process of listening to words and interpreting the words so they are associated with a
Decoding
mental image.

The process of taking a mental image, associating the image with words, and then speaking
Encoding
those words.

A part of worldview; refers to the way an individual or group acquires knowledge or what
Epistemology
counts as knowledge.

Listening The psychological process of interpreting and making sense of the messages we receive.

Message The words, nonverbal behavior, or other signals transmitted from one person to another.

Anything that interferes with the message transmission or the encoding and decoding
Noise
process.

Nonverbal All of the messages we send — except for the words we say. Can include appearance, eye
Behavior behavior, kinesics (body movement), proxemics (use of space), touch, time, and smell.

Norms The verbal and nonverbal rules (usually unspoken) that govern communicative behavior.

Ontology A part of worldview; refers to an individual’s or group’s belief system.

A part of worldview; refers to the way an individual or group goes about tasks or solving
Praxeology
problems.

Psychological
Message interference that results from disturbed or excited mental states.
Noise

Physiological
Message interference that results from bodily discomfort.
Noise

Physical Message interference that results when the noise level (as measured in decibels) makes it
Noise difficult to hear a message.

Public
The act of delivering a speech in front of a live audience.
Speaking

The overall framework through which an individual sees, thinks about, and interprets the
Worldview
world and interacts with it.

References
Aras, K. (2012). The nuts and bolts of public speaking: Practical tools for powerful presentations. Retrieved from
http://www.thecommunicationfactory.com/seminars/skills/PublicSpeaking.php

Barnlund, D. C. (2008). A transactional model of communication. In. C. D. Mortensen (Eds.), Communication

theory (2nd Ed), pp. 47-57. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction.

Farrell, R. (2011). Soft skills all great leaders should have. CareerBuilder. http://www.careerbuilder.com/Article/
CB-2335- Leadership-Management-Soft-skills-all-great-leaders-should-have/

History.com. (2012). The Kennedy- Nixon Debates. History.com. Retrieved from http://www.history.com/topics/
kennedy-nixon-debates

Koncz, A. and Allen, C. (2012). Employers look for communication skills, ability to work in a team in new college
grads. www.naceweb.org/pressreleases/.

22
McKay, J. (2005). Employers complain about communication skills. Pittsburgh Post Gazette.

Rhodes, T. (Ed.) (2010). Assessing outcomes and improving achievement: Tips and tools for using rubrics.
Washington D. C.: Association of American Colleges and Universities.

Rockler-Gladen, N. (2009, March 21). Job skills that every college student needs: Writing, speaking,
professionalism, and other important knowledge. Suite 101.com. Retrieved from http://studyskills.suite101.com/
article.cfm/job_skills_that_every_college _student_needs

Schreiber, L., Paul, G. & Shibley, L. R. (2012). The development and test of the Public Speaking Competence
Rubric. Communication Education, 61 (3), 205 – 233.

Shannon, C. E., & Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical theory of communication. Urbana: University of Illinois
Press

U.S. Department of Labor (2000). Skills and tasks for jobs: A SCANS report for America 2000. The Secretary’s
Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills. Washington, D.C.

photo credits
p. 1 The Dali Lama http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: Dalai-Lama-talking-to-KD.jpg By Wakan Foundation
for the Arts
p. 2 Ronsenbaum talking to woman http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Michael_Rosenbaum_(4995506953).jpg By Vagueonthehow
p. 2 Alice Walker http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: Alice_Walker_(cropped)1.jpg By Virginia Debolt
p. 5 The Kennedy / Nixon Debate 1960 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kenned y_Nixon_Debat_(1960).jpg By the
National Park Service
p. 6 FEMA worker talking to woman http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co mmons/1/17/FEMA_-_32747_-
_FEMA_Community_Relations_worker_talking_to_a_Ohio_resident.jpg Ficara / FEMA
p. 6 Superfans http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NFL_Superfans.jpg By HMJD02
p. 7 Hand cyclists at Warrior Games http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-
_Talking_technique.jpg By U.S. Army
p. 9 Reasons not to like public speaking http://www.flickr.com/photos/codepo8/4 348896264/by Christian
Heilmann
p. 9 Woman drawing http://www.flickr.com/photos/jonnygoldstein/3958940167/sizes/m/in/photostream/ by Jonny
Goldstein
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23
 INFORMATIVE SPEAKING

OBJECTIVES, OUTLINE, AND INTRODUCTION

Chapter 15: Informative Speaking

By Lisa Schreiber, Ph.D.
Millersville University, Millersville, PA

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Explain why informative speeches are important
• Recognize the functions of informative speeches
• Identify the main responsibilities of the informative speaker
• List and describe the four types of informative speeches
• Discuss techniques to make informative speeches interesting, coherent, and memorable
• Apply chapter concepts in review questions and activities

Chapter Outline
• Introduction
• Functions of Informative Speeches
◦ Provide Knowledge
◦ Shape Perceptions
◦ Articulate Alternatives
◦ Allow us to Survive and Evolve
• Role of Speaker
◦ Informative Speakers are Objective
◦ Informative Speakers are Credible
◦ Informative Speakers Make the Topic Relevant
◦ Informative Speakers are Knowledgeable
• Types of Informative Speeches
◦ Definitional Speeches
◦ Descriptive Speeches
◦ Explanatory Speeches
◦ Demonstration Speeches
• Developing Informative Speeches
◦ Generate and Maintain Interest
◦ Create Coherence
◦ Make Speech Memorable
• Conclusion

24
 • Review Questions and Activities
• Glossary
• References

Introduction
Not only is there an art in knowing a thing, but also a certain art in teaching it. – Cicero

Every day you give others information in an informal way, whether you
realize it or not. You give your grandparents driving directions to your
college campus. You tell your professor about a breaking news story.
You teach a friend how to ride a motorcycle. You explain to your
significant other your spiritual philosophy. You show a co-worker how
to operate the cash register. You help your younger brother build his
first Facebook page. Or you share your summer travel experience with
your roommate. Without a doubt, information plays a vital role in our
everyday lives. In the dictionary, the term “inform” has several
meanings, including to impart knowledge; to animate or inspire; to give
information or enlightenment; to furnish evidence; to make aware of
something; to communicate something of interest or special
importance; to give directions; and to provide intelligence, news, facts or data. When you deliver an informative
speech
speech, your primary purpose is to give your audience information that they did not already know, or to teach
them more about a topic with which they are already familiar.

Your ability to give informative speeches is one of the most important skills you will ever master, and it will be
used both during the course of your career, and in your personal life. A pharmaceutical sales representative who
can’t describe the products’ chemical composition, uses and side effects, will have trouble making a sale. A high
school math teacher who can’t explain algebra in simple terms will have students who will not learn. A manager
who can’t teach workers how to assemble microchips will have a department with low productivity and quality.
And a little league coach who is unable to instruct players on batting and catching techniques will have a
disadvantaged team. It is easy to imagine how difficult it would be to go about the business of our daily lives
without the ability to give and receive information. Speeches to inform are the most common types of speeches
(Gladis, 1999), so speech writers should give priority to learning how to construct them.

A speaker hasn’t taught until the audience has learned.

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FUNCTIONS OF INFORMATIVE SPEECHES

People encounter a number of formal and informal informative presentations throughout their day, and these
presentations have several consequences. First, informative presentations provide people with knowledge. When
others share facts or circumstances associated with some topic, our comprehension, awareness or familiarity is
increased. The speaker imparts information, and this information is turned into knowledge. A music teacher
describes the difference between a note and chord as an introduction to music. When issuing a warning to a
teenager, a police officer explains the nature of the moving violation. A travel agent clarifies for customers the
policies for airline ticket refunds. Participants at a cultural fair are enlightened by a shaman explaining her spiritual
practices. Knowledge helps us to understand the world around us, enables us to make connections, and helps us
to predict the future.

All men by nature desire knowledge. – Aristotle

25
Second, informative presentations shape our perceptions.
These presentations can affect how people see a subject by
bringing it to light, or may influence what is seen as
important by virtue of directing attention to the subject
(Osborn & Osborn, 1991). Information helps us to interpret
our experiences, it shapes our values and beliefs, it may
alter our self-concept, and it gives meaning to situations.
Imagine you meet your new boss, and she is very curt and
pre-occupied during the first staff meeting. You may at first
perceive her as being rude, unless later you find out that just
before your meeting with her she learned that her father had
been hospitalized with a stroke. Learning this new
information allowed you to see the situation from a different
perspective. In the same way, informative presentations
enable us to get a sense of “the big picture” and improve our
ability to think and evaluate.

Some informative presentations may be aimed at helping listeners understand the number, variety, and quality of
alternatives available to them (Hogan et al., 2010). Consequently, informative presentations also serve to
articulate alternatives. A car sales associate might explain to you the features of one car in comparison to another
car in order to help you differentiate between the models. A doctor might explain to your grandmother her
treatment options for arthritis. A fitness trainer may demonstrate to you several types of exercises to help you
strengthen your abdominal muscles and reduce your waistline. If you go to a temporary employment agency, a
staff member may provide you will a range of job options that fit your qualifications. Successful informative
presentations provide information which improves listeners’ ability to make wise decisions, because they
understand all of their options (Jaffe, 1998).

Finally, informative presentations enhance our ability to survive and evolve. Our existence and safety depend
upon the successful communication of facts and knowledge. An informative speech “helps keep countries
developing, communicates valuable and useful information in thousands of areas, and continues to change,
improve or upgrade the lives of audiences” (Wilbur, 2000, p. 99). For thousands of years, cultural and technical
knowledge was passed from generation to generation orally. Even today with the presence of the internet, you are
still likely to get a good amount of information verbally. We have all seen “how to” YouTube videos, and although
these have a significant visual components, the “experts” still have to give a verbal explanation. Through
meetings, presentations and face-to-face interactions, we gain information about how to perform and improve in
our jobs. To keep our children safe, we don’t give them an instruction manual, we sit down with them and explain
things. All of the knowledge we accumulate while we live will be passed down to (hopefully) improve on the lives
of those who come after us. Much of this information will be passed down in the form of a presentation.
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ROLE OF SPEAKER

Human history becomes more and more a race between education and catastrophe. – H. G. Wells

Now that you understand the importance of informing others, this next section will show you the speakers’
responsibilities for preparing and presenting informative speeches.

26
Informative Speakers Are Objective
Most public speaking texts discuss three general purposes for speeches: to inform, to persuade, and to entertain.
Although these general purposes are theoretically distinct, in practice, they tend to overlap. Even in situations
when the occasion calls for an informative speech (one which enhances understanding), often persuasive and
entertaining elements are present. First, all informative speeches have a persuasive component by virtue of the
fact that the speaker tries to convince the audience that the facts presented are accurate (Harlan, 1993). Second,
a well-written speech can make even the most dry, technical information entertaining through engaging
illustrations, colorful language, unusual facts, and powerful visuals.

In spite of this caveat, when planning your informative speech your primary intent will be to increase listeners’
knowledge in an impartial way. For instance, in a speech about urban legends (Craughwell, 2000), your specific
purpose statement may be: “At the end of my speech, my audience will understand what an urban legend is, how
urban legends are spread, and common variations of urban legends.” The topic you choose is not as important as
your approach to the material in determining whether your speech is informative or persuasive (Peterson,
Stephan, & White, 1992). Can you imagine how speeches on witchcraft, stem cell research, the federal deficit, or
hybrid cars could be written either to inform or persuade? Informative speeches need to be as objective, fair, and
unbiased as possible. You are not asking your audience to take action or convincing them to change their mind.
You are teaching them something and allowing them to decide for themselves what to do with the information.
When writing your speech, present all sides of the story and try to remove all unrelated facts, personal opinions,
and emotions (Westerfield, 2002).

Informative Speakers are Credible

An objective approach also enhances a speaker’s credibility
credibility.
Credibility, or ethos, refers to an audience’s perception that the
speaker is well prepared and qualified to speak on a topic (Fraleigh &
Tuman, 2011). Peterson, Stephan, and White (1992) explain that there
are two kinds of credibility; the reputation that precedes you before you
give your speech (antecedent credibility) and the credibility you
develop during the course of your speech (consequent credibility). In
many cases, the audience has no prior knowledge of the speaker, so
they make judgments about the quality of the evidence and arguments
in the speech. In addition, they look at and listen to the speaker to
determine if s/he is a reliable source of information.

Audience members have no motivation to listen to a speaker they

perceive as lacking authority or credibility—except maybe to mock the
speaker. To avoid this pitfall, there are at least three ways to boost
your credibility as a speaker; by establishing your expertise, helping
your audience identify with you, and showing you are telling the truth
(see examples in Table 15.1). It seems to be common sense that we do not listen to speakers who do not know
what they are talking about, who cannot relate to us, or who give the impression of being dishonest. However, in
planning informative speeches, we can get so wrapped up in the topic that is easy to forget about the elements of
credibility. Just remember that in order to teach, we first have to show that we are worthy of our audience’s
attention.

Table 15.1 Boost Your Credibility

• Citing reputable sources

• Making sure your facts are accurate
Establish Expertise By: • Covering your points in enough detail to demonstrate your
knowledge
• Revealing your personal expertise with the topic

27
 Table 15.1 Boost Your Credibility

• Wearing appropriate and attractive clothing

Help the Audience Identify with • Mentioning what you have in common
You By: • Being friendly and enthusiastic
• Relating to listeners’ situations, feelings, and motives

• Presenting both sides of an issue

• Sharing what motivated you to select your topic
Show You are Telling the Truth • Having open, natural nonverbals that correspond to what you
By: say
• Approaching the speech with ethics and positive intentions for
your audience

In the end, you make your reputation and you have your success based upon credibility and being able
to provide people who are really hungry for information what they want. – Brit Hume

Informative Speakers Are Knowledgeable

Good informative speeches contain a number of different source citations throughout the speech. To show that
the information you present is accurate and complete, these sources should be up-to-date, reliable, unbiased, and
directly relevant to your topic. Even if you plan to give a speech about an activity you have done all of your life,
you will still need to seek out additional sources for your speech. By all means, you should cite and use your own
experiences with the topic, but if you want to appear objective, you will need to show that your ideas and
experiences correspond with others’. Using a variety of sound reference materials helps you appear well-informed
and more trustworthy.

In our information age, people are fortunate to have unlimited and free access to information on virtually any topic
they can imagine via the internet. Unfortunately, in addition to the credible information, the internet contains an
abundance of garbage. Good speech writers know that it is important to avoid weak or questionable sources (e.g.
Wikipedia, Britannica.com or Ask.com) when constructing their speeches. Start by asking what you know, find out
what the experts know, and then move to find out what information other sources can provide (Gladis, 1999). You
can search your library catalogue or Amazon.com to locate books (which provide details and depth), and then
check out or order these books via interlibrary loan (often free) if they are not available in your library. Explain not
only how something is done, but also why it is done for a great speech (MacInnis, 2006). This variety gives a
speech depth and a level of interest that cannot be achieved merely by doing a Google search and using the first
five websites that pop up. For additional ideas on locating sources, “Sources of interesting information” is
provided at the end of this chapter.

The cure for boredom is curiosity. There is no cure for curiosity. – Dorothy Parker

Informative Speakers Make the Topic Relevant

When you are selecting your topic and thinking about what you want to accomplish in your informative speech,
two factors should drive your decision. Foremost, you want to select a topic that holds a high degree of interest for
you (i.e. the topic is meaningful to you). Students who feel at a loss for topic ideas should turn their attention to
their own lives and activities. If you like to play video games, you might give a speech about how they are made. If
you have a passion for ska reggae music, you might bring in MP3 cuts to help define the boundaries of this music
genre. If you have to work three jobs to help pay for school, you could give a speech on effective time
management. Genuine curiosity will make the research and preparation process easier. Further, when you have
enthusiasm for a topic, it shows when you speak. On the other hand, if you do not really care about your topic,
your audience is not likely to care either.

28
In addition to having relevance for you, it is crucial that you tie your
topic directly to your listeners. Early in the speech, give listeners at
least one reason why they should care about your topic and the ways
in which the information will be beneficial or entertaining (Morreale &
Bovee, 1998). Establishing a motive for your audience to listen to you
is commonly referred to by the acronym WIIFM WIIFM—“What’s in it for me?”
This is what the audience consciously or unconsciously asks when you
start speaking (Urech, 1998). To establish WIIFM, you clearly link the
topic to the listeners’ values, attitudes, beliefs and lifestyle. Consider
not only what the audience wants to hear, but also what they need to
hear (Gladis, 1999; Maxey & O’Connor, 2006). Take the topic of
retirement planning as an example. Younger listeners may not
perceive this as relevant to their lives when they are not yet making a
steady salary. But, if you can demonstrate how investing even a small
amount every month can grow to a considerable nest egg by
retirement age, and that getting into the habit of saving early can lower the number of years they have to work,
the topic becomes more interesting for them.

Making the topic relevant for your audience can also mean that you show them how to apply the information
immediately. In a speech on relaxation techniques, a speaker can lead the audience through a simple stress
reduction exercise they can use at home. For a speech on handwriting analysis, listeners can be given paper,
asked to write a sample sentence and shown how to interpret some points on the sample. If the audience
members have laptops, a speaker can show them how to improve one of their digital photos. If listeners can use
the information they learn quickly, they tend to remember it longer, and they are more likely to try the action again
later (Nelson, et al., 2010).
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TYPES OF INFORMATIVE SPEECHES

In the last section we examined how informative speakers need to be objective, credible, knowledgeable, and
how they need to make the topic relevant to their audience. This section discusses the four primary types of
informative speeches. These include definitional speeches, descriptive speeches, explanatory speeches, and
demonstration speeches.

Definitional Speeches
In definitional speeches the speaker attempts to set forth the meaning of concepts, theories, philosophies, or
issues that may be unfamiliar to the audience. In these types of speeches, speakers may begin by giving the
historical derivation, classification, or synonyms of terms or the background of the subject. In a speech on “How to
identify a sociopath,” the speaker may answer these questions: Where did the word ‘sociopath’ come from? What
is a sociopath? How many sociopaths are there in the population? What are the symptoms? Carefully define your
terminology to give shape to things the audience cannot directly sense. Describing the essential attributes of one
concept compared to another (as through use of analogies) can increase understanding as well. For a speech on
“Elderly Abuse,” the speaker may compare this type of abuse to child or spousal abuse for contrast.

Regardless of the listeners’ level of knowledge about the subject, it is very important in these types of speeches to
show the relevance of the topic to their lives. Often the topics discussed in definitional speeches are
abstract—distanced from reality. So provide explicit, real-life examples and applications of the subject matter. If
you were going to give a speech about civil rights, you would need to go beyond commonly held meanings and
show the topic in a new light. In this type of speech, the speaker points out the unique and distinguishing

29
properties or boundaries of a concept in a particular context (Rinehart, 2002). The meaning of “civil rights” has
changed significantly over time. What does it mean today compared to the 1960s? How will knowing this
distinction help audience members? What are some specific incidents involving civil rights issues in current
news? What changes in civil rights legislation might listeners see in their lifetimes?

Sample Definitional Speech Outline

Title: “Life is suffering,” and Other Buddhist Teachings (Thompson, 1999)
Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, my audience will understand the Four Noble Truths and the
Eightfold Path in Buddhism
Central Idea: Regardless of your religious beliefs, Buddhist philosophy teaches a number of useful lessons
you can apply to your own life.
I. Four Noble Truths
A. All life involves dukkha (suffering)
B. Suffering is caused by tanha (longing for things to be other than they are)
C. If this longing stops (nirodha), suffering will cease
D. The way to eliminate longing is to follow the Eightfold Path
II. The Noble Eightfold Path (the Middle Way)
A. Right view
B. Right intention
C. Right speech
D. Right action
E. Right livelihood
F. Right effort
G. Right mindfulness
H. Right contemplation

Descriptive Speeches

30
The purpose of descriptive speeches is to provide a detailed, vivid, word picture of a person, animal, place, or
object. Audiences should carry away in their minds a clear vision of the subject (Osborn & Osborn, 1991).
Consider this description of the Taj Mahal in Agra, India by Steve Cassidy (edited for length).

To gaze in wonder at that magnificent dome and elegant gardens will be a moment that you remember
for the rest of your life. The Taj Mahal just takes your breath away. What is immediately striking is its
graceful symmetry—geometric lines run through formal gardens ending in a white marble platform. Atop
this platform is great white bulbous dome complemented by four towering minarets in each corner. The
whole image shimmers in a reflecting pool flanked by beautiful gardens—the effect is magical. The first
stretch by the reflecting pool is where most people pose for their photos. But we were impressed by the
fresh, green gardens. As you approach through the gardens two mosques come into view flanking the
Taj—both exquisitely carved and built of red sandstone.

In the descriptive speech, determine the characteristics, features, functions, or fine points of the topic. What
makes the person unique? How did the person make you feel? What adjectives apply to the subject? What kind of
material is the object made from? What shape is it? What color is it? What does it smell like? Is it part of a larger
system? Can it be seen by the naked eye? What is its geography or location in space? How has it changed or
evolved over time? How does it compare to a similar object? When preparing for the speech, try to think of ways
to appeal to as many of the senses as possible. As an example, in a speech about different types of curried
dishes, you could probably verbally describe the difference between yellow, red, and green curry, but the speech
will have more impact if the audience can see, smell, and taste samples.

Sample Descriptive Speech Outline

Title: Easter Island: The Navel of the World (Fischer, 2006)
Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, my audience will be able
to visualize some of the main attractions on Easter Island.
Central Idea: Easter Island hosts a number of ancient, mysterious,
and beautiful attractions that make it an ideal vacation destination.
I. Stone Giants—“Moai”
A. Average 13 feet high; 14 tons
B. Play sacred role for Rapa Nui (native inhabitants)
C. Central Ahu ceremonial sites
II. Coastline activities
A. Beaches
B. Snorkeling & Scuba
C. Surfing
III. Rano Kau Chilean National Park
A. Giant crater
B. Sheer cliffs to ocean
C. Sea birds

Be able to describe anything visual, such as a street scene, in words that convey your meaning. ~
Marilyn vos Savant

Explanatory Speeches
An explanatory speech (also known as a briefing) is similar to the descriptive speech in that they both share the
function of clarifying the topic. But explanatory speeches focus on reports of current and historical events,
customs, transformations, inventions, policies, outcomes, and options. Whereas descriptive speeches attempt to
paint a picture with words so that audiences can vicariously experience it, explanatory speeches focus on the how

31
or why of a subject and its consequences. Thus, a speaker might give a descriptive speech on the daily life of
Marie Antoinette, or an explanatory speech on how she came to her death. Recall that definitional speeches focus
on delineating concepts or issues. In this case, a speaker might give a definitional speech about the Emergency
Economic Stabilization Act of 2008, or an explanatory speech on why the financial bailout was necessary for U.S.
financial stability.

If a manager wanted to inform employees about a new workplace internet use policy, s/he might cover questions
like: Why was a policy implemented? How will it help? What happens if people do not follow established policies?
Explanatory speeches are less concerned with appealing to the senses than connecting the topic to a series of
related other subjects to enhance a deep understanding (McKerrow, Gronbeck, Ehninger, & Monroe, 2000). For
example, to explain the custom of the Thai wai greeting (hands pressed together as in prayer), you also need to
explain how it originated to show one had no weapons, and the ways it is tied to religion, gender, age, and status.

Sample Explanatory Speech Outline

Title: Giant Waves, Death, and Devastation: The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami (National Geographic, 2006)
Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, my audience will be aware of the nature of the 2004 Tsunami and
the destruction it caused.
Central Idea: The 2004 Asian Tsunami was one of the worst natural disasters in human history in terms
of magnitude, loss of human life, and enduring impact.
I. Geological event
A. Earthquake epicenter and magnitude
B. Tsunami forms (waves reach up to 100 feet)
C. Tsunami strikes land of various countries with no warning
II. Human casualties reach almost 230,000—top 10 of all natural disasters
A. The countries and people involved
B. Loss of food, water, hospitals, housing, electricity, and plumbing
C. Threat of disease
III. Ongoing effects
A. Environmental destruction
B. Economic devastation
C. Psychological trauma

I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand. – Confucious

Demonstration Speeches
The most practical of all informative speeches, a demonstration speech shows listeners how some process is
accomplished or how to perform it themselves. The focus is on a chronological explanation of some process (how
potato chips are made), procedure (how to fight fires on a submarine), application (how to use the calendar
function in Outlook), or course of action (how court cases proceed to Supreme Court status). Speakers might
focus on processes that have a series of steps with a specific beginning and end (how to sell a home by yourself)
or the process may be continuous (how to maintain the hard drive on your computer to prevent crashes).
Demonstration speeches can be challenging to write due to the fact that the process may involve several objects,
a set of tools, materials, or a number of related relationships or events (Rinehart, 2002). Nevertheless, these
types of speeches provide the greatest opportunity for audience members to get involved or apply the information
later.

When preparing this speech, remember first to keep the safety of the audience in mind. One speaker severely
burned his professor when he accidently spilled hot oil from a wok on her. Another student nearly took the heads
off listeners when he was demonstrating how to swing a baseball bat. Keep in mind also that you may need to
bring in examples or pictures of completed steps in order to make efficient use of your time. Just think of the way
that cooking demonstrations are done on TV—the ingredients are premeasured, the food is premixed, and the
mixture magically goes from uncooked to cooked in a matter of seconds. Finally, if you are having your audience
participate during your presentation (making an origami sculpture), know what their knowledge level is so that you

32
don’t make them feel unintelligent if they are not successful. Practice your speech with friends who know nothing
about the topic to gauge if listeners can do what you are asking them to do in the time allotted.

Sample Demonstration Speech Outline

Title: How to Survive if You Get Stranded in the Wilderness (U.S. Department of Defense, 2006).
Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech my audience will understand what to do if they unexpectedly
become stranded in the wilderness.
Central Idea: You can greatly improve your ability to stay alive and safe in the wilderness by learning a few
simple survival techniques.
I. Size up the situation
A. Size up the surroundings
B. Size up your physical and mental states
C. Size up your equipment (handout “What to Include in a Survival Kit”)
II. Survival Basics
A. Obtaining water
B. Acquiring food
C. Building a fire
D. Locating shelter
III. Finding help
A. Call or signal rescue personnel
B. Wilderness navigation
C. Leaving “bread crumb” trail

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DEVELOPING INFORMATIVE SPEECHES

The first sections of this chapter explained the importance of informative speaking, the functions of informative
speeches, the role of the informative speaker, and the four major types of informative speeches. This final section
of the chapter discusses three goals in developing informative speeches and advice for increasing the
effectiveness of your speech. These three goals include 1) arousing the interest of your audience, 2) presenting
information in a way that can be understood, and 3) helping the audience remember what you have said (Fujishin,
2000).

Generate and Maintain Interest

Use Attention-Getting Elements

Before you capture the interest of an audience, you have to get their attention. As you know, attention getters are
used in the introduction of a speech, but attention getters can also be used throughout your speech to maintain an
audience’s attention. There are a number of techniques you can use that will naturally draw listeners’ attention
(German, et al., 2010).

33
Intensity refers to something that has a high or extreme
degree of emotion, color, volume, strength or other defining
characteristic. In a speech about sharks’ senses, showing
how sharks smell 10,000 times better than humans would be
an example of the intensity principle.

Novelty involves those things that are new or unusual.

Discussing the recent invention of the flesh-eating
mushroom death suit developed by Jae Rhim Lee would be
novel. This suit is designed to help bodies decompose
naturally above ground to avoid the use of dangerous
embalming chemicals.

Contrast can also be used to draw attention through

comparison to something that is different or opposite. This
works best when the differences are significant. If you were
showing the audience how to make hot sauce, and you
showed a bar graph comparing the scoville units (level of
hotness) of different chili peppers, this would be contrast.
Jalapenos rate at 2500–8000 scoville units, habaneros rate
at 100,000–350,000, and the naga jolokia rates at
855,000–1,041,241.

Audiences will also attend to movement or Activity

Activity. To
employ this technique, the speaker can either use action
words, well-chosen movements, an increased rate of
speech, or s/he can show action with video. A speech describing or showing extreme sports with high levels of
risk, a fast pace, or amazing stunts could be used to illustrate activity.

Finally, Humor can be used to draw attention to a subject or point, but be

sure that it is relevant and in good taste. In a speech about the devotion of
Trekkies (Star Trek fans), you could share the example of Tony Alleyne who
designed and outfitted his flat in England as a replica of the deck of the
Voyager. You could also direct the audience’s attention to couples who have
wedding ceremonies spoken in Klingon.

Tell a Story
Story telling is not only the basis for most of our entertainment; it is also one
of the best ways to teach an audience (Carlson, 2005). Also known as
narratives, stories typically have a beginning in which the characters and
setting are introduced, a rise in action, some complication or problem, and a
resolution. Stories with compelling characters can be used in a creative way
to weave facts otherwise dry and technical facts together (Walters, 1995), as
in a speech about preparing a space shuttle for take-off from a mouse’s
perspective. Jaffe (1998) differentiates between three types of narratives that
can be used in informative speeches. The first type of story is a natural reality
in which natural or scientific facts are brought together in chronological
accounts, as in the formation of the Grand Canyon. The second narrative
involves social realities which detail historic events, and the development of cultures and institutions. The last kind
of story, the ultimate reality, is focused on profound philosophical and spiritual questions like “Where do we come
from?” and “What happens to us when we die?”

Nursery rhymes and song lyrics familiar to the audience can also be used in an interactive way to get listeners
interested in the topic (Maxey & O’Connor, 2006). In a speech about the global population explosion, you could
ask audience to finish the phrase “There was an old woman who lived in a shoe…” Common commercials, lyrics
to Beatles songs, holiday songs, and children’s games are universal.

34
 The wisest mind has something yet to learn. – George Santayna

Commercial jingles and song lyrics also

work to get the audience involved. You
could start a speech on boating safety with
these lyrics: Just sit right back / And you’ll
hear a tale / A tale of a fateful trip / That
started from this tropic port / Aboard this
tiny ship (from Gilligan’s Island). Depending
on the make-up of your audience, you
might use lyrics from Johnny Cash, Billy
Holiday, The Doors, The Beatles, JayZ,
The Judds or the Arctic Monkeys. Just
remember you probably can’t read all of the
lyrics, you need to make sure the lyrics are
directly linked to your topic, and you should
be sure to cite the artist and song title.

Just for fun, can you name the artist who

sang the lyrics below? Can you think of a
speech topic that would correspond to the
lyrics? (Answer at the end of the chapter)

Lyric Artist Speech Topic

Money, get away.

Get a good job with good pay and you’re okay.

Money, it’s a gas.

Grab that cash with both hands and make a stash.

New car, caviar, four star daydream

Think I’ll buy me a football team.

Be Creative
Speakers who are different are memorable (Maxey & O’Connor, 2006). To give your speech impact, be
imaginative and dare to push the envelope of conformity. When you have spent time researching a topic, you may
be able to envision ways to incorporate surprising facts, props or visuals that make your presentation different
from others, and therefore more memorable. You could dress like a Shakespearian actor for a speech about the
famous playwright. You could have the audience move their chairs and take part in a yoga demonstration. Or you
might use your own audience plants to help with a speech entitled “Behind the Scenes of TV Talk Shows.” When
one student got up to speak, he drew a row of houses on the blackboard and then began to drink a glass of water
and speak about the life giving properties of water. After making a few comments, he threw the glass of water on
the blackboard—erasing most of the houses. Then he began his speech on the devastating effects of a flood (be
sure to get your professor’s permission before you do something like this!). Another student giving a speech about
“Clowning” had two actual clowns wait in the hall until she was ready to bring them in and show off their make-up
and costumes. The speaker was wise to have her cohorts in the room just long enough to make the point (but not
the entire time which would distract from the speaker), and the audience was attentive and grateful for the variety.
Hanks and Parry (1991) explain that anyone can be creative, if s/he wants to be and is willing to make the effort.
For some tips on how to foster your creativity, see Table 16.2. However, you need to remember that creativity is
just a tool to help you teach your audience. Do not overlook the requirements of the occasion, the content of your
research, or the needs of your audience in your zeal to be creative.

35
 Table 16.2 Tips for Jump Starting Your Creativity From Everyday Creativity
by Carlin Flora (2009)
• Take a different way to work
• Collaborate with others with complementary skills
• Seek inspiration in beautiful surroundings
• Start working on the problem right away
• Work in a blue room (it boosts creativity)
• Get a hobby or play music
• Think about your problem right before falling asleep

The worst enemy to creativity is self-doubt. – Sylvia Plath

Stimulate Audience Intellect

Most people have a genuine desire to understand the world around them, to seek out the truth, and learn how to
solve problems. The role of the informative speaker is to satisfy this desire to learn and know. To illustrate our
quest for knowledge, consider the success of the Discovery Channel, the Learning Channel, the History Channel,
the Food Network and other educational broadcasts. So how do we appeal to the minds of listeners? Think about
all of the information we encounter every day but do not have time to pursue. Think about subjects that you would
like to know more about. Ask what information would be universally interesting and useful for listeners. Many
people fly on airplanes, but do they know how to survive a plane crash? People also share many ordinary
illnesses, so what are some common home remedies? All of the people on earth originated someplace, so who
were our ancient ancestors?

In addition to finding topics that relate to listeners, the information we supply should be up to date. For instance,
Egypt recently had a revolution, and if you are giving a speech on traveling to the Pyramids, you should be aware
of this. When you are talking about a topic that your audience is familiar with, you should share little known facts
or paint the subject in a new light. In a speech about a famous person, you might depict what they are like behind
the scenes, or what they were like growing up. In a speech about a new technology, you might also talk about the
inventors. In a speech about a famous city, you could discuss the more infamous landmarks and attractions.

Create Coherence

Organize Logically
Several types of organizational patterns are discussed in the Selecting
and Arranging Main Points chapter. Using these as a starting point,
you should make sure the overall logic of the speech is well thought
out. If you were giving speech best suited to chronological order, but
presented the steps out of order, it would be very difficult to follow.
Those of you who have seen the movie Memento (which presented
the sequence of events backwards), may have noticed how difficult it
was to explain the plot to others. In a logical speech, the points you
are trying to draw are obvious, the supporting materials are coherent
and correspond exactly to the thesis, and the main points are mutually
exclusive and flow naturally from start to finish. Clarity of thought is
critical in presenting information. As Peggy Noonan (1998, p. 64)
argues:
The most moving thing in a speech is always the logic. It’s never
the flowery words and flourishes, it’s not sentimental exhortations,
it’s never the faux poetry we’re all subjected to these days. It’s the
logic; it’s the thinking behind your case. A good case well argued and well said is inherently moving. It shows

36
 respect for the brains of the listeners. There is an implicit compliment in it. It shows that you are a serious
person and that you are talking to other serious persons.

When planning your speech, ask questions like: What information needs to come first? What organizational
pattern best suits the topic? What information must be shared or omitted to aid in audience understanding? What
points or sub-points should be grouped together to aid listeners’ understanding?

Use Simple Language

One common mistake that speech writers make when they are writing their
speech is to use the same language that they would use in a written
document. Experienced speech writers know that simple language and ideas
are easier to understand than complex ones. “Clear speaking is not an
alternative to intelligent discourse, but rather an enabler of intelligent
discourse” (Carlson, 2005, p. 79). Did you know that Lincoln’s Gettysburg
address contains only 271 words, and 251 of these words only have one or
two syllables (Hughes & Phillips, 2000)? Another benefit of using simple
language is that you are less likely to trip over or mispronounce simple words.

Table 16.3 Simplify Your Language

Low Impact High Impact

Under the present circumstances Currently

At the present time Now

Are in agreement with Agree

Due to the fact that Because

Is fully operational Works

In close proximity to Near

Of sufficient magnitude Big enough

In the event of If

Each and everyone Each

In the course of During

Never before or since Never

37
 Table 16.3 Simplify Your Language

Low Impact High Impact

Deciduous trees (jargon) Trees that lose their leaves

Somnolent (jargon) Drowsy

Awesome (slang) Impressive

Put the bit on (slang) Borrow

No brainer (cliché) Easy decision

An arm and a leg Expensive

Vertically challenged (euphemism) Short

Gone to the great beyond (euphemism) Dead

Instead of “protracted,” say “drawn out.” Instead of “conundrum,” say “puzzle.” And instead of “loquacious,” say
“talkative.” As you are writing your speech you also want to avoid technical jargon, slang, clichés, and
euphemisms. This type of language is difficult to understand and tends to be low impact. Compare the Low
Impact language column with the High Impact column in Table 16.3 above to see examples of ways to make your
language more powerful.

Avoid Information Overload

No one is given an unlimited amount of time to speak. You can’t cover everything that there is to know about your
topic. And even if you could speak forever about everything there was to know about a subject, your listeners
would never be able to take it all in. Information overload occurs when a person feels that they are faced with an
overwhelming amount of information, with the effect that they are unable to process it all or unable to make
decision. So whether you have five minutes to give a presentation or three eight-hour days, you will need to
narrow and focus your speech topic and objectives. If you know that you have ten minutes to speak, you will not
be able to cover “Car Maintenance for Dummies,” but you probably could give a good speech entitled “How to
Change the Oil in Your Car.” When planning your speech, be sure to determine the amount of information that
can reasonably be covered in the time allowed. In fact, rather than taking the entire allotted speaking time, you
should get into the practice of speaking only for 90—95% of the time that you are given (Reynolds, 2008). More is
not always better—and your audience will appreciate it if you can skillfully make your point with time to spare.

Today knowledge has power. It controls access to opportunity and advancement. – Peter Drucker

38
Make Your Speech Memorable

Build in Repetition
Audience retention is determined by a number of factors including
listeners’ interest, knowledge, physical and emotional state, level of
stress, background, and other competing demands (Fujishin, 2000).
One way to help your audience remember the content of your speech
is by repetition (Hughes & Phillips, 2000). There are three ways to
incorporate repetition into your speech. The first form repetition
involves restating your main points in your introduction, body and
conclusion. When you do this, you will restate your points using
different language—not repeat the points word for word. The second
form of repetition is where a word or a phrase is repeated in a poetic
way, either throughout the speech or at a critical point in the speech.
One example of this would be Abraham Lincoln’s “government of the
people, by the people, for the people.” Another example can be found
in Sojourner Truth’s speech, delivered in 1851 at a women’s rights convention.
… That man over there says that women need to be helped into carriages, and lifted over ditches, and to
have the best place everywhere. Nobody ever helps me into carriages, or over mud-puddles, or gives me
any best place! And ain’t I a woman? Look at me! Look at my arm! I have ploughed and planted, and
gathered into barns, and no man could head me! And ain’t I a woman? I could work as much and eat as
much as a man—when I could get it—and bear the lash as well! And ain’t I a woman? I have borne thirteen
children, and seen most all sold off to slavery, and when I cried out with my mother’s grief, none but Jesus
heard me! And ain’t I a woman?

The final way to use repetition in your speech is through nonverbal communication. When you say the word “four”
and you hold up four fingers, or when you verbally agree with a point and nod your head at the same time, you
are reinforcing the idea verbally and nonverbally.

Appeal to Different Ways of Learning

Individuals have different learning styles, so some people are visual [V] learners, some are aural [A] learners,
some learn by reading [R] and writing, and some learn kinesthetically [K] (Fleming, 2001). You can test your own
learning style at www.varklearn.com. Understanding your own and others’ learning styles is useful for two
reasons. First, you will find that you tend to teach others using your own learning style. Second, regardless of
your own learning styles, you need to appeal to as many different learning styles as possible in your informative
speech. To see how each learning style prefers to be taught, see the table below.

Unfortunately, since the ear alone is a very poor information gathering device, steps must be taken to improve
retention. Typically listeners only retain only a small fraction of what is explained to them verbally. The first way to
enhance retention is to appeal to as many of the senses as possible. Studies show that audiences retain 20
percent of what they hear, 30 percent of what they see, and 50 percent of what they hear and see (Westerfield,
2002). When the audience has an opportunity to do something (adding the kinesthetic sense), their retention
increases to 80 percent (Walters, 1995). Or, if participation is not possible, a handout will raise retention to an
impressive 85 percent—if the audience can review the handout at least once (Slutsky & Aun, 1997).

Table 16.4 The VARK Model of Learning

Learning Style Approach the Learner With…

Maps, charts, graphs, diagrams, brochures, flow charts, highlighters, different colors,
Visual
pictures,
Learners
word pictures, and different spatial arrangements

39
 Table 16.4 The VARK Model of Learning

Learning Style Approach the Learner With…

Aural Explanations of new ideas, large and small group discussions, lectures, audio
Learners recordings, stories, and jokes

Read/Write Lists, essays, reports, textbooks, definitions, printed handouts, readings, manuals, and
Learners web pages

Kinesthetic Field trips, hands-on projects, sensory stimulations, laboratories, recipes and solutions to
Learners problems, and collections of samples

From Hawk and Shaw (2007, p. 7) and Fleming (2001).

Another way to help your listeners remember is by the use of techniques like association, linking the new topic to
things that the audience knows about or already understands. If you were giving a speech about rugby, you might
compare it to soccer and football to help the audience understand the rules. The use of acronyms also aids
retention. On the “Krusty Krab Training Video” episode of Spongebob Squarepants (a spoof on corporate training
videos), they use the acronym “POOP.” When I asked my then eight-year-old son if he remembered (several
weeks after watching the episode) what “POOP” stood for, he immediately and correctly answered “People Order
Our Patties.” The final technique to help audiences remember information is the simplicity criterion. Information is
best retained when it is explained from top to bottom (rather than bottom to top), when events are presented from
first to last (rather than last to first), and when information is presented in the positive voice (rather than in the
negative voice) (Devito, 1981).

Use Visuals
Visual aids can be a very
powerful and efficient way
to present facts that might
otherwise be difficult to
convey verbally. The
benefits of visuals used for
informative speeches
include increasing interest,
understanding, retention,
and the speed at which
your audience can
understand complex facts.
We live in a mediated
culture, where people are
visually oriented. This
means that they expect to
be visually stimulated with
pictures, graphs, maps,
video images and objects.
Speakers who do not
make use of visuals may
be at a disadvantage
when compared to speakers who use them. This is assuming of course that the visuals enhance what you are
saying and that you use them well. As you know, plenty of people use Power Point, and it does not necessarily
make their speech better or more memorable.

Perhaps the best reason to use visuals aids during an informative speech is to help your audience understand a
concept that may be difficult to understand just by explaining it. In a speech about heart bypass surgery, would it
be better to verbally describe the parts of the human heart, or to show a picture of it? How about a model of the
heart? How about an actual human heart? Be sure to consider your audience! What if your speech is about an

40
abstract concept that does not lend itself well to slick graphic representations? One way trainers get their
audiences involved and make their presentations memorable is to provide handouts which the listeners complete
(in part) themselves. You could use fill-in-the blank statements (where you provide the answer), open-ended
questions where listeners can write their thoughts, and activities like matching or crossword puzzles. Regardless
of the type of visual media you select for your speech, just make sure that it does not overpower you or the
subject. Work to keep the audience’s attention on you and what you are saying, and use the visual to complement
what you have to say.
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CONCLUSION, REVIEW QUESTIONS, AND

ACTIVITIES

Conclusion
Only one person in a million becomes enlightened without a teacher’s help. – Bodhidharma

The primary goal of informative speaking is to increase listeners’ knowledge so they can better understand the
world around them and can make more informed decisions. Discussing the impact a speaker can have on an
audience, Perry Wilbur (2000, p. 99) explains:
Always keep in mind that if your talk helps just one listener in your audience, it has been successful. It is far
more likely to have an impact on a number of listeners in your audiences. That is one of the real powers of
spoken communication. Develop skill for getting the material across to audiences, and you can and will
change lives for the better and make a worthy contribution as a speaker.

Informative speaking is a crucial skill that, if developed, will help you be more successful in both your personal life
and your professional career.

When constructing an informative speech, you should strive to be objective, spend time developing your
credibility, demonstrate that you have done your research, and link your subject to the lives of the listeners.

There are four main types of informative speeches. Definitional speeches present the meanings of concepts,
theories, philosophies, or issues. Descriptive speeches provide detailed word pictures of people, animals, places,
or objects. Explanatory speeches report events, customs, transformations, inventions,, policies, outcomes or
options. Demonstration speeches show listeners how some process is done or how to do it themselves.

Several techniques can be used by speakers to increase the effectiveness of their informative speech. Speakers
can arouse interest by using attention getting elements, telling a story, adding creative features, and stimulating
the intellect of the audience. Speakers can create coherence through logical organization, the use of simple
language, and by avoiding information overload. Finally, a speaker can make a speech more memorable via
repetition, appealing to different ways of learning, and by using visuals appropriately.

If you have knowledge, let others light their candles at it. – Margaret Fuller

41
 Review Questions
1. For each of the characters described below, what types of informative speeches might each person
be called upon to give in her or his personal and professional life? List as many as you can think of
for each.
1. Stacy is an emergency room physician and medical school professor. She also serves on
the board of directors for a local college. For recreation she enjoys rock climbing.
2. Rick is an animal control officer who volunteers his time at both the animal shelter and the
local Habitat for Humanity group. He is in a bowling league with other city employees.
3. Akiko is in insurance sales and volunteers in the math classroom at her children’s middle
school. As a hobby, she collects and sells antiques.
2. Early in the module, the importance of credibility was discussed. Can you think of any presentations
you heard where you DID NOT feel that the speaker had credibility? What did the speakers do and/or
say to make you think they lacked credibility? If you were to give these speakers advice on how to
improve their credibility, what would you say?
3. The chapter states that speakers need to be objective, credible, knowledgeable and that they need
to make the topic relevant to the audience. Rank these responsibilities in order from most to least
important, and then explain your ranking.
4. Imagine you are giving an informative speech on ______________ [you fill in the blank]. How would
you apply each of the five attention getting techniques—intensity, novelty, contrast, activity and
humor—in your speech? Make note of at least one idea for each technique.
5. After you have selected a topic for your informative speech, answer the questions below to help
determine ways to orient your topic to your audience. Questions adapted from Ulloth and Alderfer,
(1998b, pp. 61–62).
1. How much information does your audience already have about your topic?
2. What social or cultural influences of audience members might affect their reaction to your
topic?
3. How can your topic be made interesting if the audience has no knowledge or apparent
interest in it?
4. Are there any mental, physical, or emotional factors in the audience that may affect their
response to your speech?
5. What do you want your audience to understand after you have delivered your speech?
Answers to song lyrics question in Developing Informative Speeches:
Mystery Artist: Pink Floyd “Money” from Dark Side of the Moon

Activities
1. The list directly below includes a number of potential sources for your informative speech (Walters,
1995; Ulloth & Alderfer, 1998; Slutsky & Aun, 1997). Using this list for ideas, which of these potential sources
could be used in the research process for each of the following speech topics?

Speech Topics

Tattoos Action figure collecting Free local activities

Making great BBQ Music piracy Auctions

Bruce Lee Decorating on a budget Creating a web site

42
 Source of Interesting Materials

• Libraries • Trade associations and publications

• Bookstores • Special interest clubs and groups
• Used book stores • People selling products and services
• Video stores • Research departments of television stations
• Music stores and newspapers
• Reference books • Objects related to the subject
• Phone books (use for experts • Museums
and specialized businesses) • Computer search engines and data bases (on
• Schools and colleges (where your and off campus)
topic is taught or researched) • Other sources (e.g. specialized stores, friends,
• Magazines and newsletters colleagues, educational videos)

2. Use the list of potential informative speech topics below to complete the steps of this activity.
A. Which of the topics listed below might also be used for a persuasive speech?
B. For each of the four different types of informative speeches (Definitional, Descriptive,
Explanatory, Demonstration), identify three topics that would be appropriate to use for each type of
speech.
C. At this point, you should have twelve topics listed—three each under each type of speech. Now,
take one topic from each of the four groups and generate a specific purpose statement and three
potential main points. You will have four different speeches, each with their own specific purpose and
main points.

Potential Speech Topics

• Adventure vacations • Diamond selection

• The Alamo • Ghandi’s • Orchids
• Alternatives to achievements • Ramadan
chemotherapy • Hospice care • Robots for the home
• Boating safety • Hot air balloons • Space vacations
• Building a pond • How a meteor killed • Using Power
• Changing the oil in your the dinosaurs Point effectively
car • How to set up a • Unemployment and
• Characteristics of wireless network the economy
successful managers • Illicit drug policy • What to do when
• Cultural changes • Matching dog breeds your identity is stolen
resulting from 9/11 with owners

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by: Millersville University, Millersville, PA. Located at
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 GLOSSARY AND REFERENCES

Glossary

TERM DEFINITION

The use of action words, physical or visual movement, or faster rate of

Activity
speech to draw the audience’s attention.

Attention A device or technique used to gain the audience’s attention in the

Getter introduction or keep the audience’s attention during the course of a speech.

An attention getting technique whereby supporting ideas are compared to

Contrast
emphasize difference.

Refers to the audience’s perception of the speaker’s expertise, authenticity,

Credibility
and trustworthiness.

A type of speech in which the speaker attempts to explain or identify the

Definitional
essential qualities or components of concepts, theories, philosophies, or
Speech
issues.

Demonstration A speech that shows listeners how some process is accomplished or how to
Speech perform it themselves.

Descriptive A speech that provides a detailed, vivid, word picture of a person, animal,
Speech place, or object.

Also known as a briefing, the focus of this speech is on reports of current

Explanatory
and historical events, customs, transformations, inventions, policies,
Speech
outcomes, and options.

General The speaker’s overall goal, objective, or intent: to inform, to persuade, or to

Purpose entertain.

The use of amusing or comical facts, stories, or forms of expression to

Humor
maintain an audience’s attention.

Information An overwhelming feeling of being faced with so much information one

Overload cannot completely process it.

A speech in which the primary purpose is to provide the audience with

Informative
information that they did not already know, or to teach them more about a
Speech
topic with which they are already familiar.

Supporting material that is characterized by a high degree of emotion, color,

Intensity
volume, strength, or other defining characteristic.

Novelty Very recent or unusual supporting ideas.

An acronym that stands for “What’s in it for me?” This is the question that
WIIFM
listeners ask themselves when they begin to listen to a speech. Listeners

44
 want to know; What does this speech have to do with my life? Is this
information useful to me? Is the speaker talking about something I already
know? Is the subject interesting? Why should I pay attention?

References
Beebe, S. A., & Beebe, S. J. (1991). Public speaking: An audience-centered approach. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.

Brydon, S. R., & Scott, M. D. (2006). Between one and many: The art and science of public speaking, (5th ed).
Boston: McGraw Hill.

Carlson, T. (2005). The how of wow: A guide to giving a speech that will positively blow ’em away. New York:
American Management Association.

Cassidy, S. (2011). The Taj Mahal: The most beautiful building in the world. Retrieved from
http://www.epinions.com/review/trvlDest-Asia-IndiaAgra_and_the_Taj_Mahal/content_7472 7001732

Craughwell, T. J. (2000). The baby on the car roof: And 222 more urban legends. New York: Black Dog &
Leventhal Publishers.

U. S. Department of Defense. (2006). Army field manual FM 21-76, survival, evasion and recovery. Retrieved
from http://www.survivalebooks.com/survivalf m3-0570.html

Devito, J. A. (1981). The elements of public speaking. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers.

Fischer, S. R. (2006). The island at the end of the world. London, UK: Reaktion Books.

Fleming, N. D. (2001). Teaching and learning styles: VARK strategies. Christchurch, New Zealand: N.D. Fleming.

Flora, C. (2009, NovemberDecember). Everyday creativity. Psychology Today, 62–73.

Fujishin, R. (2000). The natural speaker. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

George, A. (2011, July 20). Designing a mushroom death suit. New Scientist. Retrieved from
http://www.newscientist.com/blogs/cultu relab/2011/07/designing-a-mushroomdeath-
suit.html?DCMP=OTCrss&nsref=online-news

Gladis, S. (1999). The manager’s pocket guide to public presentations. Amherst, MA: HRD Press.

Hanks, K. & Parry, J. (1991). Wake up your creative genius. Menlo Park, CA: Crisp Publications.

Harlan, R. (1993). The confident speaker: How to master fear and persuade an audience. Bradenton, FL:
McGuinn & McGuire Publishing.

Hawk, T. F. & Shah, A. J. (2007). Using learning style instruments to enhance student learning. Decision
Sciences Journal of Innovative Education, 5 (1),1–19.

Hughes, D., & Phillips, B. (2000). The Oxford Union guide to successful public speaking. London: Virgin Books
Ltd.

Jaffe, C. (1998). Public speaking: Concepts and skills for a diverse society (2nd Ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth
Publishing Company.

Lucas, S. E. (2007). The art of public speaking (9th Ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.

MacInnis, J. L. (2006). The elements of great public speaking: How to be calm, confident, and compelling.
Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press.

45
Maxey, C., & O’Connor, K. E. (2006). Present like a pro: The field guide to mastering the art of business,
professional, and public speaking. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

McKerrow, R. E., Gronbeck, B. E., Ehninger, D., & Monroe, A. H. (2000). Principles and types of speech
communication (14th Ed.). New York: Longman.

Morreale, S. P., & Bovee, C. L. (1998). Excellence in public speaking. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College
Publishers.

National Geographic. (2006). Tsunami: Killer wave [Motion Picture].

Noonan, P. (1998). Simply speaking: How to communicate your ideas with style, substance, and clarity. New
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Osborn, M., & Osborn, S. (1991). Public Speaking, (2nd ed). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Peterson, B. D., Stephan, E. G., & White, N. D. (1992). The complete speaker: An introduction to public speaking,
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Pincus, M. (2006). Boost your presentation IQ. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Reynolds, G. (2008). Presentation Zen: Simple ideas on presentation design and delivery. Berkeley, CA: New
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Rinehart, S. M. (2002). Giving academic presentations. Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.

Slutsky, J., & Aun, M. (1997). The Toastmasters International guide to successful speaking. Chicago: Dearborn
Financial Publishing, Inc.

Sprague, J., & Stuart, D. (1984). The speaker’s handbook. San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,
Publishers.

Thompson, M. (1999). Eastern philosophy. Chicago: Hodder & Stoughton, Ltd.

Ulloth, D., & Alderfer, R. (1998a). Public speaking: An experiential approach. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing
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Wadsworth Publishing Company.

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photo credits
P. 3 Aztec Speaker by Orin Zebest http://www.flickr.com/photos/orinrobertjohn/ 1796533234/

P. 12 Beauty Undressed by Shannon Cutts http://www.flickr.com/photos/40940503@N0 5/4982554199/in/

photostream/ http://www.key-to-life.com/programs

46
Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Shared previously
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by: Lisa Schreiber, Ph.D.. Provided by
by: Millersville University, Millersville, PA. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
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License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Project. License

47
 LISTENING EFFECTIVELY

VIDEO: SELECTING A TOPIC

To help you select topics for your first speech, watch the following video.

Watch this video online: https://youtu.be/Cy4uu3w91xg

Licensing & Attributions
All rights reserved content
• Finding a Purpose and Selecting a Topic for Public Speaking Tools. Authored by
by: Christie Fierro. Located at License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms
at: https://youtu.be/Cy4uu3w91xg. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

OBJECTIVES, OUTLINE, AND INTRODUCTION

Chapter 4: Listening Effectively

By Jenn Q. Goddu, M.A.
Queens University of Charlotte, Charlotte, NC

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• explain the difference between listening and hearing
• understand the value of listening
• identify the three attributes of active listeners
• recognize barriers to effective listening
• employ strategies to engage listeners
• provide constructive 
feedback as a listener

Chapter Outline
• Introduction
• Hearing Versus Listening
• The Value of Listening
◦ Academic Benefits
◦ Professional Benefits
◦ Personal Benefits

48
 • Three A’s of Active Listening
◦ Attention
◦ Attitude
◦ Adjustment
• Barriers to Effective Listening
◦ Anticipating
◦ Judging
◦ Reacting Emotionally
• Strategies to Enhance Listening
◦ Keep an Open Mind
◦ Identify Distractions
◦ Come Prepared
◦ Take Notes
• Providing Feedback to Speakers
◦ Non-verbal Feedback
◦ Verbal Feedback
• Encouraging Effective Listening
◦ Make Your Listeners Care
◦ Cue Your Listeners
◦ Convince Them to Engage
• Conclusion
• Review Questions and Activities
• Glossary
• References
• Appendix A: Listening Profile

“You’re not listening!” An unhappy teen shouts this at a concerned parent. A frustrated parent yells this as a
toddler runs through a parking lot. A teacher says it while flicking the overheard lights on and off, trying to get her
unruly students to heed her. A woman offers these three words as a parting shot before hanging up on her
significant other. A man complains of this to his spouse during a couple’s counseling session. We can imagine all
these scenarios and more; all of them rooted in a speaker wondering if his or her audience is truly listening.

Public speaking requires an audience to hear. Otherwise it’s private

speaking, and anyone overhearing you might wonder if you’ve lost your
wits. What makes public speaking truly effective is when the audience hears
and listens. You might think the two are synonymous. But they aren’t, as
you will soon understand. In a classic listening text, Adler notes, “How
utterly amazing is the general assumption that the ability to listen well is a
natural gift for which no training is required.” ( (Note: Adler, M. J. (1983).
How to speak, how to listen. New York: Macmillan.)) Since listening requires
great effort, this chapter offers the skills needed to listen effectively.

Developing your listening skills can have applications throughout your

educational, personal, and professional lives. You will begin by examining
the difference between hearing and listening. This module will also help you
understand your role as a listener, not only in a public speaking class, but
also in the world. You’ll read about attributes of an active listener, barriers to
listening, and strategies to listen better. Finally, building on valuable lessons
regarding listening, this chapter concludes with suggestions public speakers
can use to encourage audiences to listen more attentively.

We have two ears and one tongue so that we would listen more and
talk less. – Diogenes “Listen to your kids” by Bindaas
Madhavi. CC-BY-NC-ND.
Licensing & Attributions
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by: Jenn Q. Goddu, M.A.. Provided by by: Queens University of Charlotte, Charlotte, NC. Located at
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49
 HEARING VERSUS LISTENING

A mother takes her four-year-old to the pediatrician

reporting she’s worried about the girl’s hearing. The doctor
runs through a battery of tests, checks in the girl’s ears to
be sure everything looks good, and makes notes in the
child’s folder. Then, she takes the mother by the arm. They
move together to the far end of the room, behind the girl.
The doctor whispers in a low voice to the concerned
parent: “Everything looks fine. But, she’s been through a
lot of tests today. You might want to take her for ice cream
after this as a reward.” The daughter jerks her head
around, a huge grin on her face, “Oh, please, Mommy! I
love ice cream!” The doctor, speaking now at a regular
volume, reports, “As I said, I don’t think there’s any
problem with her hearing, but she may not always be
choosing to listen.”

Hearing is something most everyone does without even

trying. It is a physiological response to sound waves “Doctor Aunt” by Eden, Janine and Jim. CC-BY.
moving through the air at up to 760 miles per hour. First,
we receive the sound in our ears. The wave of sound causes our eardrums to vibrate, which engages our brain to
begin processing. The sound is then transformed into nerve impulses so that we can perceive the sound in our
brains. Our auditory cortex recognizes a sound has been heard and begins to process the sound by matching it to
previously encountered sounds in a process known as auditory association
association. ( (Note: Brownell, J. (1996).
Listening: Attitudes, principles, and skills. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.)) Hearing has kept our species alive for
centuries. When you are asleep but wake in a panic having heard a noise downstairs, an age-old self-
preservation response is kicking in. You were asleep. You weren’t listening for the noise—unless perhaps you are
a parent of a teenager out past curfew—but you hear it. Hearing is unintentional, whereas listening (by contrast)
requires you to pay conscious attention. Our bodies hear, but we need to employ intentional effort to actually
listen.

50
 “Hearing Mechanics” by Zina Deretsky. Public domain.

We regularly engage in several different types of listening. When we are tuning our attention to a song we like, or
a poetry reading, or actors in a play, or sitcom antics on television, we are listening for pleasure, also known as
appreciative listening
listening. When we are listening to a friend or family member, building our relationship with another
through offering support and showing empathy for her feelings in the situation she is discussing, we are engaged
in relational listening
listening. Therapists, counselors, and conflict mediators are trained in another level known as
empathetic or therapeutic listening
listening. When we are at a political event, attending a debate, or enduring a
salesperson touting the benefits of various brands of a product, we engage in critical listening. This requires us to
be attentive to key points that influence or confirm our judgments. When we are focused on gaining information
whether from a teacher in a classroom setting, or a pastor at church, we are engaging in informational listening
listening. (
(Note: Ireland, J. (2011, May 4). The kinds of listening skills. Livestrong.com. Retrieved from
http://www.livestrong.com/article/82419-kinds-listening-skills/))

Yet, despite all these variations, Nichols called listening a “lost art.” ( (Note: Nichols, R. G. (1957). Listening is a
10 part skill. Chicago, IL: Enterprise Publications. Retrieved from http://d1025403.site.my hosting.com/
files.listen.org/Nichol sTenPartSkill/Mr39Enf4.html )) The ease of sitting passively without really listening is well
known to anyone who has sat in a boring class with a professor droning on about the Napoleonic wars or proper
pain medication regimens for patients allergic to painkillers. You hear the words the professor is saying, while you
check Facebook on your phone under the desk. Yet, when the exam question features an analysis of Napoleon’s
downfall or a screaming patient fatally allergic to codeine you realize you didn’t actually listen. Trying to recall
what you heard is a challenge, because without your attention and intention to remember, the information is lost in
the caverns of your cranium.

51
Listening is one of the first skills infants gain, using it to acquire language and learn to communicate with their
parents. Bommelje suggests listening is the activity we do most in life, second only to breathing. ( (Note:
Bommelje, R. (2011). LISTEN, LISTEN, LISTEN. In The top 10 ways to strengthen your selfleadership.
International Listening Leadership Institute. Retrieved from http://www.listeningleaders.com/Articles.html))
Nevertheless, the skill is seldom taught.
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Copyright

THE VALUE OF LISTENING

Listening is a critical skill. The strategies endorsed in this chapter can help you to be a more attentive listener in
any situation.

Academic Benefits
Bommelje, Houston, and Smither studied effective listening among 125 college students and found a strong link
between effective listening and school success, supporting previous research in the field linking listening skills to
grade point average. ( (Note: Bommelje, R., Houston, J. M., & Smither, R. (2003). Personality characteristics of
effective listening: A five factor perspective. International Journal of Listening, 17, 32–46.)) This finding is
unsurprising as the better you listen while in class, the better prepared you will be for your assignments and
exams. It is quite simple really. When students listen, they catch the instructions, pointers, feedback, and hints
they can use to make the assignment better or get a better score on the test.

Learning is a result of listening, which in turn leads to even better listening and attentiveness to the
other person. – Alice Miller

52
Professional Benefits
Connecting listening skills to better leadership, Hoppe lists many
professional advantages of active listening, indicating that it helps us: better
understand and make connections between ideas and information; change
perspectives and challenge assumptions; empathize and show respect or
appreciation, which can enhance our relationships; and build self-esteem. (
(Note: Hoppe, M. H. (2006). Active listening: Improve your ability to listen
and lead [ebook]. Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership.)) When
people aren’t listening, it becomes much more difficult to get things done
effectively and trust is broken while fostering resentments. Bell and Mejer,
identifying poor listening as a “silent killer of productivity and profit,” state
change becomes extremely difficult to implement in a work environment
when people are not listening. ( (Note: Bell, C. & Mejer, C. (2011, February
13). The silent killers of productivity and profit. ASTD.com. Retrieved from
https://www.td.org/Publications/Magazines/TD/TD-Archive/2011/02/The-
Silent-Killers-of-Productivity-and-Profit))

Effective listening can also help you to make a better impression on

employers. This can begin at the interview. You really want the job, but you
are really nervous. As a result, you are having trouble paying attention to
what the CEO of the company is saying in your final interview. She asks you
if you have any questions, and you ask something you were wondering
about in the elevator on the way up to this penthouse office. You’re unlikely “The SEIU family listens to Sen. Joe
to get the job if you ask something she’s just talked about. Even if you, Biden” by SEIU Walk a Day in My
somehow, convince her to hire you, you will make little progress at the firm Shoes 2008. CC-BY.
if your supervisors often have to tell you things again, or you make
decisions that cost the company in lost profits because you weren’t listening effectively in a team meeting.

Ferrari identifies listening as the “most critical business skill of all.” He notes, “listening can well be the difference
between profit and loss, between success and failure, between a long career and a short one.” ( (Note: Ferrari, B.
(2012). Power listening: Mastering the most critical business skill of all. New York: Penguin.))

Personal Benefits
If listening is done well, the communication loop is effectively completed between speaker and receiver. The
speaker shares a message with the receiver, having selected a particular method to communicate that message.
The receiver aims to interpret the message and share understanding of the message with the speaker.
Communication effectiveness is determined by the level of shared interpretation of the message reached through
listener response and feedback. When done successfully, the loop is complete, and both sender and receiver feel
connected. The active listener who employs the positive attributes detailed in this chapter is more likely to be
better liked, in turn increasing her self-esteem. She is also likely to be better able to reduce tension in situations
and resolve conflict. ( (Note: Wobser, A. (2004). Developing positive listening skills: How to really listen.
Huntsville, TX. Educational Video Network.)) After all, the symbols for ears, eyes, undivided attention, and heart
comprise the Chinese character for “to listen.” ( (Note: McFerran, J. (2009, August 29). Open-door policy not
enough to be a leader who can listen. Winnipeg Free Press. doi:7BS2732928311 p. G1)) Truly listening to the
words of a speaker is sure to make a positive difference in your interactions whether they are academic,
professional, or personal.

53
 “To Listen” by U.S. Department of State. Public
domain.

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by: Queens University of Charlotte, Charlotte, NC. Located at
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THREE A'S OF ACTIVE LISTENING

Effective listening is about self-awareness. You must pay

attention to whether or not you are only hearing,
passively listening, or actively engaging. Effective listening
requires concentration and a focused effort that is known
as active listening. Active listening can be broken down
into three main elements.

Know how to listen, and you will profit even from

those who talk badly. – Plutarch

Attention
We know now that attention is the fundamental difference
between hearing and listening. Paying attention to what a “Conversation” by Daniel. CC-BY-ND.
speaker is saying requires intentional effort on your part.
Nichols, credited with first researching the field of listening, observed, “listening is hard work. It is characterized by
faster heart action, quicker circulation of the blood, a small rise in bodily temperature.” ( (Note: Nichols, R. G.
(1957). Listening is a 10 part skill. Chicago, IL: Enterprise Publications. Retrieved from
http://d1025403.site.myhosting.com/files.listen.org/NicholsTenPartSkill/Mr39Enf4.html)) Consider that we can
process information four times faster than a person speaks. Yet, tests of listening comprehension show the
average person listening at only 25% efficiency. A typical person can speak 125 words-per-minute, yet we can
process up to three times faster, reaching as much as 500 words-per-minute. The poor listener grows impatient,

54
while the effective listener uses the extra processing time to process the speaker’s words, distinguish key points,
and mentally summarize them. ( (Note: Nichols 1957))

Hoppe ( (Note: Hoppe, M. H. (2006). Active listening: Improve your ability to listen and lead [ebook]. Greensboro,
NC: Center for Creative Leadership.)) advises active listening is really a state of mind requiring us to choose to
focus on the moment, being present and attentive while disregarding any of our anxieties of the day. He suggests
listeners prepare themselves for active attention by creating a listening reminder
reminder. This might be to write “Listen” at
the top of a page in front of you in a meeting.

While reading a book, or having a discussion with an individual, you can go back and reread or ask a question to
clarify a point. This is not always true when listening. Listening is of the moment, and we often only get to hear the
speaker’s words once. The key then is for the listener to quickly ascertain the speaker’s central premise or
controlling idea. Once this is done, it becomes easier for the listener to discern what is most important. Of course,
distinguishing the speaker’s primary goal, his main points, and the structure of the speech are all easier when the
listener is able to listen with an open mind.

“American Government class lecture” by United States Navy. Public domain.

Attitude
Even if you are paying attention, you could be doing so with the wrong attitude, the second A. Telling yourself this
is all a waste of time is not going to help you to listen effectively. You’ll be better off determining an internal
motivation to be attentive to the person speaking. Approaching the task of listening with a positive attitude and an
open-mind will make the act of listening much easier. Bad listeners make snap judgments that justify the decision
to be inattentive. Yet, since you’re already there, why not listen to see what you can learn? Kaponya warns
against psychological deaf spots which impair our ability to perceive and understand things counter to our
convictions. It can be as little as a word or phrase that might cause “an emotional eruption” causing
communication efficiency to drop rapidly. ( (Note: Kaponya, P. J. (1991). The human resource professional:
Tactics and strategies for career success. New York: Praeger Publishers.)) For instance, someone who resolutely
supports military action as the best response to a terrorist action may be unable to listen objectively to a speaker
endorsing negotiation as a better tool. Even if the speaker is effectively employing logic, drawing on credible
sources, and appealing to emotion with a heartrending tale of the civilian casualties caused by bombings, this
listener would be unable to keep an open mind. Failing to acknowledge your deaf spots will leave you at a deficit
when listening.

55
You will always need to make up your own mind about where you stand—whether you agree or disagree with the
speaker—but it is critical to do so after listening. Adler proposes having four questions in mind while listening:
“What is the whole speech about?” “What are the main or pivotal ideas, conclusions, and arguments?” “Are the
speaker’s conclusions sound or mistaken?” and “What of it?” Once you have an overall idea of the speech,
determine the key points, and gauge your agreement, you can decide why it matters, how it affects you, or what
you might do as a result of what you have heard. Yet, he notes it is “impossible” to answer all these questions at
the same time as you are listening. ( (Note: Adler, M. J. (1983). How to speak, how to listen. New York:
Macmillan.)) Instead, you have to be ready and willing to pay attention to the speaker’s point of view and changes
in direction, patiently waiting to see where she is leading you.

There are things I can’t force. I must adjust. There are times when the greatest change needed is a
change of my viewpoint. ~ Denis Diderot

Adjustment
To do this well, you need the final of the three A’s: adjustment. Often when we hear someone speak, we don’t
know in advance what he is going to be saying. So, we need to be flexible, willing to follow a speaker along what
seems like a verbal detour down a rabbit hole, until we are rewarded by the speaker reaching his final destination
while his audience marvels at the creative means by which he reached his important point. If the audience
members are more intent on reacting to or anticipating what is said, they will be poor listeners indeed.

Take time now to think about your own listening habits by completing the listening profile, adapted from Brownell.
( (Note: Brownell, J. (1996). Listening: Attitudes, principles, and skills. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.)) The next
section will consider ways to address the challenges of listening effectively.

Listening Profile

The questions below correspond to each of the six listening components in HURIER: Hearing, Understanding,
Remembering, Interpreting, Evaluating, and Responding. Before answering the questions, first guess which of
the six you will do best at. In which area will you likely score lowest? Now respond to the following prompts
gauging your listening behavior on a five-point scale (1 = almost never, 2 = infrequently, 3 = sometimes, 4 =
often, 5 = almost always).

_____ 1. I am constantly aware that people and circumstances change over time.

_____ 2. I take into account the speaker’s personal and cultural perspective when listening to him or her.

_____ 3. I pay attention to the important things going on around me.

_____ 4. I accurately hear what is said to me.

_____ 5. I understand the speaker’s vocabulary and recognize that my understanding of a work is likely to be
somewhat different from the speaker’s.

_____ 6. I adapt my response according to the needs of the particular situation.

_____ 7. I weigh all evidence before making a decision.

_____ 8. I take time to analyze the validity of my partner’s reasoning before arriving at my own conclusion.

_____ 9. I can recall what I have heard, even when in stressful situations.

_____ 10. I enter communication situations with a positive attitude.

_____ 11. I ask relevant questions and restate my perceptions to make sure I have understood the speaker
correctly.

56
 Listening Profile

_____ 12. I provide clear and direct feedback to others.

_____ 13. I do not let my emotions interfere with my listening or decision-making.

_____ 14. I remember how the speaker’s facial expressions, body posture, and other nonverbal behaviors
relate to the verbal message.

_____ 15. I overcome distractions such as the conversation of others, background noises, and telephones,
when someone is speaking.

_____ 16. I distinguish between main ideas and supporting evidence when I listen.

_____ 17. I am sensitive to the speaker’s tone in communication situations.

_____ 18. I listen to and accurately remember what is said, even when I strongly disagree with the speaker’s
viewpoint.

Add your scores for 4 + 10 + 15. This is your hearing total.

Add your scores for 5 + 11 + 16. This is your understanding total.

Add your scores for 1 + 7 + 8. This is your evaluating total.

Add your scores for 3 + 9 + 18. This is your remembering total.

Add your scores for 2 + 14 + 17. This is your interpreting total.

Add your scores for 6 + 12 + 13. This is your responding total.

In which skill area do you score highest? Which is your lowest? How would these listening behaviors affect
your interactions with peers, parents, instructors, or professional coworkers?

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BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE LISTENING

We get in our own way when it comes to effective listening. While listening may be the communication skill we
use foremost in formal education environments, it is taught the least (behind, in order, writing, reading, and
speaking). ( (Note: Brownell, J. (1996). Listening: Attitudes, principles, and skills. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.)) To
better learn to listen it is first important to acknowledge strengths and weaknesses as listeners. We routinely
ignore the barriers to our effective listening; yet anticipating, judging, or reacting emotionally can all hinder our
ability to listen attentively.

57
 “Visitors NAO Rozhen Telescope” by Daniel. CC-BY-SA.

Anticipating
Anticipating, or thinking about what the listener is likely to say, can detract from listening in several ways. On one
hand, the listener might find the speaker is taking too long to make a point and try to anticipate what the final
conclusion is going to be. While doing this, the listener has stopped actively listening to the speaker. A listener
who knows too much, or thinks they do, listens poorly. The only answer is humility, and recognizing there is
always something new to be learned.

Anticipating what we will say in response to the speaker is another detractor to effective listening. Imagine your
roommate comes to discuss your demand for quiet from noon to 4 p.m. every day so that you can nap in
complete silence and utter darkness. She begins by saying, “I wonder if we could try to find a way that you could
nap with the lights on, so that I could use our room in the afternoon, too.” She might go on to offer some perfectly
good ideas as to how this might be accomplished, but you’re no longer listening because you are too busy
anticipating what you will say in response to her complaint. Once she’s done speaking, you are ready to
enumerate all of the things she’s done wrong since you moved in together. Enter the Resident Assistant to
mediate a conflict that gets out of hand quickly. This communication would have gone differently if you had
actually listened instead of jumping ahead to plan a response.

An expert is someone who has succeeded in making decisions and judgments simpler through knowing
what to pay attention to and what to ignore. – Edward de Bono

Judging
Jumping to conclusions about the speaker is another barrier to effective listening. Perhaps you’ve been in the
audience when a speaker makes a small mistake; maybe it’s mispronouncing a word or misstating the hometown
of your favorite athlete. An effective listener will overlook this minor gaffe and continue to give the speaker the
benefit of the doubt. A listener looking for an excuse not to give their full attention to the speaker will instead take
this momentary lapse as proof of flaws in all the person has said and will go on to say.

58
This same listener might also judge the speaker based on superficialities. Focusing on delivery or personal
appearance—a squeaky voice, a ketchup stain on a white shirt, mismatched socks, a bad haircut, or a proclaimed
love for a band that no one of any worth could ever profess to like—might help the ineffective listener justify a
choice to stop listening. Still, this is always a choice. The effective listener will instead accept that people may
have their own individual foibles, but they can still be good speakers and valuable sources of insight or
information.

Reacting Emotionally
When the speaker says an emotional trigger
trigger, it can be even more difficult to listen effectively. A guest speaker on
campus begins with a personal story about the loss of a parent, and instead of listening you become caught up
grieving a family member of your own. Or, a presenter takes a stance on drug use, abortion, euthanasia, religion,
or even the best topping for a pizza that you simply can’t agree with. You begin formulating a heated response to
the speaker’s perspective, or searing questions you might ask to show the holes in the speaker’s argument. Yet,
you’ve allowed your emotional response to the speaker interfere with your ability to listen effectively. Once
emotion is involved, effective listening stops.

Bore, n. A person who talks when you wish him to listen. – Ambrose Bierce

Licensing & Attributions

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Project: The Public
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
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at: https://flic.kr/p/GDDKD. License

STRATEGIES TO ENHANCE LISTENING

Keep an Open Mind

Thinking about listening might make you feel tense in the moment. The effective listener is instead calm with a
focused and alert mind. You are not waiting to hear what you want to hear, but listening to “what is said as it is
said.” ( (Note: Ramsland, K. M. (1992). The art of learning: A self-help manual for students. Albany: SUNY UP.))
Effective listeners keep an open mind. Remember that listening to a point of view is not the same as accepting
that point of view. Recognizing this can help you to cultivate a more open perspective, helping you to better adjust
as you listen actively to a speaker. Also, it might help you to curtail your emotions. If you do encounter a point that
incenses you, write it down to return to later. For now, you should keep on listening.

59
Identify Distractions
In any setting where you are expected to listen,
you encounter numerous distractions. For instance, the
father sitting in the living room watching television, might
want to turn off the television to better enable him to listen
to his son when he comes into the room saying, “Dad, I
have a problem.” In the classroom setting, you might be
distracted sitting beside friends who make sarcastic
comments throughout the class. In a new product meeting
with the sales team, you could be unnerved by the
constant beep of your phone identifying another text,
email, or phone message has arrived. Identifying the
things that will interrupt your attention, and making a
conscious choice to move to a different seat or turn off
your phone, can help position you to listen more
effectively.

Come Prepared “Esther Brimmer Listens to Debate at HRC emergency

session on Syria” by United States Mission Geneva. CC-
Another useful strategy is to come prepared when you can. BY.
Any time you enter a listening situation with some advance
working knowledge of the speaker and what might be expected of you as a listener, you will be better able to
adjust and engage more deeply in what is being said. For instance, you might read the assigned readings for
class, do the lab work before the lecture writing up the results, read a biography of a guest speaker before you go
to an event, review the agenda from the previous staff meeting, or consult with a colleague about a client before
going on-site to make a sale.

Take Notes
Taking notes can also advance your ability to be actively engaged in the speaker’s words. You need not write
down everything the speaker is saying. First, this is quite likely to be impossible. Second, once you are caught up
in recording a speaker’s every word, you are no longer listening. Use a tape recorder instead—having asked the
speaker’s permission first—if you feel you really must capture every word the speaker utters. You want to focus
your efforts on really listening with an active mind. Learning to focus your attention on main points, key concepts,
and gaining the overall gist of the speaker’s talk is another skill to develop. You might endeavor to do this by
jotting down a few notes or even drawing visuals that help you to recall the main ideas. The manner in which you
take the notes is up to you; what is important is the fact that you are listening and working to process what is
being said. Writing down questions that come to mind and asking questions of the speaker when it is possible, are
two more ways to guarantee effective listening as you have found an internal motivation to listen attentively.

Education is the ability to listen to almost anything without losing your temper or your self-confidence. –
Robert Frost

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60
 PROVIDING FEEDBACK TO SPEAKERS

There are many ways in which a listener can offer feedback to a speaker, sometimes even wordlessly. Keeping
an open mind is something you do internally, but you can also demonstrate openness to a speaker through
your nonverbal communication
communication.

Nonverbal Feedback
Boothman recommends listening with your
whole body, not just your ears. ( (Note:
Boothman, N. (2008). How to make people
like you in 90 seconds or less. NY: Workman
Publishing.)) Consider how confident you
would feel speaking to a room full of people
with their eyes closed, arms and legs
crossed, and bodies bent in slouches. These
listeners are presenting nonverbal cues that
they are uninterested and unimpressed.
Meanwhile, a listener sitting up straight,
facing you with an intent look on his face is
more likely to offer reassurance that your
words are being understood.

Eye contact is another nonverbal cue to the

“Visitors Listen to Lecture” by Adam Jones, Ph.D. CC-BY-SA.
speaker that you are paying attention. You
don’t want to be bug-eyed and unblinking; the
speaker might assume there is a tiger behind her and begin to panic as you seem to be doing. However, attentive
eye contact can indicate you are listening, and help you to stay focused too. There are some cultures where
maintaining eye contact would cause discomfort, so keep that in mind. Also, you may be someone who listens
better with eyes closed to visualize what is being said. This can be difficult for a speaker to recognize, so if this is
you consider incorporating one of the following nonverbals while you listen with eyes closed.

Nodding your head affirmatively, making back-channel responses such as “Yes,” “Umhum,” or “OK” can help the
speaker gauge your interest. Even the speed of your head nod can signal your level of patience or understanding.
( (Note: Pease, A., & Pease, B. (2006). The definitive book of body language. New York: Bantam Books.))
Leaning in as a listener is far more encouraging than slumping in your seat. Miller suggests the “listener’s
listener’s lean
lean”
demonstrates “ultimate interest. This joyous feedback is reflexive. It physically endorses our communiqué.” (
(Note: Miller, C. (1994). The empowered communicator: Keys to unlocking an audience. Nashville: Broadman &
Holman Publishers.)) Nevertheless, sending too many nonverbal responses to the speaker can go wrong too.
After all, a conference room full of people shifting in their seats and nodding their heads may translate as a
restless audience that the speaker needs to recapture.

The only way to entertain some folks is to listen to them. ~ Kin Hubbard

Verbal Feedback
While speakers sometimes want all questions held until the end of a presentation, asking questions when the
opportunity presents itself can help you as a listener. For one, you have to listen in order to be able to ask a
question. Your goal should be to ask open-ended questions (“What do you think about….?” rather than “We
should do …., right?”). You can use questions to confirm your understanding of the speaker’s message. If you’re
not entirely sure of a significant point, you might ask a clarifying question. These are questions such as “What did
you mean?” “Can you be more specific?” or “What is a concrete example of your point?” These can help your
comprehension, while also offering the speaker feedback. When asking questions, approach the speaker in a

61
positive, non-threatening way. A good listener doesn’t seek to put the speaker on the defensive. You want to
demonstrate your objectivity and willingness to listen to the speaker’s response.

“Conversation in the Park” by sswj. CC-BY-NC-ND.

Finally, paraphrasing what has been said in your interactions with the speaker can be another useful tool for a
good listener. Imagine the difference if, before you respond to an upset colleague, you take a moment to say, “I
understand you are disappointed we didn’t consult you before moving forward with the product release…” before
you say, “we didn’t have time to get everyone’s input.” Reflecting back the speaker’s point of view before you
respond allows the speaker to know you were listening and helps foster trust that everyone’s voice is being heard.
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62
 ENCOURAGING EFFECTIVE LISTENING

William Henry Harrison was the ninth President of the United States. He’s
also recognized for giving the worst State of the Union address—ever. His
two-hour speech delivered in a snowstorm in 1841 proves that a long
speech can kill (and not in the colloquial “it was so good” sense). Perhaps
it was karma, but after the President gave his meandering speech
discussing ancient Roman history more than campaign issues, he died
from a cold caught while blathering on standing outside without a hat or
coat. ( (Note: William Henry Harrison: Inaugural Address. (1989). U. S.
Inaugural Addresses. Bartleby.com. Accessed Sept. 2, 2012.))

Now, when asked what you know about Abraham Lincoln, you’re likely to
have more answers to offer. Let’s focus on his Gettysburg Address. The
speech is a model of brevity. His “of the people, by the people, for the
people” is always employed as an example of parallelism, and he kept his
words simple. In short, Lincoln considered his listening audience when
writing his speech.

The habit of common and continuous speech is a symptom of mental

deficiency. It proceeds from not knowing what is going on in other “William Henry Harrison” by James Reid
people’s minds. – Walter Bagehot Lambdin. Public domain.

When you sit down to compose a speech, keep in mind that you are writing for the ear rather than the eye.
Listeners cannot go back and reread what you have just said. They need to grasp your message in the amount of
time it takes you to speak the words. To help them accomplish this, you need to give listeners a clear idea of your
overarching aim, reasons to care, and cues about what is important. You need to inspire them to want to not just
hear but engage in what you are saying.

Make Your Listeners Care

Humans are motivated by ego; they always want to know “what’s in it for me?” So, when you want to want to get
an audience’s attention, it is imperative to establish a reason for your listeners to care about what you are saying.

Some might say Oprah did this by giving away cars at the end of an episode. But, that only explains why people
waited in line for hours to get a chance to sit in the audience as her shows were taped. As long as they were in
the stands, they didn’t need to listen to get the car at the end of the show. Yet Oprah had audiences listening to
her for 25 years before she launched her own network. She made listeners care about what she was saying. She
told them what was in that episode for them. She made her audience members feel like she was talking to them
about their problems, and offering solutions that they could use—even if they weren’t multibillionaires known
worldwide by first name alone.

Audiences are also more responsive when you find a means to tap their intrinsic motivation
motivation, by appealing to
curiosity, challenging them, or providing contextualization. ( (Note: VanDeVelde Luskin, C. (2003, September).
Mark Lepper: Intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and the process of learning. In Bing Times Online, Stanford
University, retrieved from http://web.stanford.edu/dept/bingschool/cgi-bin/bt/sep2003/mark-lepper-intrinsic-
motivation-extrinsic-motivation-and-the-process-of-learning/)) You might appeal to the audience’s curiosity if you
are giving an informative speech about a topic they might not be familiar with already. Even in a narrative speech,
you can touch on curiosity by cueing the audience to the significant thing they will learn about you or your topic
from the story. A speech can present a challenge too. Persuasive speeches challenge the audience to think in a
new way. Special Occasion speeches might challenge the listeners to reflect or prompt action. Providing a listener
with contextualization comes back to the what’s in it for me motivation. A student giving an informative speech
about the steps in creating a mosaic could simply offer a step-by-step outline of the process, or she can frame it
by saying to her listener, “by the end of my speech, you’ll have all the tools you need to make a mosaic on your

63
own.” This promise prompts the audience to sit further forward in their seats for what might otherwise be a dry
how-to recitation.

Cue Your Listeners

Audiences also lean in further when you employ active
voice. We do this in speaking without hesitation. Imagine
you were walking across campus and saw the contents of
someone’s room dumped out on the lawn in front of your
dorm. You’d probably tell a friend: “The contents of Jane’s
room were thrown out the window by Julie.” Wait, that
doesn’t sound right. You’re more likely to say: “Julie threw
Jane’s stuff out the window!” The latter is an example of
active voice. You put the actor (Julie) and the action
(throwing Jane’s stuff) at the beginning. When we try to
speak formally, we can fall into passive voice. Yet, it
sounds stuffy, and so unfamiliar to your listener’s ear that
he will struggle to process the point while you’ve already
moved on to the next thing you wanted to say.
“Make way for ducklings” by lee. CC-BY-NC-ND.
Twice and thrice over, as they say, good is it to
repeat and review what is good. – Plato

Knowing that your audience only hears what you are saying the one time you say it, invites you to employ
repetition. Listeners are more likely to absorb a sound when it is repeated. We are often unconsciously waiting for
a repetition to occur so we can confirm what we thought we heard. ( (Note: Brownell, J. (1996). Listening:
Attitudes, principles, and skills. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.)) As a result, employing repetition can emphasize an
idea for the listener. Employing repetition of a word, words, or sentence can create a rhythm for the listener’s ear.
Employing repetition too often, though, can be tiresome.

If you don’t want to repeat things so often you remind your listener of a sound clip on endless loop, you can also
cue your listener through vocal emphasis. Volume is a tool speakers can employ to gain attention. Certainly
parents use it all of the time. Yet, you probably don’t want to spend your entire speech shouting at your audience.
Instead, you can modulate your voice so that you say something important slightly louder. Or, you say something
more softly, although still audible, before echoing it again with greater volume to emphasize the repetition.
Changing your pitch or volume can help secure audience attention for a longer period of time, as we welcome the
variety.

Pace is another speaker’s friend. This is not to be confused with the moving back and forth throughout a speech
that someone might do nervously (inadvertently inducing motion sickness in his audience). Instead it refers to
planning to pause after an important point or question to allow your audience the opportunity to think about what
you have just said. Or, you might speak more quickly (although still clearly) to emphasize your fear or build humor
in a long list of concerns while sharing an anecdote. Alternately, you could slow down for more solemn topics or to
emphasize the words in a critical statement. For instance, a persuasive speaker lobbying for an audience to stop
cutting down trees in her neighborhood might say, “this can’t continue. It’s up to you to do something.” But
imagine her saying these words with attention paid to pacing and each period representing a pause. She could
instead say, “This. Can’t. Continue. It’s up to you. Do something.”

Convince Them to Engage

Listeners respond to people. Consider this introduction to a speech about a passion for college football:

64
 It’s college football season! Across the nation, the season begins in late
summer. Teams play in several different divisions including the SEC,
the ACC, and Big Ten. Schools make a lot of money playing in the
different divisions, because people love to watch football on TV.
College football is great for the fans, the players, and the schools.

Now, compare it to this introduction to another speech about the same

passion:

When I was a little boy, starting as early as four, my father would wake
me up on Fall Saturdays with the same three words: “It’s Game Day!”
My dad was a big Clemson Tigers fan, so we might drive to Death
Valley to see a game. Everyone would come: my mom, my
grandparents, and friends who went to Clemson too. We would all
tailgate before the game—playing corn hole, tossing a foam football,
and watching the satellite TV. Even though we loved Clemson football
best, all college football was worth watching. You never knew when
there would be an upset. You could count on seeing pre-professional
athletes performing amazing feats. But, best of all, it was a way to bond
with my family, and later my friends.

Both introductions set up the topic and even give an idea of how the speech “Clemson Tigers football running down
will be organized. Yet, the second one is made more interesting by the the hill” by Jim Ferguson. CC-BY.
human element. The speech is personalized.

The college football enthusiast speaker might continue to make the speech interesting to his listeners by
appealing to commonalities. He might acknowledge that not everyone in his class is a Clemson fan, but all of
them can agree that their school’s football team is fun to watch. Connecting with the audience through referencing
things the speaker has in common with the listeners can function as an appeal to ethos
ethos. The speaker is credible
to the audience because he is like them. Or, it can work as an appeal to pathos
pathos. A speaker might employ this
emotional appeal in a persuasive speech about Habitat for Humanity by asking her audience to think first about
the comforts of home or dorm living that they all take for granted.

If you engage people on a vital, important level, they will respond. – Edward Bond

In speaking to the audience about the comforts of dorm living, the speaker is unlikely to refer to the “dormitories
where we each reside.” More likely, she might say, “the dorms we live in.” As with electing to use active voice,
speakers can choose to be more conversational than they might be in writing an essay on the same topic.

The speaker might use contractions, or colloquialisms, or make comparisons to popular television shows, music,
or movies. This will help the listeners feel like the speaker is in conversation with them—admittedly a one-sided
one—rather than talking at them. It can be off-putting to feel the speaker is simply reciting facts and figures and
rushing to get through to the end of their speech, whereas listeners respond to someone talking to them calmly
and confidently. Being conversational can help to convey this attitude even when on the inside the speaker is far
from calm or confident. Nevertheless, employ this strategy with caution. Being too colloquial, for instance using
“Dude” throughout the speech, could undermine your credibility. Or a popular culture example that you think is
going to be widely recognized might not be the common knowledge you think it is, and could confuse audiences
with non-native listeners.

Choice of attention—to pay attention to this and ignore that—is to the inner life what choice of action is
to the outer. In both cases, a man is responsible for his choice and must accept the consequences,
whatever they may be. – W. H. Auden

Licensing & Attributions

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at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
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• make way for ducklings. Authored byby: lee. Located at License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
at: https://flic.kr/p/yvJUP. License
• Clemson Tigers football running down the hill. Authored by by: Jim Ferguson. Located at License: CC BY: Attribution
at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Clemson_Tigers_football_running_down_the_hill.jpg. License

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• William Henry Harrison. Authored by
by: James Reid Lambdin. Located at License: Public Domain: No
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Known Copyright

65
 CONCLUSION, REVIEW QUESTIONS, AND
ACTIVITIES

Admittedly, this discussion of listening may add

a layer of intimidation for public speakers. After
all, it can be daunting to think of having to get an
audience to not only hear, but also truly listen.

Nevertheless, once we recognize the difference

and become aware of active listening and its
barriers, we can better tailor our spoken words to
captivate and engage an audience. A broader
awareness of the importance of effective
listening is another weapon in your arsenal as a
public speaker. At the same time, building up
your own effective listening skills can enhance
your academic, professional, and personal
success. Being heard is one thing, but speakers
need listeners to complete the communication
loop. Reap the rewards: Instead of saying “I hear
you,” try out “I’m listening.” “Defense.gov photo essay” by Elaine Wilson. Public domain.

Review Questions
1. What distinguishes listening from hearing?
2. What are some benefits for you personally from effective listening?
3. Name and give an example of each of the three A’s of active listening.
4. Identify the three main barriers to listening. Which of these barriers is most problematic for you?
What 
can you do about it?
5. What does an effective listener do with the extra thought process time while a speaker is speaking
only 
150 words-per-minute?
6. How can you communicate non-verbally that you are listening?
7. What are some considerations in offering constructive feedback?
8. What are strategies that help hold your listeners’ attention during your speech?

Activities
1. Discuss the following in small groups. How do your listening behaviors change in the following
situations: A) At a concert, B) In class, C) At the dinner table with your parents, D) In a doctor’s
office? What are the distractions and other barriers to listening you might encounter in each setting?
What might you do to overcome the barriers to effective listening in each situation?
2. Listen to someone you disagree with (maybe a politician from the opposing party) and work to listen
actively with an open mind. Try to pay attention to the person’s argument and the reasons he offers
in support of his point of view. Your goal is to identify why the speaker believes what he does and
how he proves it. You need not be converted by this person’s argument.
3. Reflect on a situation in your personal life where poor listening skills created a problem. Briefly
describe the situation, then spend the bulk of your reflection analyzing what went wrong in terms of

66
 listening and how, specifically, effective listening would have made a difference. Share your
observations in small group class discussion.
4. Spend a few minutes brainstorming your trigger words. What are the words that would provoke a
strong emotional response in you? List three concrete strategies you might use to combat this while
being an effective listener.

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by: Jenn Q. Goddu, M.A.. Provided by
by: Queens University of Charlotte, Charlotte, NC. Located at
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Project License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
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Public domain content

• Defense.gov photo essay 090902-D-4894W-008. Authored by
by: Elaine Wilson. Provided by
by: United States Department of Defense. Located at
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License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
File:Defense.gov_photo_essay_090902-D-4894W-008.jpg. License

GLOSSARY AND REFERENCES

Glossary

TERM DEFINITION

Appreciative Listening for entertainment or pleasure purposes. This is the type of listening we might
Listening employ listening to music, watching television, or viewing a movie.

The process by which the mind sorts the perceived sound into a category so that heard
Auditory
information is recognized. New stimuli is differentiated by comparing and contrasting with
Association
previously heard sounds.

A traditional communication model that has both sender and receiver sharing responsibility
for communicating a message, listening, and offering feedback. The sender encodes a
Communication
message for the receiver to decode. Effectiveness of the communication depends on the
Loop
two sharing a similar interpretation of the message and feedback (which can be verbal or
nonverbal).

Focuses on being specific, applicable, immediate, and intends to help the speaker to
Constructive improve. The feedback should be phrased as “The story you told about you and your sister
Feedback in Disneyland really helped me to understand your relationship…” rather than “that was
great, Jane.”

When we are listening, aiming to gain information with which we will evaluate a speaker, or
Critical
the product or proposal the speaker is endorsing. This is often employed when we are
Listening
looking to make choices, or find points of disagreement with a speaker.

The preconceived notions or beliefs a listener might hold dear that can interfere with
“Deaf Spots” listening effectively. These are barriers to having an open mind to receive the sender’s
message.

Emotional A word, concept, or idea that causes the listener to react emotionally. When listeners react
Trigger to a speaker from an emotional perspective, their ability to listen effectively is compromised.

67
 Empathetic A level of relationship listening that aims to help the speaker feel heard and understand,
(Therapeutic) also appreciated. This is also known as therapeutic listening as it is employed most often by
Listening counselors, conflict mediators, or religious representatives.

A speaker aims to establish credibility on the topic at hand with her audience by appealing
Ethos to ethos. This reflects the speaker’s character, her ability to speak to the values of the
listener, and her competence to discuss the topic.

Hearing is a three-step process. It involves receiving sound in the ear, perceiving sound in
Hearing the brain, and processing the information offered by the sound to associate and distinguish
it.

Informational Listening to learn information. For instance, this is the kind of listening students employ in
Listening classroom settings to gain knowledge about a topic.

Effective listeners will find a reason within themselves to want to hear, understand, interpret,
Intrinsic and remember the speaker’s message. Wanting to pass a possible quiz is an extrinsic
Motivation motivation, while wanting to learn the material out of curiosity about the topic is intrinsic
motivation.

“Listener’s Audience members who are intent on what is being said will lean forward. This is a
Lean” nonverbal endorsement of the listener’s attention and the effect of the speaker’s message.

This is the conscious act of focusing on the words or sounds to make meaning of a
Listening
message. Listening requires more intentional effort than the physiological act of hearing.

A note made by a listener acknowledging intent to focus on the speaker’s message and
Listening
tune out distractions. A reminder might also encourage a listener to keep an open mind, or
Reminder
to provide open and encouraging body language.

Physical behaviors that communicate the message or the feedback from the listener. These
Nonverbal
include leaning in, nodding one’s head, maintaining eye contact, crossing arms in front of
Communication
the body, and offering sounds of agreement or dissent.

An appeal to the audience’s emotions, trying to trigger sympathy, pity, guilt, or sorrow.
Pathos Pathos, along with ethos, and logos, make up the rhetorical triangle of appeals, according to
Aristotle. An effective speaker will appeal to all three.

The active and involved listening we do with people we love and care about. This is listening
Relational
where we acknowledge our sympathy for the speaker, encourage them to tell more, and
Listening
build trust with friends or family members by showing interest in their concerns.

Keeping in mind, when writing a speech, that you must use language, pace, repetition, and
Writing for the
other elements to help your audience to hear and see what you are speaking about.
Ear
Remember, the listener must hear and understand your message as you speak it.

References
Adler, M. J. (1983). How to speak, how to listen. New York: Macmillan.

Bell, C. & Mejer, C. (2011, February 13). The silent killers of productivity and profit. ASTD.com. Retrieved from
http://www.astd.org/Publications/ Magazines/TD/TD- Archive/2011/02/The-Silent- Killers-of-Productivity-and-
Profit

Bommelje, R. (2011). LISTEN, LISTEN, LISTEN. In The top 10 ways to strengthen your self- leadership.
International Listening Leadership Institute. Retrieved from http://www.listening leaders.com/Articles.html

68
Bommelje, R., Houston, J. M., & Smither, R. (2003). Personality characteristics of effective listening: A five factor
perspective. International Journal of Listening, 17, 32- 46.

Boothman, N. (2008). How to make people like you in 90 seconds or less. NY: Workman Publishing.

Brownell, J. (1996). Listening: Attitudes, principles, and skills. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Ellis, D. (1998). Becoming a master student. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Ferrari, B. (2012). Power listening: Mastering the most critical business skill of all. New York: Penguin.

Hoppe, M. H. (2006). Active listening: Improve your ability to listen and lead [ebook]. Greensboro, NC: Center for
Creative Leadership.

Ireland, J. (2011, May 4). The kinds of listening skills. Livestrong.com. Retrieved from http://www.livestrong.com/
article/ 82419-kinds-listening-skills/

Kaponya, P. J. (1991). The human resource professional: Tactics and strategies for career success. New York:
Praeger Publishers.

McFerran, J. (2009, August 29). Open-door policy not enough to be a leader who can listen. Winnipeg Free
Press. doi:7BS2732928311

Miller, C. (1994). The empowered communicator: Keys to unlocking an audience. Nashville: Broadman & Holman
Publishers.

Nichols, R. G. (1957). Listening is a 10 part skill. Chicago, IL: Enterprise Publications. Retrieved from
http://d1025403.site.my hosting.com/files.listen.org/Nichol sTenPartSkill/Mr39Enf4.html

Nichols, M. P. (1995). The lost art of listening. New York: Guilford.

Pease, A., & Pease, B. (2006). The definitive book of body language. New York: Bantam Books.

Ramsland, K. M. (1992). The art of learning: A self-help manual for students. Albany: SUNY UP.

VanDeVelde Luskin, C. (2003, September). Mark Lepper: Intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and the
process of learning. In Bing Times Online, Stanford University, retrieved from http://www.stanford.edu/dept/
bings chool/cgi-bin/bt/sep2003/mark- lepper-intrinsic-motivation- extrinsic-motivation-and-the- process-of-
learning/

William Henry Harrison: Inaugural Address. (1989). U. S. Inaugural Addresses. Bartleby.com. Accessed Sept. 2,
2012.

Wobser, A. (2004). Developing positive listening skills: How to really listen. Huntsville, TX. Educational Video
Network

photo credits
p. 2 Hearing mechanics http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hearing_mechanics.jpg By Zina Deretsky

P. 3 Senator Joe Biden http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_SEIU_family_listens_to_ Sen._Joe_Biden.jpg

by SEIU Walk a Day in My Shoes

p. 3 Chinese symbol for listening http://www.state.gov/m/a/os/65759.htm

p. 4 Navy class http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:US_Navy_061007-N-4399G-

029_Sailors_aboard_the_dock_landing_ship_USS_Harpers_Ferry_(LS
D_49)_listen_attentively_to_Wayne_Guillory_give_an_American_Government_class_lecture.jpg By U.S. Navy
photo by Mass Communication Specialist Seaman Charles Thomas Green

p. 5 A public lecture at NAO Rozhen http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lecture_Rozhen.jpg by Daniel

Chanliev

69
p. 6 Esther Brimmer http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Esther_Brimmer_Listens_to_
Debate_at_HRC_emergency_session_on_Syria.jpg by United States Mission Geneva

p. 7 Dachau concentration camp lecture http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Visitors_Listen_to_Lecture_in

_Reconstructed_Barracks_-_Dachau_Concentration_Camp_Site_- _Dachau_-_Bavaria_-_Germany.jpg by Adam
Jones, Ph.D.

p. 8 William Henry Harrison http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/

File:William_Henry_Harrison_by_James_Reid_Lambdin,_1835.jpg by The White House Historical Association

p. 9 Clemson Tigers http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Clemson_Tigers_football_running_down_the_hill.jpg

by Jim Ferguson

p. 10 Audience members listen to Trevor Romain, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/

File:Defense.gov_photo_essay_090 902-D-4894W-008.jpg by Elaine Wilson
Licensing & Attributions
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by: Queens University of Charlotte, Charlotte, NC. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
Project: The Public
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Speaking Project. License

APPENDIX A: LISTENING PROFILE

The questions below correspond to each of the six listening components in HURIER: Hearing, Understanding,
Remembering, Interpreting, Evaluating, and Responding.

Before answering the questions, first guess which of the six you will do best at. In which area will you likely score
lowest?

Now, respond to the following prompts gauging your listening behavior on a five-point scale (1= almost never,
2=infrequently, 3= sometimes, 4= often, 5= almost always).

____ 1. I am constantly aware that people and circumstances change over time.

____ 2. I take into account the speaker’s personal and cultural perspective when listening to him or her.

____ 3. I pay attention to the important things going on around me.

____ 4. I accurately hear what is said to me.

____ 5. I understand the speaker’s vocabulary and recognize that my understanding of a work is likely to be
somewhat different from the speaker’s.

____ 6. I adapt my response according to the needs of the particular situation.

____ 7. I weigh all evidence before making a decision.

____ 8. I take time to analyze the validity of my partner’s reasoning before arriving at my own conclusion.

____ 9. I can recall what I have heard, even when in stressful situations.

____ 10. I enter communication situations with a positive attitude.

____ 11. I ask relevant questions and restate my perceptions to make sure I have understood the speaker
correctly.

____ 12. I provide clear and direct feedback to others.

70
____ 13. I do not let my emotions interfere with my listening or decision-making.

____ 14. I remember how the speaker’s facial expressions, body posture, and other nonverbal behaviors relate to
the verbal message.

____ 15. I overcome distractions such as the conversation of others, background noises, and telephones, when
someone is speaking.

____ 16. I distinguish between main ideas and supporting evidence when I listen.

____ 17. I am sensitive to the speaker’s tone in communication situations.

____ 18. I listen to and accurately remember what is said, even when I strongly disagree with the speaker’s
viewpoint.

Add your scores for 4 + 10 + 15. This is your hearing total.

Add your scores for 5 + 11 + 16. This is your understanding total.
Add your scores for 1 + 7 + 8. This is your evaluating total.
Add your scores for 3 + 9 + 18. This is your remembering total.
Add your scores for 2 + 14 + 17. This is your interpreting total.
Add your scores for 6 + 12 + 13. This is your responding total.

In which skill area do you score highest? Which is your lowest? How would these listening behaviors affect your
interactions with peers, parents, instructors, or professional co-workers?

Source: Adapted from J. Brownell, (1996), Listening: Attitudes, Principles and Skills, pp. 29 – 31, Boston: Allyn &
Bacon.
Licensing & Attributions
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by: Jenn Q. Goddu, M.A.. Provided by
by: Queens University of Charlotte, Charlotte, NC. Located at
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License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Speaking Project. License

71
 ORGANIZING AND OUTLINING

VIDEO: SAMPLE DEMONSTRATION SPEECHES

An example of a demonstration speech:

Terry Moore: How to tie your shoes

Watch this video online: https://youtu.be/zAFcV7zuUDA

An example of what NOT to do:

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ELEMENTS OF AN EXCELLENT DEMONSTRATION

SPEECH

You will prepare a 4 to 5 minute speech showing the audience how to do something. The speech must include
visual aids. Your topic must be appropriate for your audience. You topic must be approved.

I. Nature of a Demonstration Speech: In a demonstration speech, you inform your audience by showing them…
1. How to make something (e.g., food; crafts; household decorations; technological gear);
2. How to complete a process (e.g., playing a game or sport, or inspecting, maintaining, or
repairingsomething); or
3. How something works (e.g., part of a car; a machine; computer software)

II. Selecting a Topic: It’s best to choose something which…

1. You know well
2. Can be shown within reliable time boundaries
3. Isn’t highly technical and doesn’t include too many steps
4. Can easily be shown to a large group
5. Will expand listeners’ knowledge

III. Organization:

72
 1. Organize the body of your speech into 2-5 main points which correspond to parts of your process- -
rather than in a long series of steps
2. Provide clear “signposts” for each main step in the process

IV. Preparation:
1. Arrange and test any AV equipment beforehand
2. Practice repeatedly so you can handle items easily
3. Lay everything out ahead of time and make sure the entire audience can see your work area

V. Presentation:
1. Be as clear as possible; use simple language; explain jargon; define acronyms
2. Use easy-to-follow, step-by-step processes, and large, visible visuals
3. Avoid obstructions; make sure everyone in the room can see you without having to strain
4. Speak at a pace which your audience can easily follow, keeping in mind that you may beintroducing
them to terms and concepts which are new to them
5. Speak to your audience rather than to your objects, using the T-T-T method (touch/turn/talk); maintain
eye contact

VI. Momentum
1. Talk while you demonstrate; avoid “dead air time”
2. Be prepared to add extra commentary if part of your process takes longer than expected (e.g.,
ifsomething you’re stirring doesn’t thicken quickly)
3. If what you’re demonstrating normally takes more than 5 minutes, go through just enough steps togive
the idea, then show the finished product
4. Pass out handouts before or after your speech unless people really need to read or see somethingin
writing during the presentation itself
5. If you’ll be using a volunteer or needing a helper with equipment, identify that person up ahead oftime

VII. After your presentation:

1. Be prepared to answer any questions
2. Quickly clear your items away so the next speaker can get ready
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OBJECTIVES, OUTLINE, AND INTRODUCTION

Chapter 8: Organizing and Outlining

By Joshua Trey Barnett
University of Indiana, Bloomington, IN

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Select a topic appropriate to the audience and occasion.

73
 • Formulate a specific purpose statement that identifies precisely what you will do in your speech.
• Craft a thesis statement that clearly and succinctly summarizes the argument you will make in your
speech.
• Identify and arrange the main points of your speech according to one of many organizational styles
discussed in this chapter.
• 
Connect the points of your speech to one another.
• Create a preparation and speaking outline for your speech.

Chapter Outline
• Introduction
• The Topic, Purpose, and Thesis
◦ Selecting a Topic
◦ Formulating a Purpose Statement
◦ Writing a Thesis Statement
• Writing the Body of Your Speech
◦ Selecting Main Points
◦ Selecting Sub-points
• Organizational Styles
◦ Chronological
◦ Topical
◦ Spatial
◦ Comparative
◦ Problem-Solution
◦ Causal
• Connecting Your Main Points
◦ Transitional Statements
◦ Internal Previews
◦ Summaries
• Outlining Your Speech
◦ Outline Types
◦ Outline Structure
◦ Preparation Outline
◦ Speaking Outline
◦ Using the Outline
• Conclusion
• Module Activities
• Glossary
• References
• Appendix A
• Appendix B

Meg jaunted to the front of the classroom—her trusty index cards in one
hand and her water bottle in the other. It was the mid-term presentation in
her entomology class, a course she enjoyed more than her other classes.
The night before, Meg had spent hours scouring the web for information
on the Woody Adelgid, an insect that has ravaged hemlock tree
populations in the United States in recent years. But when she made it to
the podium and finished her well- written and captivating introduction, her
speech began to fall apart. Her index cards were a jumble of unorganized
information, not linked together by any unifying theme or purpose. As she
stumbled through lists of facts, Meg—along with her peers and
instructor—quickly realized that her presentation had all the necessary
parts to be compelling, but that those parts were not organized into a
coherent and convincing speech.
“Rough Outline For A Course” by
Chris Campbell. CC-BY-NC.

74
Giving a speech or presentation can be a daunting task for anyone, especially inexperienced public speakers or
students in introductory speech courses. Speaking to an audience can also be a rewarding experience for
speakers who are willing to put in the extra effort needed to craft rhetorical masterpieces. Indeed, speeches and
presentations must be crafted. Such a design requires that speakers do a great deal of preparatory work, like
selecting a specific topic and deciding on a particular purpose for their speech. Once the topic and purpose have
been decided on, a thesis statement can be prepared. After these things are established, speakers must select
the main points of their speech, which should be organized in a way that illuminates the speaker’s perspective,
research agenda, or solution to a problem. In a nutshell, effective public speeches are focused on particular topics
and contain one or more main points that are relevant to both the topic and the audience. For all of these
components to come together convincingly, organizing and outlining must be done prior to giving a speech.

This chapter addresses a variety of strategies needed to craft the body of public speeches. The chapter begins at
the initial stages of speechwriting— selecting an important and relevant topic for your audience. The more difficult
task of formulating a purpose statement is discussed next. A purpose statement drives the organization of the
speech since different purposes (e.g., informational or persuasive) necessitate different types of evidence and
presentation styles. Next, the chapter offers a variety of organizational strategies for the body of your speech. Not
every strategy will be appropriate for every speech, so the strengths and weaknesses of the organizational styles
are also addressed. The chapter then discusses ways to connect your main points and to draw links between
your main points and the purpose you have chosen. In the final section of this chapter, one of the most important
steps in speechwriting, outlining your speech, is discussed. The chapter provides the correct format for outlines
as well as information on how to write a preparation outline and a speaking outline.

Chaos is inherent in all compounded things. Strive on with diligence. – Buddha

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THE TOPIC, PURPOSE, AND THESIS

Before any work can be done on crafting the body of your speech or presentation, you must first do some prep
work—selecting a topic, formulating a purpose statement, and crafting a thesis statement. In doing so, you lay the
foundation for your speech by making important decisions about what you will speak about and for what purpose
you will speak. These decisions will influence and guide the entire speechwriting process, so it is wise to think
carefully and critically during these beginning stages.

I think reading is important in any form. I think a person who’s trying to learn to like reading should start
off reading about a topic they are interested in, or a person they are interested in. – Ice Cube

Questions for Selecting a Topic

• What important events are occurring locally, nationally and internationally?
• What do I care about most?
• Is there someone or something I can advocate for?
• What makes me angry/happy?
• What beliefs/attitudes do I want to share?
• Is there some information the audience needs to know?

75
Selecting a Topic
Generally, speakers focus on one or more interrelated topics—relatively
broad concepts, ideas, or problems that are relevant for particular
audiences. The most common way that speakers discover topics is by
simply observing what is happening around them—at their school, in
their local government, or around the world. This is because all
speeches are brought into existence as a result of circumstances, the
multiplicity of activities going on at any one given moment in a particular
place. For instance, presidential candidates craft short policy speeches
that can be employed during debates, interviews, or town hall meetings
during campaign seasons. When one of the candidates realizes he or
she will not be successful, the particular circumstances change and the
person must craft different kinds of speeches—a concession speech,
for example. In other words, their campaign for presidency, and its
many related events, necessitates the creation of various speeches.
Rhetorical theorist Lloyd Bitzer ( (Note: Bitzer, L. (1968). The rhetorical
situation. Philosophy & Rhetoric, 1(1), 1–)14.) describes this as the
rhetorical situation. Put simply, the rhetorical situation is the
combination of factors that make speeches and other discourse
meaningful and a useful way to change the way something is. Student
government leaders, for example, speak or write to other students
when their campus is facing tuition or fee increases, or when students
have achieved something spectacular, like lobbying campus “The Reader” by Shakespearesmonkey. CC-
administrators for lower student fees and succeeding. In either case, it BY-NC.
is the situation that makes their speeches appropriate and useful for
their audience of students and university employees. More importantly, they speak when there is an opportunity to
change a university policy or to alter the way students think or behave in relation to a particular event on campus.

But you need not run for president or student government in order to give a meaningful speech. On the contrary,
opportunities abound for those interested in engaging speech as a tool for change. Perhaps the simplest way to
find a topic is to ask yourself a few questions. See the textbox entitled “Questions for Selecting a Topic” for a few
questions that will help you choose a topic.

There are other questions you might ask yourself, too, but these should lead you to at least a few topical choices.
The most important work that these questions do is to locate topics within your pre-existing sphere of knowledge
and interest. David Zarefsky ( (Note: Zarefsky, D. (2010). Public speaking: Strategies for success (6th edition).
Boston: Allyn & Bacon.)) also identifies brainstorming as a way to develop speech topics, a strategy that can be
helpful if the questions listed in the textbox did not yield an appropriate or interesting topic.

Starting with a topic you are already interested in will likely make writing and presenting your speech a more
enjoyable and meaningful experience. It means that your entire speechwriting process will focus on something
you find important and that you can present this information to people who stand to benefit from your speech.

Once you have answered these questions and narrowed your responses, you are still not done selecting your
topic. For instance, you might have decided that you really care about conserving habitat for bog turtles. This is a
very broad topic and could easily lead to a dozen different speeches. To resolve this problem, speakers must also
consider the audience to whom they will speak, the scope of their presentation, and the outcome they wish to
achieve. If the bog turtle enthusiast knows that she will be talking to a local zoning board and that she hopes to
stop them from allowing businesses to locate on important bog turtle habitat, her topic can easily morph into
something more specific. Now, her speech topic is two-pronged: bog turtle habitat and zoning rules.

76
Formulating the Purpose Statements
By honing in on a very specific topic, you begin the work of
formulating your purpose statement
statement. In short, a purpose
statement clearly states what it is you would like to
achieve. Purpose statements are especially helpful for
guiding you as you prepare your speech. When deciding
which main points, facts, and examples to include, you
should simply ask yourself whether they are relevant not
only to the topic you have selected, but also whether they
support the goal you outlined in your purpose statement.
The general purpose statement of a speech may be to
inform, to persuade, to inspire, to celebrate, to mourn, or to
entertain. Thus, it is common to frame a specific purpose
statement around one of these goals. According to O’Hair,
Stewart, and Rubenstein, a specific purpose statement
“expresses both the topic and the general speech purpose
“Bog turtle sunning” by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
in action form and in terms of the specific objectives you
Public domain.
hope to achieve.” ( (Note: O’Hair, D., Stewart, R.,
Rubenstein, H. (2004). A speaker’s guidebook: Text and reference (2nd edition). Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s.))
For instance, the bog turtle habitat activist might write the following specific purpose statement: At the end of my
speech, the Clarke County Zoning Commission will understand that locating businesses in bog turtle habitat is a
poor choice with a range of negative consequences. In short, the general purpose statement lays out the broader
goal of the speech while the specific purpose statement describes precisely what the speech is intended to do.

Success demands singleness of purpose. – Vince Lombardi

Writing the Thesis Statement

The specific purpose statement is a tool that you will use as you write your talk, but it is unlikely that it will appear
verbatim in your speech. Instead, you will want to convert the specific purpose statement into a thesis statement
that you will share with your audience. A thesis statement encapsulates the main points of a speech in just a
sentence or two, and it is designed to give audiences a quick preview of what the entire speech will be about. The
thesis statement for a speech, like the thesis of a research- based essay, should be easily identifiable and ought
to very succinctly sum up the main points you will present. Moreover, the thesis statement should reflect the
general purpose of your speech; if your purpose is to persuade or educate, for instance, the thesis should alert
audience members to this goal. The bog turtle enthusiast might prepare the following thesis statement based on
her specific purpose statement: Bog turtle habitats are sensitive to a variety of activities, but land development is
particularly harmful to unstable habitats. The Clarke County Zoning Commission should protect bog turtle habitats
by choosing to prohibit business from locating in these habitats. In this example, the thesis statement outlines the
main points and implies that the speaker will be arguing for certain zoning practices.
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Copyright

77
 WRITING THE BODY OF YOUR SPEECH

Once you have finished the important work of deciding what your speech
will be about, as well as formulating the purpose statement and crafting
the thesis, you should turn your attention to writing the body of your
speech. All of your main points are contained in the body, and normally
this section is prepared well before you ever write the introduction or
conclusion. The body of your speech will consume the largest amount of
time to present; and it is the opportunity for you to elaborate on facts,
evidence, examples, and opinions that support your thesis statement and
do the work you have outlined in the specific purpose statement.
Combining these various elements into a cohesive and compelling
speech, however, is not without its difficulties, the first of which is
“Writing” by Rubin Starset. CC-BY-NC-SA.
deciding which elements to include and how they ought to be organized
to best suit your purpose.

Good design is making something intelligible and memorable. Great design is making something
memorable and meaningful. – Dieter Rams

The main points of any speech are the key pieces of information or arguments contained within the talk or
presentation. In other words, the main points are what your audience should remember from your talk. Unlike
facts or examples, main points are broad and can be encapsulated in just a sentence or two and represent the big
ideas you want to convey to your audience. In general, speeches contain two to seven main points ( (Note:
Bower, G. H. (1990). Organizational factors in memory. Cognitive Psychology, 1, 18–)46.) that collectively lead to
some understanding by the end of the speech. For informative speeches, main points might include historical
details that advance a particular understanding of an event. For a persuasive speech, however, your main points
may be your separate arguments that, when combined, help to make your case. When writing your main points,
you may want to do so in parallel structure
structure. Parallel structure refers to main points that are worded using the
same structure, perhaps by starting with a common introductory clause. ( (Note: Verderber, R. F., Verderber, K.
S., & Sellnow, D. D. (2008). The challenge of effective speaking (14th edition). Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning.))
Main points do not stand alone; instead, speakers must substantiate their main points by offering up examples,
statistics, facts, anecdotes, or other information that contribute to the audience’s understanding of the main
points. All of these things make up the sub-points
sub-points, which are used to help prove the main points. This is where all
of your research and supporting information comes into play.
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ORGANIZATIONAL STYLES

After deciding which main points and sub-points you must include, you can get to work writing up the speech.
Before you do so, however, it is helpful to consider how you will organize the ideas. From presenting historical
information in chronological order as part of an informative speech to drawing a comparison between two ideas in
a persuasive speech to offering up problems and solutions, there are many ways in which speakers can craft
effective speeches. These are referred to as organizational styles, or templates for organizing the main points of a
speech.

78
Chronological
When you speak about events that are linked together by time, it is sensible to
engage the chronological organization style. In a chronological speech
speech, main
points are delivered according to when they happened and could be traced on
a calendar or clock. Arranging main points in chronological order can be
helpful when describing historical events to an audience as well as when the
order of events is necessary to understand what you wish to convey.
Informative speeches about a series of events most commonly engage the
chronological style, as do many demonstrative speeches (e.g., how to bake a
cake or build an airplane). Another time when the chronological style makes
sense is when you tell the story of someone’s life or career. For instance, a
speech about Oprah Winfrey might be arranged chronologically (see textbox).
In this case, the main points are arranged by following Winfrey’s life from birth “Vintage alarm clock” by peter-rabbit.
to the present time. Life events (e.g., birth, her early career, her life after CC-BY-NC.
ending the Oprah Winfrey Show) are connected together according to when
they happened and highlight the progression of Winfrey’s career. Organizing the speech in this way illustrates the
interconnectedness of life events.

Oprah Winfrey (Chronological Arrangement)

Thesis
Thesis: Oprah’s career can be understood by four key, interconnected life stages.
I. Oprah’s childhood was spent in rural Mississippi, where she endured sexual abuse from family members.
II. Oprah’s early career was characterized by stints on local radio and television networks in Nashville
and Chicago.
III. Oprah’s tenure as host of the Oprah Winfrey Show began in 1986 and lasted until 2011, a period of time
marked by much success.
IV. Oprah’s most recent media venture is OWN: The Oprah Winfrey Network, which plays host to a variety of
television shows including Oprah’s Next Chapter.

Doing the best at this moment puts you in the best place for the next moment. – Oprah Winfrey

Topical
When the main points of your speech center on ideas that are more distinct from one another, a topical
organization style may be engaged. In a topical speech
speech, main points are developed separately and are generally
connected together within the introduction and conclusion. In other words, the topical style is crafted around main
points and sub-points that are mutually exclusive but related to one another by virtue of the thesis. It makes sense
to use the topical style when elements are connected to one another because of their relationship to the whole. A
topical speech about the composition of a newspaper company can be seen in the following textbox. The main
points are linked together by the fact that they are all a part of the same business. Although they are related in
that way, the topical style illustrates the ways in which the four different departments function apart from one
another. In this example, the topical style is a good fit because the four departments are equally important to the
function of the newspaper company.

Composition of a Newspaper Company (Topical Arrangement)

Thesis
Thesis: The newspaper has four primary departments.
I. The advertising department sells display advertisements to local and national businesses.
II. The editorial department produces the written content of the newspaper, including feature stories.
III. The production department lays out the pages and manages pre- press work such as distilling the pages
and processing colors.
IV. The business department processes payments from advertisers, employee paperwork, and the bi-weekly
payroll.

79
Spatial
Another way to organize the points of a speech is through a spatial speech
speech, which arranges main points according
to their physical and geographic relationships. The spatial style is an especially useful organization style when the
main point’s importance is derived from its location or directional focus. In other words, when the scene or the
composition is a central aspect of the main points, the spatial style is an appropriate way to deliver key ideas.
Things can be described from top to bottom, inside to outside, left to right, north to south, and so on. Importantly,
speakers using a spatial style should offer commentary about the placement of the main points as they move
through the speech, alerting audience members to the location changes. For instance, a speech about The
University of Georgia might be arranged spatially; in this example, the spatial organization frames the discussion
in terms of the campus layout. The spatial style is fitting since the differences in architecture and uses of space
are related to particular geographic areas, making location a central organizing factor. As such, the spatial style
highlights these location differences.

University of Georgia (Spatial Arrangement)

Thesis
Thesis: The University of Georgia is arranged into four distinct sections, which are characterized by
architectural and disciplinary differences.
I. In North Campus, one will find the University’s oldest building, a sprawling tree- lined quad, and the famous
Arches, all of which are nestled against Athens’ downtown district.
II. In West Campus, dozens of dormitories provide housing for the University’s large undergraduate population
and students can regularly be found lounging outside or at one of the dining halls.
III. In East Campus, students delight in newly constructed, modern buildings and enjoy the benefits of the
University’s health center, recreational facilities, and science research buildings.
IV. In South Campus, pharmacy, veterinary, and biomedical science students traverse newly constructed
parts of campus featuring well-kept landscaping and modern architecture.

Comparative
When you need to discuss the similarities and differences between
two or more things, a comparative organizational pattern can be
employed. In comparative speeches
speeches, speakers may choose to
compare things a couple different ways. First, you could compare two
or more things as whole (e.g., discuss all traits of an apple and then all
traits of an orange). Second, you could compare these things element
by element (e.g., color of each, smell of each, AND taste of each).
Some topics that are routinely spoken about comparatively include
different cultures, different types of transportation, and even different
types of coffee. A comparative speech outline about eastern and
western cultures could look like this.

“Let’s compare apples to oranges” by

frankieleon. CC-BY.

Eastern vs. Western Culture (Comparison Arrangement)

Thesis
Thesis: There are a variety of differences between Eastern and Western cultures.
I. Eastern cultures tend to be more collectivistic.
II. Western cultures tend to be more individualistic.
III. Eastern cultures tend to treat health issues 
holistically.
IV. Western cultures tend to 
treat health issues more acutely.

In this type of speech, the list of comparisons, which should be substantiated with further evidence, could go on
for any number of main points. The speech could also compare how two or more things are more alike than one
might think. For instance, a speaker could discuss how singers Madonna and Lady Gaga share many similarities
both in aesthetic style and in their music.

80
Problem-Solution
Sometimes it is necessary to share a problem and a
solution with an audience. In cases like these, the
problem-solution speech is an appropriate way to arrange
the main points of a speech. One familiar example of
speeches organized in this way is the political speeches
that presidential hopefuls give in the United States. Often,
candidates will begin their speech by describing a problem
created by or, at the very least, left unresolved by the
incumbent. Once they have established their view of the
problem, they then go on to flesh out their proposed
solution. The problem- solution style is especially useful
when the speaker wants to convince the audience that
they should take action in solving some problem. A political
candidate seeking office might frame a speech using the
problem-solution style (see textbox).
“FEMA” by Dave Gatley. Public domain.

Presidential Candidate’s Speech (Problem-Solution Arrangement)

Thesis
Thesis: The US energy crisis can be solved by electing me as president since I will devote resources to the
production of renewable forms of energy.
I. The United States is facing an energy crisis because we cannot produce enough energy ourselves to
sustain the levels of activity needed to run the country. (problem)
II. The current administration has failed to invest enough resources in renewable energy practices. (problem)
III. We can help create a more stable situation if we work to produce renewable forms of energy within the
United States. (solution)
IV. If you vote for me, I will ensure that renewable energy creation is a priority. (solution)

The difference between what we do and what we are capable of doing would suffice to solve most of
the world’s problems. – Mahatma Gandhi

This example illustrates the way in which a problem-solution oriented speech can be used to identify both a
general problem (energy crisis) and a specific problem (incumbent’s lack of action). Moreover, this example
highlights two kinds of solutions: a general solution and a solution that is dependent on the speaker’s
involvement. The problem-solution speech is especially appropriate when the speaker desires to promote a
particular solution as this offers audience members a way to become involved. Whether you are able to offer a
specific solution or not, key to the problem-solution speech is a clear description of both the problem and the
solution with clear links drawn between the two. In other words, the speech should make specific connections
between the problem and how the solution can be engaged to solve it.

81
Causal
Similar to a problem-solution speech, a causal speech
informs audience members about causes and effects that
have already happened. In other words, a causal
organization style first addresses some cause and then
shares what effects resulted. A causal speech can be
particularly effective when the speaker wants to share the
relationship between two things, like the creation of a
vaccine to help deter disease. An example of how a causal
speech about a shingles vaccine might be designed
follows:

As the example illustrates, the basic components of the

causal speech are the cause and the effect. Such an
organizational style is useful when a speaker needs to
share the results of a new program, discuss how one act “Domino” by Bro. Jeffrey Pioquinto, SJ. CC-BY.
led to another, or discuss the positive/negative outcomes
of taking some action.

Shingles Speech (Cause-Effect Arrangement)

Thesis
Thesis: The prevalence of the disease shingles led to the invention of a vaccine.
1. Shingles is a disease that causes painful, blistering rashes in up to one million Americans every year.
(cause)
2. In 2006, a vaccine for shingles was licensed in the United States and has been shown to reduce the
likelihood that people over 60 years old will get shingles. (effect)

Every choice you make has an end result. – Zig Ziglar

Choosing an organizational style is an important step in the speechwriting process. As you formulate the purpose
of your speech and generate the main points that you will need to include, selecting an appropriate organizational
style will likely become easier. The topical, spatial, causal, comparative and chronological methods of
arrangement may be better suited to informative speeches, whereas the refutation pattern may work well for a
persuasive speech. Additionally, Chapter 16 offers additional organization styles suited for persuasive speeches,
such as the refutation speech and Monroe’s Motivated Sequence. ( (Note: Monroe, A. H. (1949). Principles and
types of speech. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company.)) Next, we will look at statements that help tie all
of your points together and the formal mode of organizing a speech by using outlines.
Licensing & Attributions
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at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
Project: The Public Speaking
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Project. License
• vintage alarm clock. Authored by by: peter-rabbit. Located at License: CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial
at: https://flic.kr/p/drEszC. License
• let's compare apples to oranges. Authored by by: frankieleon. Located at License: CC BY: Attribution
at: https://flic.kr/p/bscqLn. License
• Domino. Authored by by: Bro. Jeffrey Pioquinto, SJ. Located at License: CC BY: Attribution
at: https://flic.kr/p/pA9ftS. License

Public domain content

• FEMA - 1337 - Photograph by Dave Gatley taken on 03-01-1998 in California. Authored by
by: Dave Gatley. Provided by
by: Federal Emergency Management Agency. Located at
at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:FEMA_-
License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
_1337_-_Photograph_by_Dave_Gatley_taken_on_03-01-1998_in_California.jpg. License

CONNECTING YOUR MAIN POINTS

82
Since main points are discrete and interconnected ideas,
and since every speech contains more than one main
point, it is necessary to strategically make connections
between one point and another. To link the ideas of your
speech, you will need to develop signposts
signposts, “words and
gestures that allow you to move smoothly from one idea to
the next throughout your speech, showing relationships
between ideas and emphasizing important points.” ( (Note:
Beebe, S. A. & Beebe, S. J. (2003). The public speaking
handbook (5th edition). Boston: Pearson.)) There are
several ways to incorporate signposts into your speech,
and it is important to do so since these small signals keep
listeners engaged and informed about where you are in the
speech. Transitional statements, internal previews, and
summaries are all signposts that can help keep your “Golden Gate Bridge” by RyanJWilmot. CC-BY-SA.
speech moving along.

If you cry “forward,” you must without fail make plain in what direction to go. – Anton Chekhov

Transitional Statements to Show Similarity and Difference

To Show Similarity Between Points:
• “Similarly”
• “In the same way”
• “Also”
• “Likewise”
• “In other words”
To Show Difference Between Points:
• “However”
• “Unlike the last point”
• “On the other hand”
• “Conversely”
• “In opposition”
• “Another view is that”

One way to connect points is to include transitional statements

statements. Transitional statements are phrases or sentences
that lead from one distinct- but-connected idea to another. They are used to alert audiences to the fact that you
are getting ready to discuss something else. When moving from one point to another, your transition may just be
a word or short phrase. For instance, you might say “next,” “also,” or “moreover.” You can also enumerate your
speech points and signal transitions by starting each point with “First,” “Second,” “Third,” et cetera. The textbox
above offers a short list of transitional statements that are helpful when you need to show similarity or difference
between the points. You might also incorporate non-verbal transitions, such as brief pauses or a movement
across the stage. Pausing to look at your audience, stepping out from behind a podium, or even raising or
lowering the rate of your voice can signal to audience members that you are transitioning.

Another way to incorporate signposts into your speech is by offering internal previews within your speech. Internal
previews, like the name implies, lay out what will occur during your speech. They tell the audience what to expect.
Because audience members cannot flip back and forth between pages, internal previews help keep them on track
and aware of what to be listening for and what to remember. Internal previews are similar to the preview
statements you will learn about in the chapter on introductions and conclusions (Chapter 9), except that they
appear within the body of your speech and are more small-scale than the broad preview you should provide at the
beginning of your speech. In general, internal previews are longer than transitional statements. If you were giving
a problem-solution speech, you might include a variation of this internal preview: “Now that I have described the
problems, let’s now discuss some ways that we can solve these issues.” The internal preview offers a natural
segue from problems to solutions and makes audience members aware that another point is about to be made.

When speeches are longer than a few minutes and include complex ideas and information, speakers often
include summaries within the body of their speech. Summaries provide a recap of what has already been said,

83
making it more likely that audiences will remember the points that they hear again. Additionally, summaries can
be combined with internal previews to alert audience members that the next point builds on those that they have
already heard.

The speaker below has just finished discussing several

reasons trout habitats need federal protection, and next he
will discuss some ways that audience members can
agitate for government action on these issues. His
combined internal preview and summary would look
something like this:

So, in review, trout habitats need federal protection

because they bear a large pollution burden, they
mostly exist on private property, and they are
indicators of other environmental health issues. Next, “Trout” by Jonathunder. CC-BY-SA.
I will discuss some ways that you can encourage
the federal government to protect these habitats.

In this example, the speaker first reminds audience members of what he has already addressed and then tells
them what he will talk about next. By repeating the main points in summary fashion, the speaker gives audience
members another opportunity to consider his main ideas.

Good communication does not mean that you have to speak in perfectly formed sentences and
paragraphs. It isn’t about slickness. Simple and clear go a long way. – John Kotter

Licensing & Attributions

CC licensed content, Shared previously
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by: University of Indiana, Bloomington, IN. Located at
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Project: The Public Speaking
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Project. License
• Trout. Authored byby: Jonathunder. Located at License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Trout.jpg. License
• Golden Gate Bridge 0002. Authored by by: RyanJWilmot. Located at License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Golden_Gate_Bridge_0002.jpg. License

OUTLINING YOUR SPEECH

Most speakers and audience members would agree that an organized speech is both easier to present as well as
more persuasive. Public speaking teachers especially believe in the power of organizing your speech, which is
why they encourage (and often require) that you create an outline for your speech. Outlines
Outlines, or textual
arrangements of all the various elements of a speech, are a very common way of organizing a speech before it is
delivered. Most extemporaneous speakers keep their outlines with them during the speech as a way to ensure
that they do not leave out any important elements and to keep them on track. Writing an outline is also important
to the speechwriting process since doing so forces the speakers to think about the main points and sub-points,
the examples they wish to include, and the ways in which these elements correspond to one another. In short, the
outline functions both as an organization tool and as a reference for delivering a speech.

84
Outline Types
There are two types of outlines. The first outline you will
write is called the preparation outline
outline. Also called a
working, practice, or rough outline, the preparation outline
is used to work through the various components of your
speech in an inventive format. Stephen E. Lucas ( (Note:
Lucas, Stephen E. (2004). The art of public speaking (8th
edition). New York: McGraw-Hill.)) put it simply: “The
preparation outline is just what its name implies—an
outline that helps you prepare the speech” (p. 248). When
writing the preparation outline, you should focus on
finalizing the purpose and thesis statements, logically
ordering your main points, deciding where supporting
material should be included, and refining the overall
organizational pattern of your speech. As you write the
preparation outline, you may find it necessary to rearrange “Alpena Mayor Carol Shafto Speaks at 2011 Michigan
your points or to add or subtract supporting material. You Municipal League Convention” by Michigan Municipal
may also realize that some of your main points are League. CC-BY-ND.
sufficiently supported while others are lacking. The final
draft of your preparation outline should include full sentences, making up a complete script of your entire speech.
In most cases, however, the preparation outline is reserved for planning purposes only and is translated into a
speaking outline before you deliver the speech.

A speaking outline is the outline you will prepare for use when delivering the speech. The speaking outline is
much more succinct than the preparation outline and includes brief phrases or words that remind the speakers of
the points they need to make, plus supporting material and signposts. ( (Note: Beebe, S. A. & Beebe, S. J. (2003).
The public speaking handbook (5th edition). Boston: Pearson.)) The words or phrases used on the speaking
outline should briefly encapsulate all of the information needed to prompt the speaker to accurately deliver the
speech. Although some cases call for reading a speech verbatim from the full-sentence outline, in most cases
speakers will simply refer to their speaking outline for quick reminders and to ensure that they do not omit any
important information. Because it uses just words or short phrases, and not full sentences, the speaking outline
can easily be transferred to index cards that can be referenced during a speech.

Outline Structure
Because an outline is used to arrange all of the elements of your speech, it makes sense that the outline itself has
an organizational hierarchy and a common format. Although there are a variety of outline styles, generally they
follow the same pattern. Main ideas are preceded by Roman numerals (I, II, III, etc.). Sub-points are preceded by
capital letters (A, B, C, etc.), then Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.), and finally lowercase letters (a, b, c, etc.). Each
level of subordination is also differentiated from its predecessor by indenting a few spaces. Indenting makes it
easy to find your main points, sub-points, and the supporting points and examples below them. Since there are
three sections to your speech— introduction, body, and conclusion— your outline needs to include all of them.
Each of these sections is titled and the main points start with Roman numeral I.

Outline Formatting Guide

Title: Organizing Your Public Speech
Topic: Organizing public speeches
Specific Purpose Statement: To inform listeners about the various ways in which they can organize their
public speeches.
Thesis Statement: A variety of organizational styles can used to organize public speeches.
Introduction
Paragraph that gets the attention of the audience, establishes goodwill with the audience, states the purpose
of the speech, and previews the speech and its structure.

85
 (Transition)
Body
I. Main point
A. Sub-point
B. Sub-point
C. Sub-point
1. Supporting point
2. Supporting point
(Transition)
Conclusion
Paragraph that prepares the audience for the end of the speech, presents any final appeals, and summarizes
and wraps up the speech.
Bibliography

In addition to these formatting suggestions, there are some additional elements that should be included at the
beginning of your outline: the title, topic, specific purpose statement, and thesis statement. These elements are
helpful to you, the speechwriter, since they remind you what, specifically, you are trying to accomplish in your
speech. They are also helpful to anyone reading and assessing your outline since knowing what you want to
accomplish will determine how they perceive the elements included in your outline. Additionally, you should write
out the transitional statements that you will use to alert audiences that you are moving from one point to another.
These are included in parentheses between main points. At the end of the outlines, you should include
bibliographic information for any outside resources you mention during the speech. These should be cited using
whatever citations style your professor requires. The textbox entitled “Outline Formatting Guide” provides an
example of the appropriate outline format.

If you do not change direction, you may end up where you are heading. – Lao Tzu

Preparation Outline
This chapter contains the preparation and speaking outlines for a short speech the author of this chapter gave
about how small organizations can work on issues related to climate change (see appendices). In this example,
the title, specific purpose, thesis, and list of visual aids precedes the speech. Depending on your instructor’s
requirements, you may need to include these details plus additional information. It is also a good idea to keep
these details at the top of your document as you write the speech since they will help keep you on track to
developing an organized speech that is in line with your specific purpose and helps prove your thesis. At the end
of the chapter, in Appendix A, you can find a full length example of a Preparation (Full Sentence) Outline.

Speaking Outline
In Appendix B, the Preparation Outline is condensed into just a few short key words or phrases that will remind
speakers to include all of their main points and supporting information. The introduction and conclusion are not
included since they will simply be inserted from the Preparation Outline. It is easy to forget your catchy attention-
getter or final thoughts you have prepared for your audience, so it is best to include the full sentence versions
even in your speaking outline.

86
Using the Speaking Outline
Once you have prepared the outline and are almost ready to give your
speech, you should decide how you want to format your outline for
presentation. Many speakers like to carry a stack of papers with them when
they speak, but others are more comfortable with a smaller stack of index
cards with the outline copied onto them. Moreover, speaking instructors
often have requirements for how you should format the speaking outline.
Whether you decide to use index cards or the printed outline, here are a few
tips. First, write large enough so that you do not have to bring the cards or
pages close to your eyes to read them. Second, make sure you have the
cards/pages in the correct order and bound together in some way so that
they do not get out of order. Third, just in case the cards/pages do get out of
order (this happens too often!), be sure that you number each in the top
right corner so you can quickly and easily get things organized. Fourth, try
not to fiddle with the cards/pages when you are speaking. It is best to lay
them down if you have a podium or table in front of you. If not, practice
reading from them in front of a mirror. You should be able to look down
quickly, read the text, and then return to your gaze to the audience.

Any intelligent fool can make things bigger and more complex… It
takes a touch of genius – and a lot of courage to move in the opposite
direction. – Albert Einstein
“TAG speaks of others first” by Texas
Military Forces. CC-BY-ND.
Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 8 Outlining Your Speech. Authored byby: Joshua Trey Barnett. Provided byby: University of Indiana, Bloomington, IN. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
Project: The Public Speaking
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
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• Alpena Mayor Carol Shafto Speaks at 2011 Michigan Municipal League Convention. Authored by by: Michigan Municipal League. Located at License: CC BY-ND: Attribution-NoDerivatives
at: https://flic.kr/p/aunJMR. License
• TAG speaks of others first. Authored by
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at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/texasmilitaryforces/5560449970/. License

CONCLUSION AND MODULE ACTIVITIES

If you have been using this chapter to guide you through the organizational stages of writing your speech, you
have likely discovered that getting organized is very challenging but also very rewarding. Like cleaning up a
messy kitchen or organizing your closet, doing the more tedious work of organizing your speech is an activity you
will appreciate most once it is done. From the very beginning stages of organization, like choosing a topic and
writing a thesis statement, to deciding how best to arrange the main points of your speech and outlining, getting
organized is one step toward an effective and engaging speech or presentation.

Had Meg, the student mentioned in the opening anecdote, taken some time to work through the organizational
process, it is likely her speech would have gone much more smoothly when she finished her introduction. It is
very common for beginning speakers to spend a great deal of their time preparing catchy introductions, fancy
PowerPoint presentations, and nice conclusions, which are all very important. However, the body of any speech is
where the speaker must make effective arguments, provide helpful information, entertain, and the like, so it
makes sense that speakers should devote a proportionate amount of time to these areas as well. By following this
chapter, as well as studying the other chapters in this text, you should be prepared to craft interesting, compelling,
and organized speeches.

87
 “Alt-Disney $11” by Jeff Carson. CC-BY-NC-SA.

Review Questions
1. Name three questions you should ask yourself when selecting a topic.
2. What is the difference between a general and specific purpose statement? Write examples of each
for each of these topics: dog training, baking a cake, climate change.
3. How does the thesis statement differ from the specific purpose statement?
4. Which speech organization style arranges points by time? Which one arranges points by direction?
Which one arranges points according to a five-step sequence?
5. Which speech organization styles are best suited for persuasive speeches?
6. Define signpost. What are three types of signposts?
7. What is the correct format for a speech outline?

Activities
1. Reverse outlining
outlining. During a classmate’s speech, pay special attention to the organization style that
he or she employs. As they give their speech, try to construct an outline based on what you hear. If
your classmate has followed many of the suggestions provided in this and other chapters, you should
be able to identify and replicate the structure of the speech. Compare your “reverse” outline with the
speaking outline. Discuss any areas of discrepancy.
2. Topic Proposal Workshop
Workshop. Often, selecting a topic can be one of the most challenging steps in
developing a speech for your class. Prior to class, review the textbox “Questions for selecting a topic”
on page 8-2. Answer these questions and choose a tentative topic. Write up a short paragraph about
your topic that describes its importance, why it interests you, and what you would like to convey to an
audience about your proposed topic. In class, meet with two or three additional students to discuss
and workshop each of your topics. As you discuss your topic with others, jot down what questions
they had, what aspects they seemed to find most interesting, and any suggestions your peers might
have. Once the workshop is complete, proceed with narrowing your topic to something manageable.

88
Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 8 Conclusion and Module Activities. Authored by by: Joshua Trey Barnett. Provided by
by: University of Indiana, Bloomington, IN. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
Project: The Public
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Speaking Project. License
• Alt-Disney $11. Authored by
by: Jeff Carson. Located at License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
at: https://flic.kr/p/d3JW89. License

GLOSSARY AND REFERENCES

Glossary

TERM DEFINITION

Chronological A speech in which the main points are delivered according to when they happened and could
Speech be traced on a calendar or clock.

Comparative A speech in which two or more objects, ideas, beliefs, events, places, or things are compared
Speech or contrasted with one another.

Causal A speech that informs audience members about causes and effects that have already
Speech happened.

General
The overarching goal of a speech; for instance, to inform, to persuade, to inspire, to
Purpose
celebrate, to mourn, or to entertain.
Statement

Internal Short descriptions of what a speaker will do and say during a speech; may be at the
Previews beginning and within the body of a speech.

Main Points The key pieces of information or arguments contained within a talk or presentation.

Monroe’s An organization style that is designed to motivate the audience to take a particular action and
Motivated is characterized by a five-step sequence: (1) attention, (2) need, (3) satisfaction, (4),
Sequence visualization, and (5) action appeal.

Organizational Templates for organizing the main points of a speech that are rooted in traditions of public
Styles discourse and can jumpstart the speechwriting process.

Outline Hierarchal textual arrangement of all the various elements of a speech.

Parallel
Main points that are worded using the same structure.
Structure

A full-sentence outline that is used during the planning stages to flesh out ideas, arrange
Preparation
main points, and to rehearse the speech; could be used as a script if presenting a manuscript
Outline
style speech.

Problem-
A speech in which problems and solutions are presented alongside one another with a clear
Solution
link between a problem and its solution.
Speech

Refutation A speech that anticipates the audience’s opposition, then brings attention to the tensions
Speech between the two sides, and finally refutes them using evidential support.

89
 According to Lloyd Bitzer, “a complex of persons, events, objects, and relations presenting an
Rhetorical actual or potential exigence which can be completely or partially removed if discourse,
Situation introduced into the situation, can so constrain human decision or action as to bring about the
significant modification of the exigence” (1968, p. 6).

According to Beebe and Beebe, “words and gestures that allow you to move smoothly from
Signposts one idea to the next throughout your speech, showing relationships between ideas and
emphasizing important points” (2005, p. 204).

Spatial A speech in which the main points are arranged according to their physical and geographic
Speech relationships.

Speaking A succinct outline that uses words or short phrases to represent the components of a speech
Outline and that is used during speech delivery.

Specific
Purpose A sentence or two that describe precisely what the speech is intended to do.
Statement

Sub-Points Information that is used to support the main points of a speech.

Short recaps of what has already been said; used to remind the audience of the points
Summaries
already addressed.

Thesis A one- or two-sentence encapsulation of the main points of a speech, also called the central
Statement idea.

Topical A speech in which main points are developed separately and are generally connected
Speech together within the introduction and conclusion.

Transitional
Phrases or sentences that lead from one distinct-but-connected idea to another.
Statements

References
Beebe, S. A. & Beebe, S. J. (2003). The public speaking handbook (5th edition). Boston: Pearson.

Bower, G. H. (1990). Organizational factors in memory. Cognitive Psychology, 1, 18-46.

Bitzer, L. (1968). The rhetorical situation. Philosophy & Rhetoric, 1(1), 1-14.

Lucas, Stephen E. (2004). The art of public speaking (8th edition). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Monroe, A. H. (1949). Principles and types of speech. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company.

O’Hair, D., Stewart, R., Rubenstein, H. (2004). A speaker’s guidebook: Text and reference (2nd edition). Boston:
Bedford/St. Martin’s.

Verderber, R. F., Verderber, K. S., & Sellnow, D. D. (2008). The challenge of effective speaking (14th edition).
Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning.

Zarefsky, D. (2010). Public speaking: Strategies for success (6th edition). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

photo credits
p. 3 Bog Turtle by R.G. Tucker

90
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bog_turtle_sun ning.jpg

p. 4 Oscar Mayer Wienermobile byJalopnik

http://jalopnik.com/5310348/ten+pack-of-dogs-history- of-the-wienermobile/gallery/1

p. 4 Mac vs PC http://i2.cdn.turner.com/cnn/2011/TECH/web/04/22/ma c.pc.users/t1larg.mac.pc.2.jpg

p. 5 Rio Nido Mudslide by Dave Gately

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:FEMA_- _1337_-_Photograph_by_Dave_Gatley_taken_on_03-01-
1998_in_California.jpg

p. 8 Rainbow Trout by Jonathunder http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Trout.jpg

p. 8 Mayor Carol Shafto by Michigan Municipal League

http://www.flickr.com/photos/michigancommunities/62 28314099/

p. 10 Maj. Gen John Nichols by Texas Military Forces

http://www.flickr.com/photos/texasmilitaryforces/55604 49970/
Licensing & Attributions
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by: Joshua Trey Barnett. Provided by
by: University of Indiana, Bloomington, IN. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project License: CC
Project: The Public Speaking Project. License
BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives

APPENDIX A: FULL SENTENCE OUTLINE

Example Preparation (Full Sentence) Outline

Title
Title: For the Fish: Climate Work By and For Fishers

Specific Purpose
Purpose: To persuade trout fishers that climate change is a threat to coldwater fisheries and that they
should organize to create collective change to the environmental issues surrounding climate change.

Thesis
Thesis: Trout fisheries are endangered by climate change, but fishers can (and should) work to mitigate these
issues.

Visual Aids
Aids: PowerPoint presentation

Introduction

Most of you have heard about climate change and have wondered whether or how it might be affecting trout
fisheries. Unfortunately, climate scientists’ predictions about climate change seem to indicate that trout fisheries
may bear a number of consequences if climate change continues to go unbridled. However, we also know that
many of the worst effects of climate change can be mitigated if we engage in collective action now. In this speech,
I will begin by offering a brief history of climate science, then describe how these issues affect trout fisheries, and
finally offer some examples of how we can personally and collectively work to mitigate these issues.

Body

I. Climate change is not a recent invention of a few liberal scientists. On the contrary, scientists have been talking
about climate change since the mid-1800s (Weart, 2009).

91
 A. In 1859, Tyndall discovers some gases block infrared radiation. He believes this may cause a change in
climate.

B. In 1896, Arrhenius publishes the first calculation of global warming from human CO2 emissions.

C. From 1870-1920, the Second Industrial Revolution takes place.

D. In 1938, Callendar argues that CO2 greenhouse global warming is under way.
[… history lesson proceeds …]

(Summary: In short, this history lesson teaches us that Earth has been getting warmer.)

(Preview: Next, let’s look at how climate change may be affecting trout fisheries.)

II. Climate change appears to have some serious consequences for trout fisheries. I will discuss four ways in
which climate change may be said to negatively influence trout fisheries.

A. First, changing weather patterns brings more or less water to some parts of Earth.

1. Trout fisheries rely on a steady flow of clean, cold water. Too much or too little can quickly destroy
trout habitats.

2. Some areas may experience severe droughts, another threat to trout fisheries.

B. Second, warming land and aquatic temperatures lead to a reduction in available trout habitat.

1. Changing temperatures influence predator/prey patterns.

2. Habitat reduction due to warmer temperatures may increase competition between cold- and warm-
water fishes.

C. Third, stream flow patterns may change, affecting availability of aquatic insects.

And fourth, brook trout may be especially vulnerable.

1. Previous brook trout decimation has been related to habitat loss.

2. Climate change could exacerbate this by causing further habitat destruction.

(Summary: Although these challenges are large scale, there is some hope that we can mitigate these issues.)

(Preview: Next, I will discuss some ways that individuals and collectives can help reverse some of the issues
caused by climate change.)

III. There are two key areas in which we can mitigate climate change: personal actions and collective actions.

A. Personally, individuals can make changes in their everyday lives (Sorenen, 2008).

1. Individuals can reduce CO2 emissions by driving less or not at all. Instead they could ride a bike or
take public transit.

2. Individuals can also reduce energy consumption by changing usage patterns, like drying their clothes
outside instead of using an electric dryer.

3. Individuals could help alleviate one of the largest contributors to climate change, overpopulation, by
preventing unwanted births.

B. Collectively, there are several actions we can take to mitigate climate change (Cuomo, 2010).

1. Collectives should lobby policy makers to make serious changes:

a. Reduce fossil fuel consumption.

92
 b. Create caps on industrial emissions.

c. Encourage and support renewable and sustainable energy.

2. U.S. should support Kyoto Treaty, which was passed in 2005.

Conclusion

It should be clear at this point that climate change is an issue that trout fishers will have to deal with in the future.
Although the issues are large and daunting, I have provided some clear examples of how we can both personally
and collectively mitigate these issues. I hope you will consider taking at least some of my advice today. I will leave
you with something that Henrik Tikkanen once said: “Because we don’t think about future generations, they will
never forget us.”
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Project: The Public Speaking Project. License
License:
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APPENDIX B: SPEAKING OUTLINE

Example Speaking Outline (Excluding Introduction and Conclusion)

I. Climate science is not new (Weart, 2009).

A. 1859 – Tyndall

B. 1896 – Arrhenius

C. 1870-1920 – Second Industrial Revolution

D. 1938 – Callendar

[… history lesson proceeds …]

(Summary: In short, this history lesson teaches us that Earth has been getting warmer.)

(Preview: Next, let’s look at how climate change may be affecting trout fisheries.)

II. Climate change is bad for trout in four ways.

A. Weather patterns

1. Too much/little rain is bad

2. Droughts

B. Warming leads to habitat reduction

1. Predator/prey patterns.

2. Competition between cold- and warm-water fishes.

C. Stream flow patterns may change

D. Brook trout vulnerable

93
 1. Population decimated by habitat loss

2. Exacerbated by climate change

(Summary: Although these challenges are large scale, there is some hope that we can mitigate these issues.)

(Preview: Next, I will discuss some ways that individuals and collectives can help reverse some of the issues
caused by climate change.)

III. Personal and collective mitigation

A. Personal (Sorenen, 2008)

1. Reduce CO2 emissions

2. Reduce energy consumption

3. Birth control

B. Collective (Cuomo, 2010)

1. Lobby for:

a. Reduce fossil fuel consumption

b. Create caps on industrial emissions

c. Encourage and support renewable and sustainable energy

2. Support Kyoto
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by: Joshua Trey Barnett. Provided by
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94
 DELIVERING YOUR SPEECH

VIDEO: STORYTELLING

Storytelling is very powerful. Do not begin your speech with “Today, I am going to talk to you about ____”. Hook
your audience with a story.

Watch this video online: https://youtu.be/QINv6rebyTU

The best speeches involve someone’s story:

Watch this video online: https://player.vimeo.com/video/21139974<\/p>

NPPA 2011 TV BOP Photography: Feature 1st Place from NPPA video contests on Vimeo.

Don’t be afraid of humor or controversy. It’s o.k. to joke around even when your message is powerful. Humor
can be a very effective way to tell the story.

Watch this video online: https://youtu.be/-KhMj6p21dU

Watch this video online: https://youtu.be/3iIkOi3srLo

Tip: Words we are saying wrong:

Watch this video online: https://youtu.be/zcThN1dZMe4

When planning live or video presentations, you need to be very mindful of color contrast. Read this very helpful
article that will guide you in making better decisions when choosing color and brightness: “10 colour contrast
checking tools to improve the accessibility of your design” from 456 Berea St.

Licensing & Attributions

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95
 OBJECTIVES, OUTLINE, AND INTRODUCTION

Chapter 12: Delivering Your Speech

By Victor Capecce, M.F.A.
Millersville University, Millersville, PA

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Identify, define and give an example of each of 
the four main types of 
delivery
• Determine the best 
speaking style for different types of speaking occasions
• Identify and utilize voice aspects of speaking
• Recognize and utilize the key “ingredients” of a 
well-performed speech
• Adapt to the physical aspects of a speaking 
venue
• Plan the speech in 
preparation for delivery/performance of a speech.

Chapter Outline
• Introduction
• Methods of Delivery
◦ Manuscript Style
◦ Memorized Style
◦ Impromptu Style
◦ Extemporaneous Style
• Vocal Aspects of Delivery
◦ Articulation
◦ Pronunciation
◦ Accent, Dialect, and Regionalisms
◦ Vocal Quality
◦ Pitch and Inflection
◦ Rate of Speaking
◦ Pauses Versus Vocalized Pauses
◦ Vocal Projection
• Nonverbal Aspects of Delivery
◦ Personal Appearance
◦ Movement and Gesture
◦ Facial Expressions
◦ Eye Contact
• Mastering the Location
◦ The Room
◦ The Podium
◦ The Equipment
◦ Using a Microphone
◦ Water Rules
• Preparation, Practice, and Delivery
◦ Preparing Notes
◦ Rehearsing the Speech
◦ Managing Stress
◦ Delivering the Speech

96
 • Conclusion
• Review Questions and Activities
• Glossary
• References

Introduction
Imagine this. A speech topic is perfectly chosen; the content is nicely
organized and flawlessly researched; a great deal of work was invested
in preparing the “text” or “script” of the speech, but the speech is poorly
delivered. Will the speech be effective? Will the audience stay alert and
follow it? Will the audience properly interpret the speaker’s intended
message? These last questions contribute to the universal fear of
public speaking. It is not the preparation of a speech that strikes terror
in the hearts of so many, but the performance of a speech!

Don’t lower your expectations to meet your performance. Raise

your level of performance to meet your expectations. Expect the
best of yourself, and then do what is necessary to make it a
reality. – Ralph Marston
“Allida Black Speaking at Courage to Lead
Since an audience does not usually read the text of a speech, but Summit” by United States Mission Geneva.
simply listens to it, all the preparation of the content by the speaker CC-BY-ND.
must be encoded into a complex combination of communication
channels (words, sounds, visual elements, etc.) ready to be performed. The purpose of this chapter is to offer
guidance to transfer the speech from the page to the stage.

There is an old Burlesque joke:

One man on a New York street comes up to another and asks,

“How can I get to Carnegie Hall?”

The second man answers, “PRACTICE.”

Practice is the key to excellent performance. Trite as it might sound (or obvious), the basic foundation for a good
speech delivery involves the two “P’s”: Preparation and Practice. There is not an actor, athlete, or musician worth
his/her salary who does not prepare and practice. Even when a performance is given with spontaneity, the “P’s”
are crucial.

Stand-up comedy is everywhere; and those who are successful comedians do not make up their monologues on
the spot. The phrasing, the pauses, the timing, is all rehearsed to assure the laughs will happen on cue. Good
stand up comics are skilled in making it look as though they are making up their routine on the spot, which is part
of the success of a good comedy performance. New speakers should think of themselves as performers facing an
audience; actors ascending to stage; athletes stepping up to bat.

This chapter will describe the basic methods of delivery, and offer guidance in the aspects of presentation (such
as voice, inflection, eye contact, and body and facial language). Some basic strategies for in setting up the room
and podium for speaking will also be covered.

It is delivery that makes the orator’s success. – Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe

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97
 METHODS OF DELIVERY

There are four basic methods (sometimes called styles) of presenting a speech: manuscript, memorized,
extemporaneous, and impromptu. Each has a variety of uses in various forums of communication.

Manuscript Style
The word manuscript is the clue to the style. The speech is
written and the speaker reads it word for word to the audience.
Originally, it was done from the hand-written paper manuscript.
Today the manuscript style is common, but the paper is gone.
Who reads the speech to the audience? Answer: Newscasters
and television personalities. In the old days, the manuscript was
hand-lettered on cue cards, which were held next to the camera
lens. Then paper scrolls, like printed piano rolls were used,
especially in Soap Operas. Today, a special teleprompter
(working like a periscope) is attached to the camera so the
newscaster is looking at the lens while reading.

Why is the manuscript important and in use? Precision. In the

news- reporting industry, every fraction of a second counts
because broadcast time is costly. Also, the facts and names
must be exact and accurate so there is no room for error. Errors “Marketing Mix” by Matthew Hurst. CC-BY-SA.
in reporting decrease the credibility of the news organization
and the newscaster.

The most regular use of the teleprompter for manuscript delivery is by the U.S. President. In fact, the
teleprompter, used by every President since Reagan, is called a “Presidential Teleprompter.” It is made of two
pieces of glass, each flanking the podium. They reflect the text from a monitor on the floor like a periscope. The
glass on both sides has the same text, and the speaker looks alternately from one glass to the other as though
looking at the audience through the glass. The audience cannot see the projected text. The speeches a President
gives will often reflect national policy, define international relationships, and the press will scrutinize every
syllable. It has to be more than brilliantly accurate; it has to be impeccably phased. Professional writers and policy
experts compose the speech; and the President delivers it as though he not only wrote it, but made it up on the
spot. That is the skill of a good politician, actor, or speaker. Those who are not skilled using a teleprompter or
manuscript will sound stilted and boring.

Try This! Manuscript Delivery

Watch the local or national 6 p.m., 11 p.m. and 6 a.m. newscasts on the same T.V. station. Make notes on
which news items repeat and how closely, or exactly, the phrasing is, even if different personalities are
presenting the same item.

Memorized Style
The memorized style of speaking is when the manuscript is committed to memory and recited to the audience
verbatim (word for word). In the days when elocution was taught, this was a typical approach. A speech was a
recitation. The Optimists Club (a national organization) used to have a “Oratory” contest for high school students.
Contestants wrote essays on a given theme, to create a speech at a specific time length (e.g.: three minutes).
The essay was memorized and the delivery was judged by 1) the quality of the writing, 2) the accuracy with which
it was recited; and 3) the precise length of time. Such contests seem archaic by today’s more casual and
somewhat less formal standards.

98
Where is a memorized delivery style still common? Due to copyright laws and licensing contract agreements
(other than scripts that are in the public domain), actors on stage are obligated to memorize the script of the play
and perform it verbatim exactly as written. It is typical for speakers on high school and university speech and
debate teams to memorize their competitive speeches. Corporate conventions often use large LCD monitors on
the front of the stage as teleprompters. This allows the speaker to move more freely across the stage while
sticking to his or her script. Some monologists (such as the stand-up comics mentioned at the start of the chapter)
also use a memorized delivery style. In all cases, they create the impression that the speech is spontaneous. You
might consider using the memorized delivery style if your speech is relatively short, or you know you will have to
deliver your speech repeatedly such as a tour operator would.

Impromptu Style
Theoretically, an “impromptu” speech is “made up on the spot.” It is unprepared and unrehearsed. Often
ceremonial toasts, grace before meals, an acknowledgement, an introduction, offering thanks and so on, fall into
this category. While there are some occasions when a speech in those categories is actually prepared (prepare
your acceptance for the Academy Award BEFORE you are called!), there are many occasions when there is little
or no opportunity to prepare.

Impromptu speeches are generally short and are often given with little or no notice. Notes are rare and the
speaker generally looks directly at the audience. It would be presumptuous and arrogant to declare rules for
Impromptu Speaking. It is fair to explain that “impromptu” describes a range from absolutely no preparation, to a
modest amount of preparation (mostly thought) and rarely incorporates research or the formalities of outlines and
citations that more formal speeches would include.

Be still when you have nothing to say; when genuine passion moves you, say what you’ve got to say,
and say it hot. – D. H. Lawrence

An indelibly memorable example occurred to me when my siblings threw a surprise 10th anniversary party for my
Mom (Margaret) and our stepdad (Lidio). It was the third marriage for both of them, and they were in their 60’s. As
soon as the yells of “surprise” subsided, Lidio picked up his wine glass and proposed a toast:

“I can’t believe this surprise! I don’t know what to say… um, Dino [his
brother] when was that Yankee game Dad took us to when we were
kids? It was 4th of July, wasn’t it? 1939? And it was like it was
yesterday; and today reminds me of that day, when Lou Gehrig came
out to the mound. He was slow, but we were all cheering the ‘Pride of
the Yankees.’ He wasn’t playing anymore, he was too sick, but he
looked around the crowd, and said ‘I’m the luckiest man alive.’ That’s
how I feel with you all here today; to celebrate our 10th anniversary. I’m
here with you and with Margaret; and I’m the luckiest man alive.”

The speech was short, emotionally charged, wonderfully articulate, and “Apr. 3 – Cheers!” by KimManleyOrt.
absolutely unprepared. The speech had one central emotionally charged CC-BY-NC-ND.
message; simple, in words and phrasing, but complex by bringing an image
of great sentimentality to the occasion. He was able to react to the moment, and speak “from the heart.”

In contrast, legendary magician Harry Houdini was often asked to perform for the amusement of his fellow
passengers when sailing to Europe. I always associate “impromptu” with the stories of Houdini’s shipboard
conjuring. Nothing was further from “impromptu.” The skill of the great magician was in making his illusions seem
spontaneous with what appeared to be ordinary items that “happened” to be on hand. Houdini spent endless
hours planning and rehearsing. The true illusion was that they “appeared” to be impromptu.

Take advantage of every opportunity to practice your communication skills so that when important
occasions arise, you will have the gift, the style, the sharpness, the clarity, and the emotions to affect
other people. – Jim Rohn

99
Extemporaneous Style
Sandwiched between the memorized and impromptu delivery styles you find the extemporaneous speech style.
For this style, the speech is not completely written out. It is usually delivered with keynotes for reference. Most
public speaking courses and books describe extemporaneous speeches as carefully prepared and rehearsed, but
delivered using notes of key words and phrases to support the speaker. Phrasing is pre- rehearsed, words are
pre-chosen, and the organization is fluid and well constructed. There should be no fumbling for words, no
rambling, and length of time should be carefully monitored. The style does offer the speaker flexibility to include
references to the immediate surroundings, previous speeches, news of the day, and so on.

The trouble with talking too fast is you may say something you haven’t thought of yet.” – Ann Landers

How you develops the notes and what they look like are up
to the individual, but a natural extemporaneous delivery is
difficult if you are relying on a manuscript. Under no
circumstances should the speaker be spending more than
20% of the speaking time looking at the notes. It would be
ideal to practice so you only glance at your notes
approximately 5% of the time of the speech.

Those who have limited experience in formal speaking find

it helpful to write out the speech as though it were an
essay, then read it, edit it, then create speaking notes from
the text. This helps with editing and with thinking through
the phrases. This process of public speaking was taught
decades ago to my contemporaries and me and has fallen
out of fashion. But it is a useful way of thoroughly thinking “Speech Notes” by Jess J. CC-BY-NC-ND.
through the speech. If this procedure is used, it is
advisable to rehearse the speech with the notes without the essay prior to delivering the speech. But be warned:
having the fully written essay at the podium might detract from the delivery.

The extemporaneous style is the method most often recommended (and often required) in today’s public
speaking courses, and is generally the best method in other settings as well. While it is not the only method of
delivering a speech, it is the most useful for presentations in other courses, in the corporate world and in pursuing
future careers.
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VOCAL ASPECTS OF DELIVERY

Though we speak frequently during the course of a day, a formal speech requires extra attention to detail in
preparation of a more formal speech presentation. What can one do in advance to prepare for a speech? The
challenge is partly determined by the speaker’s experience, background and sometimes cultural influence and
existing habits of speaking. Articulation, Pronunciation, Dialect, Tone, Pitch, and Projection each depends on
long-term practice for success. These aspects are like signatures, and should be developed and used by each
speaker according to his own persona.

Voice, or vocal sound, is made when controlled air being exhaled from the lungs, passes over the vocal cords
causing a controlled vibration. The vibrating air resonates in the body, chest cavity, mouth, and nasal passages.
The vibrating air causes a chain reaction with the air in the room. The room’s air, set in motion by the voice, is

100
captured by the listener’s ear. The vibration of the air against the eardrum is transferred to electrical impulses that
are interpreted by the listener’s brain. Thus, the sounds we can make are predicated on the breaths that we take.

Try This! Breathing

Talk without breathing. It cannot be done. So if you are screaming (like a baby), you are also
breathing!
The first word of advice on speaking to an audience: BREATHE! “Crying baby”
by Brazzouk.
CC-BY-SA.

Articulation
We are often judged by how well we speak in general. A measure of perceived intellect or education is how well
we articulate
articulate. That is: how well and correctly we form our vowels and consonants using our lips, jaw, tongue, and
palate to form the sounds that are identified as speech. Diction and enunciation are other terms that refer to the
same idea. For instance, saying “going to” instead of “gonna” or “did not” instead of “dint” are examples of good
versus poor articulation. Consonant and vowels are spoken with standard accepted precision, and serious
students and speakers will strive to practice the clarity of their sounds. Proper diction is as integral to the English
language as proper spelling, but it takes practice.

Pronunciation
Proper articulation applied to a given word is that word’s pronunciation
pronunciation. The pronunciation includes how the
vowels and consonants are produced as well as which syllable is emphasized. For generations, speakers
depended on “markings (such as the International Phonetics Alphabet or similar Dictionary Symbols) to discover
or decide how words were officially pronounced. With online dictionaries now readily available, one needs only to
“look up” a word and select “play” to hear an audible recording of the official and precise way a word should be
pronounced. Now there is no excuse for mispronouncing a word in a speech. A mispronounced word will
obliterate a speaker’s credibility, and the audience’s attention will be focused on the fault rather than the
message.

Try This! Pronunciation

1. Flip though a book, article or scholarly work until you come to a word that is unfamiliar and you can only
guess its pronunciation.
2. Go to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary website, and look up the word.
3. When the definition appears, click the icon of the loudspeaker. The word is audibly pronounced for you.
The online dictionary is useful in both articulation as well as pronunciation.

101
Accent, Dialect, and Regionalisms
Subtleties in the way we pronounce words and phrase our speech within a
given language are evident in accents
accents, regionalisms
regionalisms, and dialects
dialects. An
accent refers to the degree of prominence of the way syllables are spoken
in words, as when someone from Australia says “undah” whereas we say
“under.” A regionalism is a type of expression, as when someone says
“The dog wants walked,” instead of “the dog wants to go for a walk.”
Dialect is a variety of language where one is distinguished from others by
grammar and vocabulary. In Pennsylvania you might hear people say that
they are going to “red up the room,” which means “to clean the room.”

Those who depend on speaking for a career (broadcasters, politicians, and

entertainers) will often strive for unaccented General or Standard English.
Listen to most major network newscasters for examples of regionalism-
free speech. A given audience may be prejudiced towards or against a
speaker with an identifiable accent or dialect. Though we would wish
prejudice were not the case, the way we speak implies so much about our
education, cultural background, and economic status, that prejudice is “Iraqi speaker” by Office of United States
inevitable. Any speaker should be aware of how accent, dialect
dialect, and Rep. Ellen Tauscher. Public domain.
regionalisms can be perceived by a given audience. If you speak in a way
that the audience might find difficult to understand, make an extra effort to pay attention to the accent and
phrasing of your speech. Ask a sympathetic and objective listener to help you when you practice.

We often refuse to accept an idea merely because the tone of voice in which it has been expressed is
unsympathetic to us. – Friedrich Nietzsche

Vocal Quality
The quality of the voice, its timbre (distinctive sound) and texture, affects audibility and can affect the articulation.
Our voices are unique to each of us. It is a result of our physical vocal instrument, including diaphragm, vocal
cords, lungs and body mass. Some examples of vocal quality include warm, clear, soft, scratchy, mellow and
breathy. Each speaker should practice at maximizing the vocal effect of his instrument, which can be developed
with vocal exercises. There are numerous books, recordings and trainers available to develop one’s vocal quality
when needed. The quality of one’s voice is related to its range of pitch.

Try This! Inflection

Your voice goes UP, and then your voice goes d o w n.

Pitch and Inflection

Identical to musical parlance, the pitch is the “highness” or “lowness” of the voice. Each of us has a range oftonetone.
Vocal sounds are actually vibrations sent out from the vocal cords resonating through chambers in the body. The
vibrations can literally be measured in terms of audio frequency in the same way music is measured. When the
pitch is altered to convey a meaning (like raising the pitch at the end of a sentence that is a question), it is the
inflection. Inflections are variations, turns and slides in pitch to achieve the meaning.

In his writing “Poetics,” Aristotle lists “Music” as an element of the Drama. Some scholars interpret that to include
the musicalization of the spoken word with dramatic inflection
inflection. The meaning and effectiveness of a spoken line is
greatly dependent on the “melody” of its inflection.

Though archaic, the study of elocution formalizes the conventions of inflection. In some contemporary cultures,
inflection has been minimized because it sounds too “melodramatic” for the taste of the demographic group. It

102
would be sensible to be aware of and avoid both extremes. With good animated inflection, a speaker is more
interesting, and the inflection conveys energy and “aliveness” that compels the audience to listen.

When public speaking was known as elocution, sentences were “scored”

like music, and spoken using formal rules. Sentences ending as a question
went UP at the end. Sentences ending in a period, ended with a base note.
And everyone had fun with exclamation points!

For most of music in history, including Opera, Broadway, and early Rock
and Roll, songs were written so that the melody (raising and lowering the
pitch) was consistent with what would be spoken. Many of today’s songs,
notably Rap songs, depend solely on rhythm. There is little if any inflection
(melody) to enhance a lyric’s meaning. Certain languages differ in their
dependence on inflection. Japanese and German seem monotonic
compared to Italian and French, which offer great variety of inflection.

The human voice is the most beautiful instrument of all, but it is the
most difficult to play. – Richard Strauss

Even someone one who is not a singer can be expressive with inflection
and pitch. Like the “Think System” of Professor Harold Hill in the musical
The Music Man. If you THINK varied pitch, you can SPEAK varied pitch.
Think of pitch inflections as seasoning spices that can make the speech
more interesting. Sing “Happy Birthday.” You do not have to concentrate or “Ice-T” by Tino Jacobs. CC-BY.
analyze how to create the melody in your voice. Your memory and instinct
take over. Notice how the pitch also provides an audible version of punctuation, letting the audience know if your
sentence has ended, if it is a question, and so on. The melody lets the audience know that there is more to come
(a comma) and when the phrase is ended (a period). Remember that in a speech, the audience does not have the
written punctuation to follow, so you have to provide the punctuation with your inflection.

Try This! Vocal Variation

Find a listening partner. Using only the sounds of “la” ha,” and “oh,” covey the meaning of the following:1. It’s
the biggest thing I’ve ever seen!
2. I’ve fallen and can’t get up!
3. I’ve got a crush on him/her.
4. That soup is disgusting and spoiled.
5. I got an “A” in my Speech Final!
If you cannot relay the meaning with just sounds, try a second time (each) with gestures and facial
expressions until the listener understands. Then say the lines with the expressive inflections you have
developed using only the sounds.

Those who do not use inflection, or use a range of pitch, are speaking in monotone. And, as the word implies, it
can be monotonous, boring, and dull. A balance between melodramatic and monotonous would be preferred. The
inflection should have a meaningful and interesting variety. Be careful not to turn a pattern of inflection into a
repetitious sound. Think through each phrase and its musicalization separately.

Many speakers have developed the habit of ending each sentence as though it is a question. It may be becoming
increasingly common. In the wake of the Valley Girl syndrome of the 1980’s, a bad inflection habit has entered the
speech pattern: Some speakers end a declarative sentence with the inflection of a question.

Do you know what I mean?

A word of caution: Inflection and varied pitch must be “organic,” that is to say, natural for the speaker. You cannot
fake it, or it sounds artificial and disingenuous. It is a skill that needs to develop over a period of time.

103
Rate of Speaking

Table 12.1: Finding the Right Pace for Your Speech

If you speak too quickly… If you speak too slowly…

the audience might get the impression you have nothing the audience might think you are too tired to
important to say. be presenting.

the audience has a difficult time catching up and the audience can forget the first part of your
comprehending what you are saying. They need time to sentence by the time you get to the last! (It
digest the information. So plan on periodic pauses. happens!) And they lose interest.

the audience might think you are wasting

the audience might think you really do not want to be there. their time by taking longer than necessary to
relay your message.

As a speaker, you cannot race with the audience, nor drag their attention down. Like Goldilocks, look for the
pace that is “just right.”

In order to retain clarity of the speech with articulation and inflection, the speaker must be aware that there is a
range of appropriate tempo for speaking. If the tempo is too slow, the speech might resemble a monotonous peal.
If it is too fast, the articulation could suffer if consonants or vowels are dropped or rushed to keep up the speed.
An audience could become frustrated with either extreme. The tempo needs to be appropriate to the speaker’s
style, but neither paced like a Gilbertian Lyric (as in “Gilbert and Sullivan”) patter nor a funereal dirge. A
comfortable and clear pace is the best. An ideal speaking rate will allow you to comfortably increase your pace to
create a sense of excitement, or slow down to emphasize the seriousness of a topic.

It is simple nonsense to speak of the fixed tempo of any particular vocal phrase. Each voice has its
peculiarities. – Anton Seidl

Pauses Versus Vocalized Pauses

A text that is read has punctuation that the reader can see…miniature landmarks to define the text. When spoken,
similar punctuation is needed for comprehension, and the speaker’s responsibility is to offer the text with pauses.
Space between phrases, properly planted, gives the audience the opportunity to understand the structure of the
speaker’s sentences and paragraphs. It also gives time for the audience to “digest” crucial phrases.

Generally, spoken sentences and paragraphs need to be simpler and shorter than what can be comprehended by
reading. Pauses can help increase comprehension.

However, pauses that are filled with “uh’s, “um’s,” etc., are called vocalized pauses
pauses, or fillers
fillers, and should be
avoided. They can be distracting and annoying, and give the impression of a lack of preparation if used
excessively. Even worse is the use of vernacular phrases like, “y’know” (a contraction of “Do You Know”) which
gives the impression of lack of education or lack of concern for the audience. The use of vocalized pauses may
be the result of a habit that deserves an effort to be overcome. Avoid using phrases such as “Uh,” “OK?”,
“y’know”, “like…, I mean,” “right?”

Vocal Projection
The volume produced by the vocal instrument is projection
projection. Supporting the voice volume with good breathing and
energy can be practiced, and helping a speaker develop the correct volume is a main task of a vocal trainer,
teacher or coach. Good vocal support with good posture, breathing, and energy should be practiced regularly,
long before a speech is delivered. There are numerous exercises devoted to developing projection capabilities.

104
While there is no need to shout, a speaker should project to be easily heard from the furthest part of the audience.
Even if the speech is amplified with a microphone/sound system, one must speak with projection and energy. As
with your rate of speech, you should speak at a volume that comfortably allows you to increase the volume of
your voice without seeming to shout or decrease the volume of your voice and still be heard by all audience
members.

Do not expect to walk up to the podium and have a full voice. Actors spend about a half-hour doing vocal warm-
ups, and singers warm up much more. You might not have an opportunity to warm up immediately before your
speech, but when you can, warm up with humming, yawning (loudly) or singing scales: all while breathing deeply
and efficiently. It will loosen your voice, prevent irritation, and fire up your vocal energy.

Try This! Projection

Go to the room in which you are to speak. Have a friend sit as far away from the podium is possible. Rehearse
your speech, talking loudly enough so your friend can hear you comfortably. That is the projection you will
need. When you mentally focus on the distant listener, you will tend to project better.

One final note: If public speaking is or will be an important part of your career, it would be sensible to have an
evaluation of your voice, articulation and projection done by an objective professional so you can take any
remedial action that might be recommended. There are courses of study, private lessons, and professional voice
coaches to work with your voice projection, tone, and pitch.

Words mean more than what is set down on paper. It takes the human voice to infuse them with deeper
meaning. – Maya Angelou

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by: Millersville University, Millersville, PA. Located at
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NONVERBAL ASPECTS OF DELIVERY

Personal Appearance
Here is the golden rule: Dress appropriately for the
situation. You don’t need to sport a power tie (the
predictable red tie politicians wore in the 1980s), but you
should be comfortable and confident knowing that you look
good.

Women in Business Leadership Conf. by UCLA Anderson.

CC-BY-NC-SA.

105
 Table 12.2: Dressing Appropriately

What to Wear: What NOT to wear:

• T-shirts, sweatshirts, or sweatsuits

• Sleeveless tops
• A button-down shirt or blouse
• Printed logos or sayings (unless appropriate to the
• Trousers (khaki or dark) or a skirt
speech)
• A dress appropriate for a business
• Caps or hats
setting
• Torn jeans
• A nice sweater
• Visible underwear
• Limited, tasteful jewelry
• Noisy or dangling jewelry
• A suit or jacket may be appropriate
• Flip flops
• A tie or scarf (optional)
• Provocative clothing
• Pockets full of keys or change

With the exception of wearing formal black-tie tuxedo to a hockey game, it is good practice to dress a bit more
formal than less. Err on the side of formal. Most class speeches would be best in business casual (which can vary
from place to place and in time). The culture or standards of the audience should be considered. For men, it is
usually a button-down shirt and casual dress pants. For women, it may be skirt or slacks and blouse/shirt.

There are exceptions depending on the speech. A student once arrived in pajamas to deliver his 9 a.m. speech.
At first, I thought he got up too late to dress for class. However, his speech was on Sleep Deprivation, and his
costume was deliberate. What he wore contributed to his speech.

If you have long hair, be sure it is out of the way so it won’t cover your face. Flipping hair out of your face is very
distracting, so it is wise to secure it with clips, gel, or some other method. Be sure you can be seen, especially
your eyes and your mouth, even as you glance down to the podium.

Think of it as an interview…just like in an interview, you will want to make a good first impression. The corporate
culture of the business will determine the dress. Always dress at the level of the person conducting the interview.
For example, a construction foreman (or project manager) will conduct an interview to hire you as a carpenter. Do
not dress like a carpenter; dress like the project manager.

Actors know when they audition, the role is won by the time they step into the room. A speaker can launch
success by stepping confidently to the podium.

Be tidy and clean. If you appear as though you took time to prepare because your speech is important, then your
audience will recognize and respect what you have to say.

Movement and Gestures

Overall movement and specific gestures are integral to a speech. Body stance, gestures and facial expressions
can be generally categorized as body language
language. Movement should be relaxed and natural, and not excessive.
How you move takes practice. Actors usually have the advantage of directors helping to make decisions about
movement, but a good objective listener or a rehearsal in front of a large mirror can yield productive observations.

106
Moving around the performance space can be a very
powerful component of a speech; however, it should be
rehearsed as part of the presentation. Too much
movement can be distracting. This is particularly true if the
movement appears to be a result of nervousness. Avoid
fidgeting, stroking your hair, and any other nervousness-
related movement.

Among the traditional common fears of novice speakers is

not knowing what to do with one’s hands. Sometimes the
speaker relies on clutching to the podium or keeping hands
in pockets. Neither is a good pose. From my own
observation, hand gestures are very common in Italy. We
Italians can be seen in conversation from across the street,
and an observer can often tell what is being said. There is “Barack Obama at Las Vegas Presidential Forum” by
no need to imitate an Italian in delivering a speech, but Center for American Progress Action Fund. CC-BY-SA.
hand movement and the energy that the movement
represents, can help hold attention as well as help express the message.

An actor practices using his whole body for expression, and regularly practices physical exercises to keep the
body and hands and arms relaxed and in motion. An actor’s hand gestures are developed in rehearsal. A
speaker’s gestures should also be considered during practice.

During the period when elocution was taught, hand gestures were regimented like a sign language. This is
nonsense. Like inflections, gestures and movement should be organic and spontaneous, not contrived. If there is
a hint of artificiality in your presentation, you will sacrifice your credibility.

Try This! Gestures

Using only your hands, convey the following:
1. “It’s OK.”
2. “I give up.”
3. “He’s crazy.”
4. “We will be victorious.”

Facial Expressions
Most readers are very familiar with emoticons like these:

? ? :p ? ? :/

107
Emoticons were not casual inventions, but graphic depictions of facial
expressions that convey various meanings of emotions. They are based on
a nearly universal language of expression that we begin learning soon after
birth. We smile, we frown, we roll our eyes, and we wink. We open eyes
wide with astonishment. We raise our eyebrows…occasionally one at a
time, in suspicion; both, in astonishment. Sometimes we pucker our lips,
either to offer a kiss or express disapproval, disappointment, or grave
concern.

I pretty much try to stay in a constant state of confusion just because

of the expression it leaves on my face. – Johnny Depp

Since facial expression is a valid form of communication, it is integral to

delivering a speech. The face supports the text, and the speaker’s
commitment to the material is validated. The press scrutinizes a politician
for every twitch of insincerity. Detectives have created a science of facial
communication for interviewing suspects. Like inflections, gestures and
movement: facial expressions should be organic and spontaneous, not
contrived. If there is a hint of artificiality in your expression, you will sacrifice
your credibility.

“Castefest 2011, Gothic” by Qsimple.

CC-BY-NC-SA.

Try This! Facial Expressions

While looking in a mirror, try to express these thoughts without words:
1. “I am thrilled that I am getting a raise.”
2. “I am worried about tomorrow.”
3. “Lemons are too sour for me.”
4. “I am suspicious about what he did.”
After you have determined a facial expression for each, say the phrase. And see how well the verbal
expression goes with the nonverbal expression.

Eye Contact
Next to clearly speaking an organized text, eye contact is another very important element of speaking. An
audience must feel interested in the speaker, and know the speaker cares about them.

Whether addressing an audience of 1000 or speaking across a “deuce” (table for two), eye contact solidifies the
relationship between the speaker and audience. Good eye contact takes practice. The best practice is to be able
to scan the audience making each member believe the speaker is speaking to him or her.

However, there are some eye contact failures.

Head Bobber

This is a person who bobs his or her head looking down on the notes and up to the audience in an almost
rhythmic pattern.

Balcony Gazer

A person who looks over the heads of his or her audience to avoid looking at any individual.

108
The Obsessor

A person who looks at one or two audience members or who only looks in one direction.

The best way to develop good eye contact is to have an objective listener watch and comment on the eye contact.

The eyes are called the windows to the soul, and the importance of eye contact in communication cannot be
overemphasized. Ideally, a speaker should include 80% to 90% of the delivery time with eye contact.

Eye contact is so important that modern teleprompters are designed to allow the speaker to look at the audience
while actually reading the speech. The Presidential Teleprompter (two angled pieces of glass functioning like a
periscope) is used so the politician can “connect” to the audience without missing a single syllable. Audience
members will be much more attentive and responsive if they believe the speech is directed to them.

With good eye contact, the speaker can also observe and gauge the attention and response of the audience. This
is actually part of the feedback process of communication. The ideal is that the audience is not overly aware of
the speaker using notes.

How do you develop good eye contact? First, practice the speech with a generous amount of eye contact.
Second, know the speech well enough to only periodically (and quickly) glance at your notes. Third, prepare your
notes so they can be easily read and followed without hesitation.

There are no secrets to success. It is the result of preparation, hard work, and learning from failure. –
Colin Powell

Licensing & Attributions

CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 12 Nonverbal Aspects of Delivery. Authored byby: Victor Capecce, M.F.A.. Provided byby: Millersville University, Millersville, PA. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
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License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Speaking Project. License
• Barack Obama at Las Vegas Presidential Forum. Provided by by: Center for American Progress Action Fund. Located at at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Barack_Obama_at_Las_Vegas_Presidential_Forum.jpg.
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• Castlefest 2011, Gothic. Authored by
by: Qsimple, Memories For The Future Photography. Located at at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/qsimple/6029566567/. License License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

MASTERING THE LOCATION

The Room
Do not wait until the moment you step up to speak to see
what it will be like. Check out the room (venue) and the
podium before you need to speak.

Check the width of the room and where the audience will
be seated. Rehearse giving the imaginary audience eye
contact.

Will you be lighted brighter than the audience? Will they be

able to see your face? Can you easily project your voice to
the back row? Will you have a microphone?

“Phoenix Auditorium” by Basil Jradeh. CC-BY-SA.

The Podium
Check the podium. Approach it with the confidence you should exhibit when speaking. Touch it. Lean on it. Is it
the right height? (It should be about the height of your elbow.) Is it sturdy? Are your feet visible? Is there enough

109
light to see your notes placed on top? Will you be well lit? Is the podium easily visible to the entire audience? How
far left and right do you need to look to see the whole audience?

If you are using note cards, try placing them on the podium to be sure they will work, and you can maneuver them
easily.

Plan where you will stand. It does not have to be behind the lectern
lectern. Practice standing with good posture; know
where you will keep your hands and be sure your gestures are not hidden by the podium.

You might be a speaker who does not stay behind the podium, but you should still check it out. Every morsel of
familiarity will contribute to your confidence in speaking.

The Equipment
If you are using any multi-media such as PowerPoint, slides, video, or music, try it long before the speech. Of
course, you would have practiced the speech with the media on your own, but if at all possible, run it in the venue
in which you will speak.

Check the controls, slide clicker, and the relationship between the screen and the podium. Be sure the audience
can see you as well as the screen. The screen should be positioned so you can glance at it without turning away
from the audience. You should not be reading from the screen.

Check your own files to be sure the equipment in the room can play it correctly. Do not assume that every file can
be played. Always be prepared by having multiple versions of your audio/video. If you have only one version, and
it does not play, you will be very frustrated.

Check all PowerPoint slides. Give a last look at the spelling, content, and watch for some typical issues such as
changes of formatting and inserted video or audio files not playing.

Even seasoned presenters break into a cold sweat over equipment failures or unpleasant surprises, so avoid the
stress by checking the equipment.

Using a Microphone
In some cases, rather than merely using live voice
projection, there will be a microphone for amplification. If at
all possible, test it before the performance. Be sure the
amplification is suitable for your projection. Be sure how
near or far you should be for proper audio pick-up.

It is important to note that amplification cannot make up for

poor articulation or weak inflections, but it can compensate
for a room that is large or acoustically insufficient for
speech.

If you are prone to move away from the podium, or plan “Andrea Dernbach und Hoda Salah” by Heinrich Böll
any movement, be aware that the microphone must be Stiftung. CC-BY-SA.
considered.

If it is a stationary microphone, be careful to maintain a consistent distance, or the volume of your speaking will
pop from louder to softer. Changes in volume or position can result in distortion or feedback (an escalating
humming sound). Be careful that consonants do not “ring” with amplification.

In some venues, the time delay with the reverberation can cause an overlap of vocal sounds. You may have to
slow down or use more pauses to prevent syllables from overlapping.

I drank some boiling water because I wanted to whistle. – Mitch Hedberg

110
Water Rules
Water is the only liquid that should be provided for a speaker. It should be cool, but
not ice cold to prevent temperature shock to the throat and vocal cords. If it is
poured into a glass, the glass should not be too full so the quantity does not
overwhelm the speaker. Under no circumstances should there be ice in the glass
or in the pitcher at the podium. Pieces of ice can be a choking hazard to a speaker
who is focused on speaking rather than drinking. The current trend is to provide
bottled water for a guest speaker. It should be opened, but the cap kept on
assuring sanitation. The water should be placed on an absorbent tray that prevents
suction from making raising the glass difficult to pick up.

Drinking water is necessary for the hydration of the vocal chords. The act of taking
a sip is sometimes used to achieve a pause in a speech for effect.

“Glass of water” by Jin Choi.

CC-BY-SA.
Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 12 Mastering the Location. Authored by by: Victor Capecce, M.F.A.. Provided by
by: Millersville University, Millersville, PA. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
Project: The Public Speaking
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Project. License
• Phoenix Auditorium. Authored by by: Basil Jradeh. Located at
at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Phoenix_Auditorium.jpg. License License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
• Andrea Dernbach und Hoda Salah. Authored by by: Heinrich Boll Stiftung. Located at
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PREPARATION, PRACTICE, AND DELIVERY

Preparing Notes
Once you have created a comprehensive outline and have thought through your speech, you should be able to
create your note cards or whatever you might be using (notes or an iPad for instance). Every speaker is a bit
different, and different speech topics and organizational patterns may require different notation techniques.

Your note cards (or cue sheets) must have enough

information on them to be able to deliver the speech
without missing details and organized in the precise order
that you have planned. A common technique is to print the
outline in a font that is large enough to be read from a
distance.

You should be able to glance at the cards, get your

bearings, and look back at the audience. If you are reading
the cards word-for-word, there are too many words on
them, unless it is an extended exact quote, or group of
statistics that must be delivered precisely.

Be sure your notes or cards are numbered (e.g., boldly in

“Best man’s speech notes” by stacey shintani. CC-BY-NC-
the upper right hand corner), so you can keep them
SA.
organized. Color-coding is often done to easily distinguish
the cards at a glance. Losing your place can be very
stressful to you and distracting to the audience.

111
Avoid writing or printing on two sides; flipping a page or card is distracting to the audience. The audience should
not be aware of the notes. It is best to simply slide the cards aside to advance to the next card.

Rehearse your speech using the notes that you will bring to the podium. Be sure you can glance at the notes, get
your information, and look up to have eye contact with the audience.

All the real work is done in the rehearsal period. – Donald Pleasence

Figure 12.1: Rehearsal Checklist

• Rehearse a few days before you are to deliver your speech

• Use the note sheets or cards you will be using or delivery
• Practice with the presentation aids you will be using for delivery
• Practice with the presentation aids you will be using
• Time your speech and cut or expand it if needed
• Rehearse with a colleague or an audience if possible
• If you can, rehearse in the room with the podium you will use
• Plan what you will do with your hands
• Plan and practice your opening and closing carefully, so you can deliver them exactly

Rehearsing the Speech

Remember how to get to Carnegie Hall. Rehearse your speech—aloud and ideally with a colleague or fellow
student as an audience. Rehearse in front of a mirror if needed. There are some students who record a rehearsal
speech so they can get a real sense of what the audience will hear. If you are using presentation aids, rehearse
with them for timing and familiarity so you only have to glance at the screen or easel. Time the speech to be sure
it within the assigned time. Phrase the speech as you will phrase it in the actual delivery (and listen for the verbal
fillers, awkward pauses, and other non- fluencies). Plan what to do with your hands.

You should also know exactly how your speech will begin and end. Regardless of how dependent on notes the
speaker may be, here is one constant word of advice: know exactly how you are going to begin your speech. Not
just an idea, but verbatim, with every inflection, every gesture, every eye contact with the audience. The first few
sentences should be so ingrained, that you could perform it during an earthquake without batting an eye.

A memorized introduction accomplishes several goals. First, it gives you the opportunity to breathe, and realize
it’s not so bad to be up there after all! Second, it lets the audience know you are prepared. Third, it signals to the
audience that what you are about to say is important. Finally, it gives you the opportunity for direct eye contact
(because you are not reading) and commands the audience’s attention. Eye contact is a signal to the audience
that you care about them!

The conclusion of your speech is equally important. In show business parlance, the end of a song or a scene is
called a “button.” It is a “TAH-DAH” moment that lets the audience know you are finished, and that it is their turn
to applaud. The ending impression your speech leaves with the audience is greatly affected by how effective the
ending is. The content and structure notwithstanding, you should also know exactly how you will end (verbatim),
so there is no hesitation, no stumbling, no tentative “I guess that’s all” feeling. A confident and decisive beginning
will draw the audience to you; a confident logical ending will be very effective in preserving a lasting impression
on the audience.

Stress is an important dragon to slay — or at least tame — in your life. – Marilu Henner

Managing Stress
As William Ball noted in his book for actors and directors, A Sense of Direction, getting in front of a group and
speaking is people’s greatest fear (greater than fear of death). Fear and stress result in psychological and
physical manifestations that can affect a speech.

112
Stress physically causes muscles to tighten, often including vocal cords.
This raises, and often limits, the vocal pitch of the speaker under stress.
The tempo of the speech may also be affected. Novice speakers tend to
rush as though to be anxious to “get it over with.” It is a factor to
remember in a corporate or business meeting: the speaker should speak
slowly enough because what he has to say is important, and the
audience should listen. Remember, as noted above, rushing gives the
impression that the speaker thinks the message is not worth the time.

Stress can accelerate perspiration. It is wise to have a facial tissue or

small towel handy for dabbing for comfort. Stress can also make the
mouth and throat feel dry. Sipping water is a simple solution.

There are a myriad of solutions to relieving a speaker’s stress: from

hypnosis to imagining the audience to be naked. Among the simplest “Is it a bad sign when work starts handing
and most effective is to do a moderate amount of exercise prior to the these out?” by skittledog. CC-BY-NC-SA.
speech, even as basic as walking. Exercising helps to naturally
chemically relieve the tension; and helps deepen the breathing that supports the voice.

Simultaneously while exercising the body, it is a good idea to warm up the voice. The vocal cords are muscles,
which should not be jump-started.

Physical exercises will likely help relaxing for better posture and hand and body gestures. As part of the relaxation
process, actors “warm up” physically before performances and often do relaxation exercises to help concentration
and relieve stress.

The best antidote for stress is to be well prepared and confident.

Delivering the Speech

You have taken all of the right steps before stepping up to the podium or lectern. You have selected a good topic.
You have researched the topic. You have organized the best information in a compelling way. You have
rehearsed your speech. You have received feedback on your rehearsal from an objective listener. You have
carefully constructed your notes and practiced with them. You have planned and practiced your speech
introduction and conclusion verbatim. You have checked out the room and the equipment. You did something to
reduce your stress before your speech. You did vocal warm-ups. You chose the perfect outfit to wear. You made
sure your gum was discarded and your hair pulled back. You arrived at least 15 minutes before your speech. You
leapt to the podium with great enthusiasm when introduced.

Now you must deliver. If you look up the word “deliver,” you will find it means more than to just “give.” To “give” is
a willingness to offer something without obligation or the expectation of something in return. To “give” also implies
a pre-determined responsibility. You have a responsibility as a speaker to “deliver” information that will help your
audience or enlighten them in some way. Speeches are delivered.

Figure 12.2: Steps for Effective Delivery

1. Approach the podium as you rehearsed.

2. Stand with confident posture.
3. Deliver your brilliant opening.
4. Realize you are a hit with the audience.
5. Breathe.
6. Spontaneously interject a humorous observation related to your topic.
7. Make all your points without hesitation, “ums,” “likes,” or “uhs.”

113
Licensing & Attributions
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• best man's speech notes. Authored by by: stacey shintani. Located at
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• Is it a bad sign when work starts handing these out?. Authored by by: skittledog. Located at
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CONCLUSION, REVIEW QUESTIONS, AND

ACTIVITIES

The true test for this chapter is in the actual presentation of the speech. Like voice
and diction, understanding what makes a speech effective without practice is
insufficient. Merely knowing the best form for a golf swing is useless unless put into
practice; and practice reinforces the knowledge. Comprehending the rules for driving
on the road is moot (and/or dangerous) if the rules are not obeyed in practice. The
same is true for this chapter. Practice speaking will make you a more effective
speaker!

A speech is poetry: cadence, rhythm, imagery, sweep! A speech reminds us that

words, like children, have the power to make dance the dullest beanbag of a
heart. – Peggy Noonan

“Lhadon Speaks” by SFT HQ.

CC-BY.

Review Questions
1. Develop a list of ten potential speech topics. For each topic, think of a setting in which a speech on
that topic might be delivered. Next, determine what type(s) of delivery (manuscript, memorized,
impromptu, extemporaneous) would be most appropriate for the topic and setting.
2. What three aspects of vocal delivery do you believe are most important to a speaker’s credibility?
Explain.
3. How might a speaker’s accent affect the audience’s perception of him or her? Illustrate your answer
with an example.
4. What guidelines did you find most useful in the section about what to wear for your speech?
5. How do you perceive speakers who do not make eye contact with their audience? What suggestions
would you give these speakers to improve their eye contact?
6. What type of equipment is available in the space(s) where you plan to give your speeches? What
kinds of presentations can be used with this type of equipment?
7. List three methods you would personally use to reduce your anxiety before your speeches.
8. What piece of advice from the chapter did you find most useful?

Activities
1. Practice Inflection: Gather some children’s books (aimed at ages 6-10) and read them aloud in class.
Practice the use of inflection to indicate the punctuation, the energy, and the characters. Do not be
afraid to seem foolish. Remember that this is how most children learn to read and speak.

114
 2. Pronunciation: Bring in several books or publications of a variety of types and disciplines. Scan
through the text and find words that are unusual. Look them up in an online dictionary and see how
they are pronounced. This could be turned into a game of “stump the speaker” guessing how each
word is pronounced. It can also be used to point out some simple yet often mispronounced words.
3. Projection: Stand in as large a circle as possible. Each person has a partner across the room.
Partners introduce each other and carry a conversation over the noise of others doing the same
thing. Do not shout. Keep it going for a few minutes (it will be loud), then quiz the partners about the
conversation they had.
4. Find a partner and work on any of the “Try This” activities in the chapter.

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GLOSSARY AND REFERENCES

Glossary

TERM DEFINITION

Accent The prominence of a syllable in terms of loudness, pitch, and/or length.

Articulation The act of producing clear, precise and distinct speech.

Body Language Body stance, gestures and facial expressions.

A variety of language, cant or jargon that is set apart from other varieties of the same
Dialect
language by grammar, vocabulary or patterns of speech sounds.

The accent, inflection, intonation and sound quality of a speaker’s voice. Also known as
Diction
enunciation.

The formal study and practice of oral delivery, especially as it relates to the performance of
Elocution
voice and gestures.

Extemporaneous
Learning your speech well enough so that you can deliver it from a key word outline.
Delivery

Impromptu
A speech delivered without previous preparation.
Speeches

Inflections Variations, turns and slides in pitch to achieve meaning.

Manuscript
Reading the text of a speech word for word.
Delivery

115
 Memorized
Learning a speech by heart and then delivering it without notes.
Delivery

Performance The execution of a speech in front of an audience.

Pitch The highness or lowness of one’s voice or of sound.

Saying words correctly, with the accurate articulation, stress and intonation, according to
Pronunciation
conventional or cultural standards.

Regionalism A speech form, expression or custom that is characteristic to a particular geographic area.

Tempo The rate, pace, or rhythm of speech.

Timbre The characteristic quality of the sound of one’s voice.

Tone The particular sound quality (e.g. nasal or breathy) or emotional expression of the voice.

Verbatim To say with exactly the same words.

Vocalized
Verbal fillers in speech such as “um,” “uh,” “like,” “and,” or “you know.”
Pauses

References
Ball, W. (1984). A sense of direction: Some observations on the art of directing. New York: Drama Book.

Brydon, S. R., & Scott, M. D. (2006). Between one and many: The art and science of public speaking. Boston,
MA: McGraw-Hill.

DeVito, J. A. (2003). The essential elements of public speaking. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Giffin, K., & Patton, B. R. (1971). Fundamentals of interpersonal communication. New York: Harper & Row.

Gregory, H. (2010). Selected chapters from Public speaking for college and career, ninth edition. Boston:
McGraw-Hill Learning Solutions.

Monroe, A. H., & Ehninger, D. (1974). Principles and types of speech communication. Glenview, Ill.,: Scott,
Foresman.

A Research Guide for Students. (n.d.). A Research Guide for Students. Retrieved February 26, 2012, from
http://www.aresearchguide.com/

Sprague, J., & Stuart, D. (1984). The speaker’s handbook. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Welcome to Mirror Image. (n.d.). Mirror Image Teleprompters. Retrieved February 26, 2012, from
http://www.teleprompters.com/mirrorimage/ind ex.php

photo credits
p. 1 Allida Black Speaking at the Courage to Lead Conference by U.S. Mission Geneva
http://www.everystockphoto.com/photo.php?imageId=752
7414&searchId=488e81758eb12a809a21e316d0f1ab1b&n pos=230

p. 5 Iraqi speaker by Scanlan http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iraqi_Speaker.jpg

p. 6 Ice-T by Tino Jacobs http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ice-T_(2).jpg

116
p.9 [President] Barack Obama at Las Vegas Presidential Forum by Center for American Progress Action Fund
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Barack_Obama_at_Las_Vegas_Presidential_Forum.jpg

p. 10 Chris Coons as the 2010 Democrat nominee for U.S. Senate in Delaware by Chris Coons
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chris_Coons.jpg

p. 10 Phoenix Auditorium by Basil Jradeh http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Phoenix_Auditori um.jpg

p. 11 Lhandon Speaks by STF HQ http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Lha don_Speaks.jpg

p. 11 Andrea Dernbach and Hoda Salah by Heinrich Boell Stiftung http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Flickr_-

_boellstiftung_ _Andrea_Dernbach_und_Hoda_Salah.jpg

p. 14 Anthony Pico by Dale Frost http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Anthonypico.jpg

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by: Millersville University, Millersville, PA. Located at
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117
 INTRODUCTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

OBJECTIVES, OUTLINE, AND INTRODUCTION

Chapter 9: Introductions and Conclusions

By Warren Sandmann, Ph.D.
Minnesota State University, Mankato, MN

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• List and describe the four functions of an introduction
• List and describe the common types of attention getters
• Describe and implement strategies for preparing introductions
• List and describe the four functions of a conclusion
• List and describe common types of conclusions
• Describe and implement strategies for preparing conclusions
• Apply chapter concepts in review questions and activities

Chapter Outline
• Introduction
• Functions of Introductions
◦ Gain Attention and Interest
◦ Gain Goodwill
◦ Clearly State the Purpose
◦ Preview and Structure the Speech
• Attention-Getting Strategies
◦ Tell a Story
◦ Refer to the Occasion
◦ Refer to Recent or Historical Events
◦ Refer to Previous Speeches
◦ Refer to Personal Interest
◦ Use a Startling Statistic
◦ Use an Analogy
◦ Use a Quotation
◦ Ask a Question
◦ Use Humor
• Preparing the Introduction
◦ Construct the Introduction Last
◦ Make it Relevant

118
 ◦ Make it Succinct
◦ Write it Out Word for Word
• Functions of Conclusions
◦ Prepare the Audience for the end of the speech
◦ Present Any Final Appeals
◦ Summarize and Close
◦ End with a Clincher
◦ Appeals and Challenges
• Composing the Conclusion
◦ Prepare the Conclusion
◦ Do Not Include any New Information
◦ Follow the Structure
• Conclusion
• Review Questions and Activities
• Glossary
• References

Introduction
First impressions count. Carlin Flora, writing in Psychology Today, recounts
an experiment in which people with no special training were shown 20- to
32-second video clips of job applicants in the initial stages of a job
interview. After watching the short clips, the viewers were asked to rate the
applicants on characteristics including self-assurance and
likability—important considerations in a job interview. These ratings were
then compared with the findings from the trained interviewers who spent 20
minutes or more with the job applicants. The result: The 20- to 32- second
ratings were basically the same as the ratings from the trained interviewers.
( (Note: Flora, C. (May-June 2004). The onceover you can trust: First
impressions. Psychology Today, 37(3), 60–64.))

When we stand in front of an audience, we have very little time to set the
stage for a successful speech. As seen from the example above, audience
members begin evaluating us immediately. What we sometimes forget
since we are so focused on the words we have to say is that we are being
evaluated even before we open our mouths.

He has the deed half done who has made a beginning. – Horace

“Imagine Cup 2012” by ImagineCup.

CC-BY.
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FUNCTIONS OF INTRODUCTIONS

Speech introductions are an essential element of an effective public speech. Introductions have four specific
functions that need to be met in a very short period of time. Introductions must gain the audience’s attention and
their goodwill, they must state the purpose of the speech and they must preview the main points.

119
These first two functions of the introduction, gaining the attention of the audience and the good will of the
audience, have most to do with getting the audience to want to listen to you. The other two functions of the
introduction, stating the purpose of the speech and previewing the structure of the speech, have to do with
helping the audience understand you.

The secret of successful speakers? Passion and compassion with a purpose. – Lily Walters

Gain Attention and Interest

The first function of the introduction is to the get the attention
AND the interest of the audience. The “and” here is important.
Anyone can walk into a room full of people sitting quietly, and
YELL AT THE TOP OF THEIR LUNGS. That will get attention.
However, it will probably not garner much interest—at least not
much positive interest.

Gaining attention and interest is essential if you want the

audience to listen to what you have to say, and audiences will
decide fairly quickly if they want to pay attention. Standing in
front of an audience, slouched, hands in pockets, cap pulled low
over your head, and mumbling, “my name is… and I am going to
tell you about…” is an effective method of NOT getting attention
and interest. Before you even open your mouth, your attire,
stance, and physical presence are all sending out loud signals
“Yell” by Vetustense Photorogue. CC-BY-NC.
that you have no interest in the speech, so why should the
audience.

Gain the Goodwill of the Audience

Over 2000 years ago, probably the pre-eminent speech teacher of all time, Aristotle noted the importance of
gaining the goodwill of the audience:

…it is not only necessary to consider how to make the speech itself demonstrative and convincing, but also
that the speaker should show himself to be of a certain character…and that his hearers should think that he
is disposed in a certain way toward them; and further, that they themselves should be disposed in a certain
way towards him. ( (Note: Aristotle (1982). The art of rhetoric. (J.H. Freese, Trans.). Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.))

When an audience has decided to listen to you—when you have gained their attention and interest—you still
need them to think favorably of you. The most effective way of doing this is by establishing your credibility to
speak. Credibility is your believability. You are credible when the audience thinks you know what you are talking
about. There are a number of methods for developing credibility, and you will use them throughout the speech. In
the introduction, however, since you have comparatively little time to develop this credibility, your options are a bit
more limited.

To be persuasive, we must be believable. To be believable, we must be credible. To be credible, we

must be truthful. – Hellmut Walters

Essentially, credibility has two elements: external credibility and internal credibility. External credibility is the type
of credibility you as a speaker gain by association: use of sources that the audience finds credible, for example. In
an introduction, you may be able to develop external credibility by this means, as we will see later in this section.

120
More importantly, given the immediate nature of an
introduction, is internal credibility
credibility. You develop internal
credibility as the speaker through specific actions. First, be
appropriately attired for a public presentation. Second,
make eye contact with the audience before you speak.
Third, speak clearly, fluently and confidently.

You can also demonstrate internal credibility by

demonstrating personal experience with or knowledge of
the topic of your speech. Audiences are more positively
disposed toward a speaker who has had experience with
the topic of his or her speech. You can also demonstrate
credibility and goodwill by showing a connection to your
audience, demonstrating shared experiences or shared
values.
“Captive Audience” by J J. CC-BY-NC-ND.
A student giving a speech to a class about a month before
spring break, right in the middle of an extended cold spell of a long Midwestern winter, offered this introduction as
a way to show shared values and experiences:

I need everyone to close his or her eyes. All right, now I need everyone to picture how he or she got to
school today. Did you bundle up with a hat, some mittens, boots, and two jackets because it’s so cold
outside before you left for class? While walking to class, was it cold? Did your ears burn from the icy wind
blowing through the air? Were your hands cold and chapped? Now I want you all to think about the sun
beating down on your body. Picture yourself lying on the beach with sand between your toes and the sound
of the ocean in the background. Or picture yourself poolside, with a Pina Coloda perhaps, with tropical music
playing in the background. Picture yourself in Mazatlan, Mexico. ( (Note: Townsend, C. (2007, February 5).
Spring break in Mexico. Speech posted at http://msustr0.campus.mnsu.edu:8080/cah/gorgias/333/MMS/
Cassie.wmv))

“Pueblo Bonito Emerald Bay” by Bryce Edwards. CC-BY.

When speakers can identify with the audience and can show how the audience and the speaker share
experiences, then the audience is more receptive to what the speaker has to say. The speaker is both more
credible and more attractive to the audience.

The secret of success is constancy of purpose. – Benjamin Disraeli

Clearly State the Purpose

This seems like such a basic step, yet it is one too often missed; and without this step, it is difficult for the
audience to follow, much less evaluate and comprehend, a speech. In both basic composition classes and basic
public speaking classes, this function is much the same: State the thesis of your speech. In all speeches, there
should be that one sentence, that one statement that succinctly and accurately lets the audience know what the
speech will be about and what the speaker plans to accomplish in the speech. Speakers, especially novice

121
speakers but also experienced ones, are so concerned with the content of the speech that they forget to let us
know about the purpose. A good thesis statement clearly announces the topic and purpose of the speech.

For example, a standard problem- solution speech should have a thesis statement that clearly states the problem
and the need for a solution.

So right now let’s see how dependence on fossil fuels costs you money and how use of ethanol as a
supplement will save you money and save the world from energy dependence.

We know the topic and we know what the speaker will be attempting to prove. Once a thesis statement is clearly
announced, the final function of the introduction is ready.

Preview and Structure the Speech

The thesis statement lets the audience know what the speech is about and what you as speaker want to
accomplish. The preview statement lets the audience know HOW you will develop the speech. A preview can be
understood as a roadmap—a direction for the speech that leads to a successful conclusion. A preview lets the
audience know what will come first, what comes next, and so on, to the end of the speech.

The preview is essentially an outline—an oral outline—of the basic organizational pattern of the speech. Previews
help the audience follow the content because they already know the structure. Remember, though, that the basic
structure of a speech is not linear, it is circular. Organizational patterns for speeches have a conclusion which, as
we will see later, brings the audience back to the beginning.

Taking as an example the thesis statement from above, a sample preview for that speech could appear as the
following:

To see how we can end our dependence on fossil fuels, we will first
take a look at why we as a society are so dependent upon fossil
fuels; secondly, find out what continues to cause this dependence;
and finally, see how ethanol as a fuel supplement will help end this
dependence and make the world a better place for all of us.

“Oil Well” by joshuadelaughter. CC-BY-

NC.
Licensing & Attributions
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Project: The Public
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
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at: https://flic.kr/p/Hu73P. License
• Yell. Authored by
by: Vetustense Photorogue. Located at License: CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial
at: https://flic.kr/p/6hon8a. License
• Captive Audience. Authored byby: J J. Located at License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
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by: Joshuadelaughter. Located at License: CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial
at: https://flic.kr/p/5e42Ri. License

ATTENTION-GETTING STRATEGIES

Now that we have discussed the four basic functions of the introduction, let’s look at ten potential attention-getting
strategies. This is not an exhaustive list, and many of these attention getters can be combined or adapted to fit
the needs of the speaker, the occasion and the audience. Regardless of the specific strategy used for the
introduction, all introductions still need to meet the four basic functions of an introduction.

You will get good attention and people will be more inclined to listen to you if you can make a statement
whereby their response is… “No kidding!” – Gael Boardman

122
Tell a Story
Human beings love stories. In all cultures, stories are used to communicate and share values, traditions and
knowledge. Rhetorician Walter Fisher ( (Note: Fisher, W. (1987). Human communication as narration: Toward a
philosophy of reason, value, and action. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press.)) argues that human
beings are best understood as homo narrans, as people who tell stories. As an introductory device, stories (and
anecdotes and illustrations) are very effective attention getters.

First, stories have a built-in structure that everyone recognizes and expects. Stories have a beginning, middle and
end, and this built-in structure allows the audience and the speaker to immediately share this experience.

Secondly, because this built-in structure, stories as attention getters lend themselves readily to a well- structured
speech. You as speaker can start the story, get right to the climax, and then stop. You have the attention of the
audience; you have shared experiences with them; and now you also have the conclusion of the speech all set to
go—the end of the story.

Speakers who talk about what life has taught them never fail to keep the attention of their listeners. –
Dale Carnegie

Refer to the Occasion

You are presenting this speech for a reason. The audience is present at this speech for a reason. These reasons
can provide you with an effective attention getter. Referring to the occasion is often used as an introduction to
tribute speeches, toasts, dedication ceremonies and historical events. Speech scholar Lloyd Bitzer ( (Note: Bitzer,
L. (1968). The rhetorical situation. Philosophy and Rhetoric, 1, 1–)14.) argues that all speeches are made at least
in part in response to specific occasions, so referring to the occasion seems a good idea.

Bono, lead singer of the rock group U2 and an activist for a number of humanitarian issues, addressed the 54th
annual National Prayer Breakfast, and started his speech with these words:

Well, thank you. Thank you Mr. President, First Lady, King Abdullah of Jordan, Norm [Coleman],
distinguished guests. Please join me in praying that I don’t say something we’ll all regret. ( (Note: Bono.
(2006, February 2). Keynote address at the 54th national prayer breakfast. Speech posted at
http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/bononationalprayerbreakfast. htm))

“National Prayer Breakfast” by Paul Morse. Public domain.

Refer to Recent or Historical Events

In addition to referring to the occasion, another effective attention- getting device is to refer to current events or to
historical events. This style of reference again helps to create a shared experience for the speaker and the
audience, as the speaker reminds all present that they have these events in common. Additionally, referring to
current or historical events can also help establish goodwill and personal credibility by demonstrating that the
speaker is aware of the relationship between this particular speech and what is going on in the world at that time,
or what has occurred in the past.

123
Abraham Lincoln (1863), in one of the most well-known speeches in
American history, refers both to historical events and current events in the
beginning of the Gettysburg Address:

Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this
continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the
proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a
great civil war, testing whether that nation or any nation so conceived
and so dedicated can long endure.

History, despite its wrenching pain, cannot be unlived, but if faced with
courage, need not be lived again. – Maya Angelou

Refer to Previous Speeches

Most of you reading this material are doing so because you are in a public “Abraham Lincoln” by Alexander
speaking or introductory communication class of some kind. And that means Gardner. Public domain.
that most of you will be presenting your speeches right after someone else
has presented his or her speech. Even if you are not in a classroom situation, many other speaking situations
(such as presenting at a city council or other government meeting, or taking part in a forum or lecture series)
result in speakers presenting right after another person has spoken.

In these situations, speakers before you may have already addressed some
of the information you were planning to discuss, or perhaps have given a
speech on the same topic you are now planning to address. By referring to
the previous speeches, you enhance your credibility by showing your
knowledge of the previous speech, and you have the opportunity to either
compare or contrast your speech to the previous speeches.

Edward Kennedy, at the 1980 Democratic National Convention, began his

speech with a short tribute and acknowledgement to the previous speaker,
member of Congress Barbara Mikulski:

Thanks very much, Barbara Mikulski, for your very eloquent, your
eloquent introduction. Distinguished legislator, great spokeswoman for
economic democracy and social justice in this country, I thank you for
your eloquent introduction.

Refer to Personal Interest “Ted Kennedy, Senator from

Massachusetts” by United States
Senate. Public domain.
One of the key considerations in choosing an appropriate topic for your
speech is that you have a personal interest in that topic. An effective attention getter then, can be your description
of that personal interest. By noting your personal interest, you will demonstrate your credibility by showing your
knowledge and experience with this topic, and because you have a personal interest, you are more likely to
present this information in a lively and clear manner—again, enhancing your credibility. Referring to your personal
interest in this topic in the introduction also helps you set the stage for additional anecdotes or examples from
your personal experience later in the speech.

In speaking at the 1992 Democratic National Convention, Elizabeth Glaser began her speech by acknowledging
her very personal interest in the topic:

I’m Elizabeth Glaser. Eleven years ago, while giving birth to my first child, I hemorrhaged and was transfused
with seven pints of blood. Four years later, I found out that I had been infected with the AIDS virus and had
unknowingly passed it to my daughter, Ariel, through my breast milk, and my son, Jake, in utero. ( (Note:
Glaser, E. (1992, July 14). 1992 Democratic national convention address. Speech posted at
http://www.americanrhetoric.com/sp eeches/elizabethglaser1992dnc.htm ))

124
Use Startling Statistics
Startling statistics startle an audience and catch its attention, and
encourage that audience to listen further as you present the
context of the surprising statistic. Long-time radio announcer Paul
Harvey is well known for the catch phrase “And now, the rest of
the story.” The same function should be at work here. When you
startle the audience, you set them up to want to hear the “rest of
the story.”

Be careful, though. Use of startling statistics requires that you do

a number of things. First, make sure the statistic is accurate.
Second, make sure the statistic is relevant to the topic of the
speech. Startling an audience with an irrelevant statistic
diminishes the speech and decreases your credibility. Third,
make sure you then present “the rest of the story.” You need to
place this startling statistic in the context of your speech so that
everything fits together.

One speaker used an effective startling statistic to help introduce

a speech on the dangers of heart disease:
“Happy Pi Day” by Mykl Roventine. CC-BY-NC-SA.
According to the Center for Disease Control, in the United
States 26.6 million adults have heart disease. This would be about 12% of adults, or three people in this
room.

Use an Analogy
Analogies compare something that your audience knows and understands with something new and different. For
your speech, then, you can use an analogy to show a connection between your speech topic (something new and
different for the audience) and something that is known by your audience.

Analogies can be effective because they use ideas, information and values of the audience to draw a connection
to your speech topic—and to you as a speaker. Analogies create connections between you and the audience.

One very common (and often misquoted) analogy comes from the 1919
Supreme Court case of Schenck v United States. Justice Oliver Wendell
Holmes used this analogy to support his reasoning that some forms of
expression can be suppressed because they present a “clear and
present danger.” Holmes noted that “[t]he most stringent protection of
free speech would not protect a man falsely shouting fire in a theater
and causing a panic.” ( (Note: Schenck v. United States, 249 US 47
(1919).))

One good analogy is worth three hours discussion. – Dudley Field

Malone

Use a Quotation
Using a quotation from a well- known figure, or using a quotation from a
lesser-known figure if the quotation is particularly suitable for your
speech topic, is a common attention-getting technique. When you quote
that well-known figure, you are in a sense, borrowing some of that
person’s credibility for your speech, enhancing your credibility with the
audience. Even when you use a less than well-known figure, the “Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes” by National
quotation can be effective if it nicely sets up your speech topic and is Photo Company. Public domain.
something to which your audience can relate.

125
Be careful with quotations, however. First, just using the quotation is not sufficient. You need to place the
quotation in the context of your speech (as well as meet the other required functions of an introduction, of course).
Second, it is easy to fall into a bad (and somewhat lazy) habit of simply finding a quotation and using it to start
every speech. Third, simply using a quotation is no guarantee that your audience will find that quotation
interesting or apt for the speech, and may also find the author of the quotation to be lacking in credibility—or your
audience may simply not like the author of the quotation. Finally, beware of overly- long quotations (three or more
sentences): Remember, this is just part of the introduction, not a main point of the speech.

In his farewell address, former President Ronald

Reagan (1989) utilized a very short quotation to
emphasize his feelings upon leaving office.

People ask how I feel about leaving. And the

fact is, “parting is such sweet sorrow.” The
sweet part is California and the ranch and
freedom. The sorrow — the goodbyes, of
course, and leaving this beautiful place.

Using rhetorical questions in speeches is a

great way to keep the audience involved. Don’t
you think those kinds of questions would keep
your attention? – Bo Bennett

“Reagan farewell salute” by White House Photographic Office.

Ask a Question Public domain.

The use of questions can be a very effective way to get attention, whether those questions are rhetorical in
nature, and are only meant to be considered and pondered by the audience, or are meant to be answered by the
audience (generally a good technique to get audience involvement and interest).

Rhetorical questions are designed to allow you as speaker to get the audience to think about your topic without
actually speaking the answer to the question. Rhetorical questions allow you as speaker to maintain the most
control over a speech situation, and allow you to guard against an inappropriate or even offensive response.

Using questions that ask for real responses, however, has additional benefits, if a speaker feels comfortable with
his or her audience, and is able to handle some impromptu situations. Getting the audience to physically and
verbally involve themselves in your topic guarantees that they’re paying attention. Using questions that lead to
positive answers can also enhance your connection to and credibility with the audience.

Starting a speech with a question whether rhetorical or actual does require thought and practice on your part. You
need to carefully consider the question and possible answers. Remember—even if you think the question is
rhetorical, your audience may not know this and may answer the question. You also need to carefully deliver the
question. Too often, speakers will use a question as an introduction—but then give the audience no time to either
think about the answer or answer the question. You need to use timing and pause when starting with a question.
You also need to be careful to use eye contact in asking questions, since you are above all asking for audience
involvement, and your eye contact requests that involvement.

It is not enough for me to ask questions; I want to know how to answer the one question that seems to
encompass everything I face: What am I here for? – Abraham Joshua Heschel

In 1992, Ross Perot selected a little-known retired military figure, Admiral James Stockdale, as his Vice
Presidential running mate. In the fall debates, Stockdale began his opening statement with two questions: “Who
am I? Why am I here?” (Stockdale, 1992). The questions received applause and also laughter, though the later
reaction to these questions was mixed at best. Some saw this as confusion on the part of Stockdale. ( (Note:
Lehrer, J. (Interviewer) & Stockdale, J. (Interviewee). (1999). Debating our Destiny: Admiral James Stockdale.
Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/newshour/debati ngourdestiny/interviews/stockdale.html )) Stockdale
considered these two questions to illustrate his difference from the other two “mainstream” candidates, Al Gore
and then Vice President Dan Quayle. Traditional politicians, Gore and Quayle were readily recognized as
compared to Stockdale.

126
 Humor is the affectionate communication of insight. – Leo Rosten

Use Humor
The use of humor in an introduction can be one
of the most effective types of introductions—if
done well. Humor can create a connection
between the speaker and audience, can get an
audience relaxed and in a receptive frame of
mind, and can allow an audience to perceive the
speaker (and the topic) in a positive light.

Humor done badly can destroy the speech and

ruin a speaker’s credibility.

So first, a word of warning: None of us (those

reading this, those teaching this class, and those
writing this) are as funny as we think we are. If
we were that funny, we would be making our “Audience enjoy Stallman’s jokes” by Wikimania2009 and Damiu00e1n
living that way. Humor is hard. Humor can Buonamico. CC-BY.
backfire. Humor is to a large extent situation-
bound. Most likely, there will be a number of members of your audience who do not use English as a first
language (there are plenty of people reading this who are English as a Second Language learners). Much humor
requires a native understanding of English. Most likely, there will be a number of people in your audience who do
not share your cultural upbringing—and humor is often culture-bound. Be careful with humor.

In general, there is basically only one safe and suitable style of humor: light and subtle self-deprecation. In other
words, you as speaker are the only really safe subject for humor.

Using humor to tell stories about other people, other groups, and even other
situations, may work—but it is just as likely to offend those people, members
of those groups, and people in that situation. Using self-deprecating humor
will not offend others, but unless you can do this with a light and subtle touch,
you may be harming your credibility rather than creating a connection
between yourself and the audience.

Now, with all these warnings, you may want to stay far away from humor as
an introduction. Humor can work, however.

Ann Richards, at the 1988 Democratic National Convention, used humor in

the introduction to her Keynote Address. Knowing the audience, Richards was
able to use partisan humor to establish a connection to the audience and
score points against the political opposition.

I’m delighted to be here with you this evening, because after listening to
George Bush all these years, I figured you needed to know what a real
Texas accent sounds like.

“Ann Richards” by Kenneth C. Zirkel.

CC-BY-SA.
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127
 PREPARING THE INTRODUCTION

Construct the Introduction Last

While this may seem both counter-intuitive and somewhat strange, you really do want to leave the development of
the introduction for the last part of your speech preparation. Think of it this way: You can’t introduce the ideas in
your speech until you have determined these ideas.

The introduction is prepared last because you want to

make sure that the body of the speech drives the
introduction, not the other way around. The body of the
speech contains most of your content, your arguments,
your evidence, and your source material: The introduction
sets up the body, but it should not overwhelm the body of
the speech, nor should it dictate the content or structure of
the speech.

Once you have the body of the speech complete, then you
consider the introduction. With the body of the speech
complete, it is relatively simple to complete two of the four
functions of the introduction. You already know the
purpose of the speech, so now you need to put it in a one-
sentence statement. And you already know the structure
and main points of the speech, so you can put that “A woman typing on a laptop” by Matthew Bowden via
structure into the preview. Wikipedia Commons. Permitted use.

With the structural functions of the introduction complete, you can carefully choose and craft the type of
introduction you wish to use, and concentrate on making sure that the introduction also fulfills the other two
necessary functions: gaining the attention and interest of the audience, and gaining the goodwill of the audience.

Make It Relevant
Another reason why your introduction should be the last part of your speech you prepare is so that the
introduction can relate to the speech. If you prepare the introduction before you prepare the body of the speech,
your introduction may be wonderful—but completely disconnected from the rest of the speech.

When you consider the type of introduction you wish to use, you might note that many of the types could easily
lend themselves to disconnection from the speech. A startling statistic may shock and get an audience’s
attention—but if it is not relevant to the speech itself, the introduction is at best wasted and more likely distracting
to the audience. A quotation may be both profound and catchy—but if the quotation has little to do with the
speech itself, the introduction is once again wasted or distracting.

Now, because your introduction will contain the thesis statement and preview, at least part of the introduction will
be relevant to the rest of the speech. However, the entire introduction needs to be relevant. If your audience
hears an introduction that they perceive to lack connection to the rest of the speech, they will have difficulty
following your main ideas, any attention and interest you may have gained will be more than off-set by the loss of
goodwill and personal credibility, and your speech will not make the positive impression you desire.

The wise ones fashioned speech with their thought, sifting it as grain is sifted through a sieve. – Buddha

128
Be Succinct
In most classroom speeches, and in most speech situations outside the classroom, the speaker will be on a time
limit. Even if you are giving a speech in a setting where there is no stated time limit, most people will simply not
pay attention to a speech that goes on and on and on.

Since you are on a time limit, and since, as noted above, the body of the speech is the heart of your speech, the
introduction of your speech needs to be concise and succinct. There is no magic formula for the length of an
introduction, and you do need to meet all four functions in your introduction. Many authors suggest that the
introduction be no more than 10-15% of the total speaking time.

Most audiences expect you to introduce your speech and then

move quickly into the body of the speech. While the
expectations vary from culture to culture, most of the speaking
situations in which you will find yourself will involve audiences
that have been taught to listen for an introduction with a main
thesis statement of some type. This is the standard speech
format with which the majority of your audience will be familiar
and comfortable. Failing to meet that expectation of your
audience is in a sense a violation, and communication scholars
Burgoon and Hale ( (Note: Burgoon, J. K. & and Hale, J. L.
(1988). Nonverbal expectancy violations: Model elaboration and
application to immediacy behaviors. Communication
Monographs, 55(1), 58–)79.) have shown that expectancy
violations create difficulties in communication situations.
“Ed Milliband with banner” by allispossible.org.uk. CC-
BY.
Write It Out Word for Word
In another chapter, you may have read and studied speech delivery techniques, and in your class, you may be
encouraged to use an extemporaneous style of delivery for your speeches. That is good advice. However,
introductions are best written out word for word and then delivered as memorized.

Introductions are succinct (as we learned above), and introductions have to do a lot of work in a short period of
time. Because of this, you as a speaker need to carefully consider every word of your introduction. The best
method for doing so is to write your introduction out word for word. Then you can more easily see if you have met
all four functions, and can also have a very good idea just how long the introduction will be. Just as importantly,
memorizing and then delivering the introduction word for word gives you the most control over this important (yet
short) part of your speech.
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at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
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FUNCTIONS OF CONCLUSIONS

So: You are at the end of your speech, and you can’t wait to sit down and be done! You start speeding up your
rate of delivery, but your volume goes down a bit because you are rushing and running out of breath. You finish
the last main point of your speech and race off to your seat: That is not the best way to conclude a speech.

Just as with introductions, conclusions have specific functions to fulfill within a speech. And just as with
introductions, there are a number of types of conclusions. In this section of this chapter, we will look at these

129
functions, discuss the relationship between introductions and conclusions, and offer some strategies for preparing
and delivering an effective conclusion.

“Cool Park Architecture / Tianjin, China” by SamHakes.

morgueFile license.

The basic structure of a speech is not linear but circular. Speeches should not take you on a straight line from A
to Z. Speeches should take you in a circle from A to Z. Speeches start at the top of the circle with the introduction,
work their way all around the circle, and end up back at the top with the conclusion. All the parts fit together and
flow together in this circle, and the conclusion takes you right back to the introduction—with an enhanced
understanding of the topic.

Prepare the Audience for the End of the Speech

A speech does not just stop—or, to be more precise, a speech should not just stop. A speech, effectively
structured and delivered, should move smoothly from point to point and then to the conclusion. One of the most
important functions of the conclusion is to prepare the audience for the end of the speech.

Throughout the speech, you have been providing the audience with verbal and nonverbal cues to where you are
going in the speech. As you move to the conclusion, you need to continue to provide these cues. You can use
language cues (“now that we have seen that we can solve this problem effectively, we can review the entire
situation”), movement cues (physically moving back to the center of the room where you began the speech), and
paralinguistic cues (slow the rate of the speech, use more pauses) to help prepare your audience for the end of
the speech.

When you prepare the audience for the end of the speech, you let them know that they need to be ready for any
final comments or appeals from you, and that they should be prepared to acknowledge you as a speaker.

130
Present any Final Appeals
Depending on the type of speech you are presenting, you will be asking the audience for something. You may be
asking them to act in a certain way, or to change their attitude toward a certain person or topic. You may be
asking them to simply understand what you have had to say in your presentation. Regardless, one of the tasks of
the conclusion is to leave the audience motivated positively toward you and the topic you have been presenting.

Psychologists and sociologists (as well as communication scholars) know that there is both a primacy
and recency effect in presenting information. ( (Note: Garlick, R. (1993). Verbal descriptions, communicative
encounters and impressions. Communication Quarterly, 41, 394–)404.) Essentially, people tend to better
remember information presented first or last—they remember what they hear at the beginning of the speech or at
the end. In presenting your appeals to the audience, you can take advantage of the recency effect to increase the
likelihood of your audience acting on your appeals.

Former President Lyndon Johnson, in a speech

announcing a major policy initiative known as the Great
Society, concluded his speech with a series of challenges
and appeals to his audience.

For better or for worse, your generation has been

appointed by history to deal with those problems and
to lead America toward a new age. You have the
chance never before afforded to any people in any
age. You can help build a society where the demands
of morality, and the needs of the spirit, can be
realized in the life of the Nation.

So, will you join in the battle to give every citizen the
full equality which God enjoins and the law requires, “LBJ at the University of Michigan” by Cecil W. Stoughton.
whatever his belief, or race, or the color of his skin? Public domain.

Will you join in the battle to give every citizen an escape from the crushing weight of poverty?

Will you join in the battle to make it possible for all nations to live in enduring peace — as neighbors and not
as mortal enemies?

Will you join in the battle to build the Great Society, to prove that our material progress is only the foundation
on which we will build a richer life of mind and spirit?

There are those timid souls that say this battle cannot be won; that we are condemned to a soulless wealth. I
do not agree. We have the power to shape the civilization that we want. But we need your will and your labor
and your hearts, if we are to build that kind of society. ( (Note: Johnson, L. (1964, May 22). The great
society. Speech posted at
http://www.americanrhetoric.com/sp
eeches/lbjthegreatsociety.htm))

The appeals were significant in that the speech was

delivered as a commencement address at the University of
Michigan, at a time in American society when college and
university students were protesting many government
actions.

When Demosthenes was asked what were the three

most important aspects of oratory, he answered,
Action, Action, Action. – Plutarch

131
Summarize and Close “President Johnson poverty tour” by Cecil W. Stoughton.
Public domain.
A conclusion is structural in function. Just as the
introduction must include a statement of the purpose of the speech, as well as a preview of the main ideas of the
speech, the conclusion must include a restatement of the thesis and a review of the main ideas of the speech.
The review and restatement are mirror images of the preview statement in the introduction. Structurally, the
restatement and review bring the speech back to the top of the circle and remind the audience where we started.
Functionally, they help cue the audience that the end of the speech is coming up.

Let’s go back to the thesis and preview example. The example was from a speech on ethanol, and the sample
thesis was “So right now let’s see how dependence on fossil fuels costs you money and how use of ethanol as a
supplement will save you money and save the world from energy obsolescence.”

In the conclusion of this speech, one effective method to summarize and wrap-up is to simply restate the thesis
and preview—but in the past tense, since we have now heard the speech.

Today we have seen how dependence on fossil fuels costs you money and how use of ethanol as a
supplement will save you money and save the world from energy obsolescence. We learned first why we as
a society are so dependent upon fossil fuels in the first place, and then secondly we found out what causes
this dependence, and third, we saw how ethanol as a fuel supplement will help end this dependence, and
finally we discovered how simple it is to implement this solution and make the world a better place for all of
us.

By restating the thesis and reviewing the main ideas, you once again take advantage of both the primacy and
recency effect, and you create a complete and coherent structure to your speech.

“BP Oil Flood Protest in New Orleans” by Derek Bridges. CC-BY.

End with a Clincher

With conclusions, however, there are some additional forms you may wish to use, and there are some variations
and adaptations of the introductions that you will want to use as you prepare your conclusions.

Earlier in this section when we discussed introductions, it was argued that stories are quite possibly the most
effective form of introduction: Stories appear to be almost “hard-wired” into our individual and cultural make-up;
and stories have a built-in structure. Stories, then, also make excellent conclusions, and can be used as

132
conclusions in at least two ways. First, you can complete the story that you started in the introduction. Remember:
You stopped right before the climax or denouement, and now, you can finish the story. Alternatively, you can retell
the story, and this time the story will reflect what the audience has learned from your speech. Either method
provides coherence and closure to the story and the speech.

Humor also remains an effective type of conclusion, but the same dangers with the use of humor discussed in the
section on introductions applies to the conclusion. Still, effective use of humor leaves the audience in a receptive
frame of mind, and, so long as the humor is relevant to the speech, provides a positive reminder to the audience
of the main purpose of the speech.

Because of the functions of conclusions, there are two additional types of conclusions you may wish to consider:
Appeals and Challenges.

I appeal to you, my friends, as mothers: are you willing to enslave your children? You stare back with
horror and indignation at such questions. But why, if slavery is not wrong to those upon whom it is
imposed? – Angelina Grimke

Appeals and Challenges

Since the conclusion comes at the end of the speech, it is appropriate to leave the audience with an appeal or a
challenge (or a combination of the two). Similar in nature, appeals and challenges primarily divide by tone.
Appeals are generally phrased more as requests, while challenges can take on a more forceful tone, almost
ordering or daring audiences to engage in thought or action.

One of the most historically memorable and effective

conclusions that utilized appeal and challenge was Dr. Martin
Luther King Jr.’s I Have a Dream speech.

And so let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of

New Hampshire. Let freedom ring from the mighty
mountains of New York. Let freedom ring from the
heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania. Let freedom
ring from the snow-capped Rockies of Colorado. Let
freedom ring from the curvaceous slopes of California.
But not only that: Let freedom ring from Stone Mountain
of Georgia. Let freedom ring from Lookout Mountain of
Tennessee. Let freedom ring from every hill and molehill
of Mississippi. From every mountainside, let freedom ring.
And when this happens, when we allow freedom to ring,
when we let it ring from every village and every hamlet,
from every state and every city, we will be able to speed
up that day when all of God’s children, black men and
white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics,
will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old
Negro spiritual: Free at last! Free at last! Thank God “Martin Luther King Jr.” Public domain.
Almighty, we are free at last! ( (Note: King, Jr., M. L.
(1963, August 28). I have
a dream.” Speech posted at
http://www.americanrhetoric.com/sp
eeches/mlkihaveadream.htm))
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133
 COMPOSING THE CONCLUSION

Just as with introductions, there are two important points to remember from the start. First, regardless of the form
of conclusion, all summary remarks must meet certain required functions. Second, most conclusions will be a
combination of two or more forms. There is a third point to remember about conclusions as well: Conclusions
need to provide a match to the introduction, so that there is symmetry and completeness to the speech structure.
Because of this, very often, the conclusion will be of the same form as the introduction. At the very least, the
conclusion must refer to the introduction so there is a sense of completeness. Naturally enough, the forms of
conclusions you can use and develop are similar to the forms of introductions you can use and develop.

Eloquent speech is not from lip to ear, but rather from heart to heart. – William Jennings Bryan

Prepare the Conclusion

The conclusion is the last part of the speech to prepare.

What is common writing practice for the introduction is also true of the conclusion. As previously discussed,
introductions and conclusions are similar in nature, they provide mirror images of one another other, and they are
often of the same type. So you complete the introduction and conclusion at the same time. You do so to make
sure that both elements work together.

As you prepare the conclusion, make sure as well that

there are no false conclusions. You need to prepare the
audience for the end of the speech—but you can only
prepare them one time, and there can be only one end to
the speech. By the same token, you need to make sure
that the conclusion is not so abrupt or sudden that no one
in the audience is aware you have completed your speech.
Keep in mind as well that conclusions should comprise no
more than 10% of the total speaking time.

Just as with the introduction, write out the conclusion word

for word. This is your last chance to impress your audience
and to make sure that they understand what you have
said. Do not leave the conclusion to chance: write it out.

Success depends upon previous preparation, and

without such preparation there is sure to be failure. –
Confucius “Kyung-wha Kang” by United States Mission Geneva. CC-
BY-ND.

Do Not Include Any New

Information
While it is important to present your appeal and any call to action in the conclusion, it is also important to NOT
present new information in your conclusion. Remember: one of the functions of the conclusion is to prepare the
audience for the end of the speech. If all of the sudden you present a new argument, new information, or a new
point, you will confuse your audience.

If you present new information in the conclusion, you will also lose the ability to integrate this information with the
rest of the speech. Remember that all elements of the speech need to flow together. New ideas at the very end of
the speech will not enhance the flow of the speech. Additionally, because you are just now bringing in this

134
information at the end of the speech, you will have no or very little time to develop these ideas, or to provide
supporting information and documentation for these ideas.

Follow the Structure

The approach of using the built-in structure of the specific introduction/conclusion technique is as equally effective
with quotations, questions and startling statistics as it is with stories.

You can use the same quotation at the end as at the beginning, but because of what we have learned in the
speech, the quotation has a new and more developed meaning. You can also use a new quotation that draws a
comparison and contrast to the beginning quotation, and also highlights what we have learned in the speech.

You can use the same question at the conclusion as you did at the beginning, and regardless of whether you ask
for a response or pose it as a rhetorical question (and allow the audience to consider the answer), the answer will
be different because of your speech. The audience will be able to see what you have accomplished in the speech.
You can also pose a new question, one that again points out what the audience has learned from your speech.

Startling statistics, as quotations and questions, now take on new meaning because of all that you have told the
audience in your speech. Reminding the audience of startling statistics should provide them with a key reminder
of the main point of your speech.
Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 9 Composing the Conclusion. Authored by by: Warren Sandmann, Ph.D.. Provided by
by: Minnesota State University, Mankato, MN. Located at at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
Project: The Public
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Speaking Project. License
• Kyung-wha Khang, Deputy High Commissioner for Human Rights. Authored by by: United States Mission Geneva. Located at License: CC BY-ND: Attribution-
at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/us-mission/4174523290/. License
NoDerivatives

CONCLUSION, REVIEW QUESTIONS, AND

ACTIVITIES

This chapter first shows how to structure and develop

introductions and conclusions. Second, it argues that
introductions function to gain audience attention and
goodwill, and that introductions help structure the speech
with a thesis statement and preview. Third, the chapter
explains that conclusions help audiences remember the
key ideas of a speech. Finally, the chapter reveals that
there are a variety of different techniques for introductions
and conclusions, and that many of the techniques for
introductions apply to conclusions as well.

Introductions set the stage for the speech that is to come;

conclusions make sure that the audience goes away
changed in a positive manner. Short in time, they require
careful thought and precise language to be effective. Done “Classic Raux” by Tim Samoff. CC-BY-ND.
well, introductions prepare an audience to learn, and
conclusions help to insure that an audience has understood the purpose of the speech.

When you can do the common things of life in an uncommon way, you will command the attention of
the world. – George Washington Carver

135
 Review Questions
1. What are the four basic functions of introductions, and why are these functions important?
2. List and give one original example of each of the ten attention-getting devices.
3. What are three reasons why stories are effective as introductions?
4. Why is humor both useful and dangerous at the same time?
5. What is a preview statement, and why is it important as part of an introduction?
6. What are the four basic functions of conclusions, and why are these functions important?
7. Compare and contrast an appeal and a challenge. When would you use each technique?
8. What does it mean to “follow the structure” in a conclusion?
9. Why are introductions and conclusions prepared last?

Activities
1. Review the following speech and then write a brief (150-200 words) analysis on how the speaker
used (or did not use) effective introduction and conclusion techniques.

http://msustr0.campus.mnsu.edu:8080/cah/gorgias/333/CollieSampPersSpeech.wmv
2. Read Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address (http://americanrhetoric.com/speeches/gettysburgaddress.htm)
and then rewrite the introduction to use:
◦ Humor
◦ Rhetorical Question
◦ A story
◦ Each introduction should be relevant to the topic and no more than 100 words in
length.
3. Working with a partner, create at least five analogies that could be used as part of an effective
introduction for any of the topics listed below.
◦ Commonalities of the world’s major religions
◦ Dealing with gaming addiction
◦ Selecting a college
◦ Why the penny should be eliminated
◦ My worst first date
◦ Protecting your identity online and offline
◦ Making the perfect lasagna
◦ The three most important factors in choosing an automobile
◦ The dangers of radon
◦ Traveling through Europe on a budget
4. Locate an informative or a persuasive speech on Youtube. Watch the speech once in its entirety, and
then watching it a second time, answer these questions.
◦ What attention-getting technique was used? Was it effective?
◦ Did the speaker establish his / her credibility effectively?
◦ Was the thesis or purpose of the speech clear?
◦ Did the speaker preview the main points of the speech?
◦ Did the main points of the speech correspond with the preview?
◦ Did the speaker prepare the audience for the end of the speech?
◦ Did the speaker present any final appeals? Was this effective?
◦ What type of clincher (closing technique) was used? Was it effective?

Licensing & Attributions

CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 9 Conclusion, Review Questions, and Activities. Authored by by: Warren Sandmann, Ph.D.. Provided by
by: Minnesota State University, Mankato, MN. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html.
Project License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Project: The Public Speaking Project. License
• Classic Raux. Authored by
by: Tim Samoff. Located at License: CC BY-ND: Attribution-NoDerivatives
at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/timsamoff/2396792882/. License

136
 GLOSSARY AND REFERENCES

Glossary

TERM DEFINITION

A figure of speech that essentially compares something that your audience knows and
Analogy
understands with something new and different.

Sometimes called a road map, a preview is a brief oral outline in which the speaker clearly and
Preview
concisely states the main points of the speech.

Internal This is a form of credibility based on attributes that are largely controlled by a speaker, such as
Credibility appearance, confidence, charisma, trustworthiness, and speaking ability.

Expectancy Expectancy violations occur when people engage in behavior that is unexpected or
Violation inappropriate for the situation.

External This is a form of credibility based on attributes that a speaker can “borrow,” such as using
Credibility credible sources and referring to credible and popular people and events.

Primacy
According to this principle, audiences are likely to remember what they hear or read first.
Effect

Recency
According to this principle, audiences are likely to remember what they hear or read last.
Effect

When a speaker asks a question that is not meant to be answered outloud, or a question for
Rhetorical
which the audience already knows the answer. This is often used as a way to get an audience
Question
to think about the topic.

One sentence or statement that succinctly and accurately lets the audience know what the
Thesis
speech will be about and what the speaker plans to accomplish in the speech.

References
Aristotle (1982). The art of rhetoric. (J.H. Freese, Trans.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bitzer, L. (1968). The rhetorical situation. Philosophy and Rhetoric, 1, 1-14.

Bono. (2006, February 2). Keynote address at the 54th national prayer breakfast. Speech posted at
http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/bononationalprayerbreakfast.htm

Burgoon, J. K. & and Hale, J. L. (1988). Nonverbal expectancy violations: Model elaboration and application to
immediacy behaviors. Communication Monographs, 55, (1), 58-79.

Flora, C. (May-June 2004). The once- over you can trust: First impressions. Psychology Today, 37 (3), 60-64.

Fisher, W. (1987). Human communication as narration: Toward a philosophy of reason, value, and action.
Columbia: University of South Carolina Press.

137
Garlick, R. (1993). Verbal descriptions, communicative encounters and impressions. Communication Quarterly,
41, 394-404.

Glaser, E. (1992, July 14). 1992 Democratic national convention address. Speech posted at
http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/elizabethglaser1992dnc.htm

Johnson, L. (1964, May 22). The great society. Speech posted at http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/
lbjthegreatsociety.htm

Kennedy, T. (1980, August 12). 1980 democratic national convention address. Speech posted at
http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/tedkennedy1980dnc.htm

King, Jr., M. L. (1963, August 28). I have a dream.” Speech posted at http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/
mlkihaveadream.htm

Lehrer, J. (Interviewer) & Stockdale, J. (Interviewee). (1999). Debating our Destiny: Admiral James Stockdale.
Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/newshour/spc/debatingourdestiny/interviews/stockdale.html

Lincoln. A. (1863, November 19). The Gettysburg address. Speech posted at http://www.americanrhetoric.com/
speeches/gettysburgaddress.htm

Reagan, R. (1989, January 11). Farewell address to the nation. Speech posted at
http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/ronaldreaganfarewelladdress.html

Richards, A. (1998, July 19). Democratic national convention keynote address. Speech posted at
http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/annrichards1988dnc.htm

Schenck v. United States, 249 US 47 (1919).

Stockdale, J. (1992, October 19). The 1992 vice presidential debate. Speech posted at http://www.debates.org/
index.php?page=october-13-1992-debate-transcript

Townsend, C. (2007, February 5). Spring break in Mexico. Speech posted at

http://msustr0.campus.mnsu.edu:8080/cah/gorgias/333/MMS/Cassie.wmv

photo credits
p. 1 Muhammad Yunnus by schipulites http://s3.amazonaws.com/estock/fspid9/1 9/21/48/0/hwac-grameenbank-
author-1921480-o.jpg

p. 2 Pueblo Bonito Emerald Bay, Mazatlan by bryce_edwards http://www.everystockphoto.com/

photo.php?imageId=3834933&searchId=d2b527 e266d9adaf3b9eb5ba28008afc&npos=11

p. 4 Abraham Lincoln by U.S. Library of Congress http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/

File:Abraham_Lincoln_head_on_shoulders_photo_portrait.jpg

p. 4 Bono at the National Prayer Breakfast by Paul Morse http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/

File:National_prayer_breakfast_2006.jpg

p. 5 Kelly McCann by schipulites http://www.everystockphoto.com/

photo.php?imageId=2101671&searchId=117192ced800c1f4d61c5a6c55f6ee64&npos=4

p. 5 Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes by National Photo Company http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/

File:Justice_Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_standing.jpg

p. 6 President Ronald Reagan by White House Photographic Office http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/

commons/7/73/Reagan_farewell_salute.jpg

p. 7 Laughing Audience by Damian Buonamico http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/

File:Audience_enjoy_Stallman%27s_jokes.jpg

138
p. 7 Governor Ann Richards by Kenneth Zirkel http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ann_Richards.jpg

p. 8 Ed Miliband by net_efekt http://www.everystockphoto.com/photo.php?imageId=2282400&searchId=d1715ef

c5a67ac1c988152b8136e3dfa&npos=37

p. 8 Woman with Laptop by Matthew Bowden http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: Woman-typing-on-

laptop.jpg

p. 9 LBJ at the University of Michigan Commencement by LBJ Library and Museum

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:LBJ_at_the_University_of_Michigan.jpg

p. 10 President Johnson’s Poverty Tour 1964 by Cecil Saughton http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/

File:225-9-wh64_small.jpg

p. 10 Woman speaks at BP Oil Flood Protest New Orleans by Derek Bridges http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:BP_Oil_Flood_Protest_in_New_Orleans_30.jpg

p. 11 Martin Luther King March on Washington by National Archives and Records Administration
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Martin_Luther_King_-_March_on_Washington.jpg

p. 11 Kyung-wha Khang Deputy High Commissioner for Human Rights by U.S. Mission Geneva
http://www.everystockphoto.com/
photo.php?imageId=7527423&searchId=488e81758eb12a809a21e316d0f1ab1b&npos=205

* All other photos from Microsoft Clipart

Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 9 Glossary and References. Authored byby: Warren Sandmann, Ph.D.. Provided by
by: Minnesota State University, Mankato, MN. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
Project: The Public
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Speaking Project. License

139
 VISUAL AIDS

OBJECTIVES, OUTLINE, AND INTRODUCTION

Chapter 13: Visual Aids

By Sheila Kasperek, MLIS, MSIT
Mansfield University, Mansfield, PA

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Identify when and how visual aids will enhance a presentation
• Identify the different types of visual aids
• Identify effective and ineffective use of visual aids
• Apply basic design principles to slide design
• Identify best practices to incorporating visual aids in a presentation

Chapter Outline
• Introduction
• Effective Visual Aids
• Types of Visual Aids
◦ Personal Appearance
◦ Objects and Props
◦ Demonstration
◦ Posters and Flip Charts
◦ Audio and Video
◦ Handouts
◦ Slideware
• Design Principles
◦ Slide Layout
◦ Backgrounds and Effects
◦ Colors
◦ Fonts
◦ Text
◦ Images
◦ Graphs and Charts
• Implementation
• Visual Aid Tips
• Conclusion
• Review Questions and Activities

140
 • Glossary
• References

Introduction
“I know you can’t read this from the back there,” the
presenter apologizes to a screen so full of words you
would think the entire speech had been crammed into
one slide. This is just the first of a seemingly endless
string of slides I can’t read, charts so full of numbers I
can’t decipher the meaning, and clip art so clichéd I
can’t help but roll my eyes and sigh. It is not long
before I’m presented with an incredibly dense graph I
can’t make any sense of since he keeps interrupting
my concentration with actual talking. “When is he
going to come to the point already?” I think to myself
as I start to doodle in the margins of the handout of
the PowerPoint slides for the very talk I’m currently
sitting through. Why did he even bother with a
presentation? He could have just emailed us all of the
handout and saved us from this painful, dull
spectacle. As he reads from his slides and belabors “Grifo mágico” by emijrp. CC-BY.
his statistics, my mind drifts to grocery lists and the
upcoming weekend. I can think of a hundred better uses for an hour.

It seems nearly impossible to see a presentation that doesn’t revolve around a lengthy PowerPoint, so much so
that you might think it was a requirement for giving a speech. The phrase “death by PowerPoint” was coined in
response to the ubiquitous, wordy, and intellectually deadening presentations that focus on the slides rather than
the content or the presenter. With the speaker reading directly from the slides, or worse, showing slides with text
so small that it can’t be read, viewers are often left wondering what the need for the presentation is at all. A simple
handout would convey the message and save everyone’s time. PowerPoint, however, is just one of the visual aids
available to you as a speaker. Your ability to incorporate the right visual aid at the right time and in the right format
can have a powerful effect on your audience. Because your message is the central focus of your speech, you only
want to add visual aids that enhance your message, clarify the meaning of your words, target the emotions of
your audience, and/or show what words fail to clearly describe.

A visual image is a simple thing, a picture that enters the eyes. – Roy H. Williams

Learning how to create effective visuals that resonate with your audience
is important for a quality presentation. Understanding basic principles of
how visual information is processed alone and in combination with audio
information can make or break your visuals’ effectiveness and impact.
Incorporating visuals into your speech that complement your words
rather than stand in place of them or distract from them, will set you apart
from other presenters, increase your credibility, and make a bigger and
more memorable impact on your audience.

“mwdCyborgLenses” by em den. CC-BY-

NC-SA.
Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 13 Objectives, Outline, and Introduction. Authored by by: Sheila Kasperek, MLIS, MSIT. Provided by
by: Mansfield University, Mansfield, PA. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
Project: The
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Public Speaking Project. License
• Grifo mu00e1gico. Authored by by: emijrp. Located at License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Grifo_m%C3%A1gico.JPG. License
• mwdCyborgLenses. Authored by by: emden09. Located at License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/emden09/16356102352/. License

141
 EFFECTIVE VISUAL AIDS

Before you just open up PowerPoint and begin creating

slides, you should stop for a moment and consider what
type of visual aid will best serve your purpose and if you
even need an aid at all. Select a visual aid that adds to
your presentation in a meaningful way, not merely
something pretty to look at or a substitute for thorough
preparation. Visuals are not there for you to hide behind
when you are in front of your audience. Because of the
tendency for novice speakers to use visuals as a crutch in
their speeches, it has even been suggested that beginner
speakers be forbidden from using visual aids while they
are learning to present. ( (Note: Palmer, E. (2011). Well
spoken: Teaching speaking to all students. Portland, ME:
Stenhouse Publishers.))

Visual aids serve a unique role in a presentation, and you

should consider the specific purpose and desired outcome
of your speech when determining if, when, to what extent,
and in what format you use visual aids.

Visuals can spark interest, build emotional connections,

“Cake depicting a cheeseburger” by Michael Prudhomme.
clarify your words, explain abstract ideas, help draw
CC-BY-SA.
conclusions, or increase understanding. For instance, a
speaker may show a stacks of books to represent the
amount of data storage in a speech about the evolution of computers; or demonstrate the proper use of ear plugs
by distributing ear plugs, showing how to insert them, and then blasting an air horn in a speech about preventing
hearing loss in order to make the value of ear protection more memorable and concrete. Done well—simple,
visible, relevant, memorable, and audience-focused— visual aids can have a profound impact on your audience
and your overall message.

Visual aids can be an important part of conveying your message effectively since people learn far more by
hearing and seeing than through hearing or seeing alone. ( (Note: Vasile, A. J. (2004). Speak with confidence: A
practical guide (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.)) The brain processes verbal and visual information separately. By
helping the audience build visual and verbal memories, they are more likely to be able to remember the
information at a later time. ( (Note: Malamed, C. (2009). Visual language for designers: Principles for creating
graphics that people understand. Beverly, MA: Rockport Publishers.)) If you can find a visual aid to complement
what you are saying, you will help your audience understand the information you are presenting and remember
your message. For example, a speaker might show the proper and improper ways to bow when being introduced
in Japan while at the same time talking about the movements and also displaying a slide with the appropriate
angles and postures for bowing. By using multiple modes in concert with each other, the message is strengthened
by the pairing of words, images, and movement.

Not just any visual will do, however. Each visual should be relevant to your message, convey an important point,
be clearly understandable, and be visible by your entire audience. Visuals should be used to make concepts
easier to understand and to reinforce your message. They should illustrate important points that are otherwise
hard to understand. ( (Note: Detz, J. (2000). It’s not what you say, it’s how you say it. New York, NY: St. Martin’s
Griffen; Palmer, E. (2011). Well spoken: Teaching speaking to all students. Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers;
Young, K. S., & Travis, H. P. (2008). Oral communication: Skills, choices, and consequences (2nd ed.). Long
Grove, IL: Waveland Press.))

142
Use visuals for speeches about processes, products, or demonstrations
of how to do something, such as a diagram of how email is delivered in
a speech about computer security. Use visuals when you need to
explain things you cannot see because they are hidden or abstract, like
a model of your internal organs in a speech about gastric bypass
surgery. Use them when you need to grab your audience’s attention or
stir their emotions. A speaker could use a photo of a starving child and
a bag of rice that represents the daily calorie intake of a poor child in a
speech about food insecurity to create a visceral reaction in the
audience. As they say, a picture is worth a thousand words, so use
images to tell a story or create a visual metaphor. Visual metaphors are
useful when trying to evoke an emotion, such as showing an image of
someone running or diving into a pool when you want to evoke action
on the part of your audience. The images convey the message to “get
going” or “dive in.” When talking about numbers or statistics, use
visuals to provide context, comparison, and to help your audience
understand the meaning of data. Done well, graphs can convey data. (
(Note: Malamed, C. (2009). Visual language for designers: Principles
for creating graphics that people understand. Beverly, MA: Rockport
Publishers; Palmer, E. (2011). Well spoken: Teaching speaking to all
students. Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers; Tufte, E. R. (2003). The
cognitive style of PowerPoint. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press; Vasile, A. “Diving in the Adriatic” by melschmitz.
J. (2004). Speak with confidence: A practical guide (9th ed.). Boston, morgueFile license.
MA: Pearson.)) While there are many possible reasons to use visuals in
your presentation, your guiding principle should be: does this make the message clearer or more memorable? If
you cannot answer with a resounding “YES!” then re-think the plan for your visuals and begin again.
Licensing & Attributions
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• Chapter 13 Effective Visual Aids. Authored by
by: Sheila Kasperek, MLIS, MSIT. Provided byby: Mansfield University, Mansfield, PA. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
Project: The Public Speaking
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Project. License
• Cake depicting a cheeseburger. Authored by by: Michael Prudhomme. Located at License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cake_depicting_a_cheeseburger.jpg. License
• Diving in the Adriatic. Authored by
by: melschmitz. Provided by
by: MorgueFile. Located at License: Other. License Terms
at: http://mrg.bz/SMkUNQ. License Terms: You are allowed to copy, distribute, transmit the work and to adapt the work.
Attribution is not required. You are prohibited from using this work in a stand alone manner.

TYPES OF VISUAL AIDS

In the past, transparencies displayed with overhead projectors, posters, and flip charts were common visual aids,
but these have mostly been replaced with computer technology. For many people, the term “visual aids” for
presentations or speeches is synonymous with PowerPoint (often long, dry, painful PowerPoint at that), but this is
just one type of visual aid. You should consider all the available options to determine what will be most effective
and appropriate for your presentation.

If you wear clothes that don’t suit you, you’re a fashion victim. You have to wear clothes that make you
look better. – Vivienne Westwood

Personal Appearance
Some people chose to dress up as part of their presentation, and this can help set the tone of the speech or
reinforce a specific point. A speaker may choose to wear a handmade sweater in a talk about knitting in order to
inspire others to begin the hobby. Another speaker may opt for a firefighter’s uniform in a speech about joining the
local volunteer fire department in an effort to appeal to the respect most people have for people in uniform.

143
If you aren’t dressing in relation to your topic, you should
dress appropriately for your audience and venue. A
presentation to a professional audience or at a
professional conference would lend itself to appropriate
business attire. If you are giving a presentation to your
local Girl Scout troop, more casual clothing may be the
best choice. Any time you are doing a demonstration,
make sure you are dressed appropriately to give the
demonstration. It is difficult for a speaker to show how to
correctly put on a rock climbing harness if she is wearing a
skirt the day of the presentation.

Beyond dressing appropriately for your audience and topic,

the audience will make judgments about you even before
your presentation begins. Your dress, mannerisms, the
way you greet the audience when they are arriving, how
you are introduced, and the first words out of your mouth “Firefighters Onboard Royal Navy Destroyer HMS
all impact your credibility and ability to connect with your Edinburgh” by UK Ministry of Defence. CC-BY-NC.
audience. Make sure you are calm and welcoming to your
audience when they arrive and greet them in a professional manner. Your credibility and professionalism suffer
when the audience arrives and you are busy scrambling around attempting to finish your preparations. ( (Note:
Duarte, N. (2010). Resonate: Present visual stories that transform audiences. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.))

Objects and Props

Objects and props, such as a bicycle helmet for a speech on bike safety
or an actual sample of the product you are trying to sell, can greatly
enhance your presentation. Seeing the actual item will often make it
easier for your audience to understand your meaning and will help you
connect with your audience on an emotional level. Props can be used as
part of demonstrations (discussed below) or as a stand-alone item that
you refer to in your speech.

There are several important considerations for using props in your

presentation. If you have a large audience, showing the prop at the front
of the venue may mean that audience members can’t see the item. The
alternative to this is to pass the item around, though Young and Travis (
(Note: Young, K. S., & Travis, H. P. (2008). Oral communication: Skills, “Honestly I Don’t Remember Much from
choices, and consequences (2nd ed.). Long Grove, IL: Waveland This Lecture” by Daniel Lu. CC-BY-NC-ND.
Press.)) advise caution in passing objects around during your speech,
as most people will be seeing the object after you have moved on with your talk. Having your prop out of sync
with your presentation, either as it is passed around disrupting your audience’s attention or by having your prop
visible when you aren’t talking about it, is distracting to your audience and message. To make the most effective
use of props in your presentation, carefully consider how the object will be visible to your entire audience when
you are speaking about it, and make sure it is out of sight when you are not.

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Demonstration
A demonstration can serve two different purposes in a speech. First, it
can be used to “wow” the audience. Showing off the features of your
new product, illustrating the catastrophic failure of a poorly tied climbing
knot, or launching a cork across the room during a chemistry
experiment are all ways of capturing the audience’s attention.
Demonstration should not be gimmicky, but should add value to your
presentation. When done well, it can be the memorable moment from
your speech, so make sure it reinforces the central message of your
talk.

Demonstration can also be used to show how something is done.

People have different learning styles, and a process demonstration can
help visual learners better understand the concept being taught.
Consider for a moment the difference between reading the instructions
on how to perform CPR, watching someone perform CPR, and trying
CPR on the training dummy. As evidenced by the huge number of
online videos illustrating how to do something, there is great value in
watching while you learn a new task.
“A dad teaches his daughter the hula hoop at
If your presentation includes a process where seeing will improve the 2011 Downton Cuckoo Fair” by
understanding, consider including a demonstration. Anguskirk. CC-BY-NC-ND.

Because you have a limited time to present, make sure your demonstrations are succinct, well rehearsed, and
visible to the entire audience. Be prepared for the demonstration to fail and have a back-up plan in place. It is
better to move forward with your presentation than to fret with trying to get your demonstration perfect or fixed.
However, if you are providing a demonstration of your new product, make sure it is as error free as possible. If
you can’t be positive the product will perform as expected, it is better to skip the demonstration.

Posters and Flip Charts

If you are presenting to a small audience, around a dozen people, you may choose to use a poster rather than
PowerPoint. The focus of your poster should be to support your core message and can be left behind to remind
those in attendance of your presentation after you have left. Posters should look professional (e.g., not
handwritten), be visible to everyone in the room, and follow design rules covered later in this chapter. Before your
presentation, you should ask whether posters must be hung or be free standing. For posters that will be hung
from a wall, sturdy poster or matte boards will suffice. If your poster is going to be free standing or if you are going
to use the same poster for multiple presentations, you should consider using a tri-fold display board.

Other text-based visual aids include white boards and flip

charts. Both can be used to write or draw on during the
presentation and should be used with several caveats.
Writing during your presentation actually takes away from
your speaking time, so make sure to factor this into your
speaking time. Speaking and writing at the same time can
be tricky because the audience will have a difficult time
processing what they are hearing when they are also trying
to read what you write. Additionally, if you are writing, you
need to be careful not to turn your back on your audience,
which is makes it harder for them to hear you and for you
to connect with your audience. Legible handwriting that
can be seen at a distance is of prime importance, so using
these kinds of visual aids should be limited to small
audiences. While some speakers write and draw to “Dad’s Jr. Year Science Fair Project” by Rev. Xanatos
highlight important points, this takes an enormous amount Satanicos Bombasticos. CC-BY-NC-SA.
of skill and practice. For those with less developed skills,
flip charts are best limited to situations where audience input is necessary for the direction or continuation of the

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presentation. ( (Note: Duarte, N. (2008). Slide:ology: The art and science of creating great presentations.
Sebastopol, CA : O’Reilly Media.))

The soul never thinks without a picture. – Aristotle

Audio and Video

A large amount of digitized audio and video is now available to be included and embedded in your presentation.
Select short clips; Young and Travis ( (Note: Young, K. S., & Travis, H. P. (2008). Oral communication: Skills,
choices, and consequences (2nd ed.). Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.)) recommend only 10–20 seconds, but
this will depend in part on the length of the presentation, the purpose of the presentation, and clip content and
relevance. You should not have a presentation primarily composed of audio/video clips. Select only clips that
reinforce the message or serve as an appropriate segue into your next topic.

When including audio or video in your speech, there are several technical considerations. It is important that the
clip be properly cued to start at exactly where you want it to begin playing. It distracts from both your audience’s
attention and your credibility when you are fumbling with technology during a speech. It is also important that your
file format can be played on the computer you are using. Since not all computers will play all file formats, be sure
to test playability and audio volume before your presentation. Again, going back to providing a professional
appearance from your first interaction with your audience, you should iron out the technical details before they
enter the room. As with a demonstration, if your clip isn’t playing properly, move on rather than attempt to correct
the issue. Fumbling with technology is a waste of your audience’s valuable time.

Handouts
There are many schools of thought on the use of handouts during a presentation. The most common current
practice is that the presenters provide a copy of their PowerPoint slides to the participants before or after the
presentation. This is so common that some academic and professional conferences require presenters to submit
their slides prior to the event, so copies of the slides can be made for each attendee. Despite this prevailing trend,
you should avoid using your slides as handouts because they serve different purposes. Using your presentation
slides as the handout both shortchanges your slides and fails as a handout.

Handouts are best used to supplement the content of your

talk. If you are providing statistical data, your slide may
only show the relevant statistic focusing on the conclusion
you want your audience to draw. Your handout, on the
other hand, can contain the full table of data. If you need to
show a complex diagram or chart, a handout will be more
legible than trying to cram all that information on a slide.
Since you need to simplify the data to make it
understandable on a slide, the handout can contain the
evidence for your message in a way that is legible,
detailed, complex, and shows respect for the audience’s
time and intelligence. ( (Note: Tufte, E. R. (2003). The
cognitive style of PowerPoint. Cheshire, CT: Graphics
Press.)) “Lt. Lydia Battey distributes handouts” by Kerryl Cacho.
Public domain.
You don’t need to include everything in your talk, and you
don’t need to pack all your information into your slides. Write a handout document with as much detail as you
want and keep the slides simple. Presenters often feel the need to display all the data and information they have
so they will appear knowledgeable, informed, and thoroughly prepared. You can help ease this feeling by creating
a handout with all of the detailed data you wish, which leaves your slides open to focus on your key message. (
(Note: Reynolds, G. (2008). Presentation Zen: Simple ideas on presentation design and delivery. Berkeley, CA:
New Riders.))

There are many true statements about complex topics that are too long to fit on a PowerPoint slide. –
Edward Tufte

146
Crafting an appropriate handout will take additional time for the presenter, but doing so will result in a take-away
document that will stand on its own and a slide show that focuses on effective visual content. Duarte (2008) and
Tufte (2003) recommend handouts only for dense, detailed information. Reynolds ( (Note: Reynolds, G. (2008).
Presentation Zen: Simple ideas on presentation design and delivery. Berkeley, CA: New Riders.)) expands on this
idea, noting that your handout needs to be complete enough to stand in your place since you won’t be there to
present the information or answer questions.

When to distribute handouts is also heavily debated. So common is the practice of providing handouts at the
beginning of a presentation that it may seem wrong to break the convention. It is important to understand,
however, that if people have paper in front of them while you are speaking, their attention will be split between the
handout, your other visual aids, and your words. To counter this, you might consider distributing handouts as they
are needed during the presentation and allowing time for people to review them before continuing on. ( (Note:
Vasile, A. J. (2004). Speak with confidence: A practical guide (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.)) This may not be a
viable option for shorter presentations, and the interruption in the flow of the presentation may be hard to recover
from. Unless having the documents in front of your audience is absolutely critical to the success of the
presentation, handouts should be distributed at the end of the presentation.

Slideware
Slideware is a generic term for the software used create and display
slide shows such as Microsoft PowerPoint, Apple iWorks
Keynote, Google Drive Presentation, Zoho Show and others.
Composed of individual slides, collectively known as the slide deck
deck,
slideware is a de facto standard for presentation visual aids despite
criticisms and complaints about the format. In truth, the problem is not
with the software but in the use of the program. The focus of much of
the remainder of this chapter will be suggestions and best practices for
creating effective slide decks that will be high impact and avoid many
of the complaints of slideware detractors. Before this discussion, there
are two distinct slideware presentation styles that should be
mentioned.

A picture is a poem without words. – Horace

Pecha Kucha
Pecha Kucha is a method of presenting using a slide deck of 20 slides
that display for 20 seconds per slide, advance automatically, and “Steve Jobs Presentation” by Ken.gz. CC-BY.
generally contain no text. ( (Note: Duarte, N. (2008). Slide:ology: The
art and science of creating great presentations. Sebastopol, CA : O’Reilly Media.)) This method began in 2003 as
a way to contain the length of presentations of architects and continues to grow in popularity, but is still reserved
mostly for people in creative industries. ( (Note: Lehtonen, M. (2011). Communicating competence through
PechaKucha presentations. Journal of Business Communication, 48(4), 464–)481.) Because of the restrictive
format, Pecha Kucha-style presentations help the speaker practice editing, pacing, connecting with the audience,
focusing on the message, and using images in place of words. ( (Note: Beyer, A. (2011). Improving student
presentations: Pecha Kucha and just plain PowerPoint. Teaching of Psychology, 38(2), 122–)126.)

Prezi
While not quite slideware, Prezi is digital presentation software that breaks away from the standard slide deck
presentation. It requires users to plot out their themes before adding primarily image-focused content. ( (Note:
Panag, S. (2010). A Web 2.0 Toolkit for Educators. Youth Media Reporter, 489–)91.) Instead of flipping through
the slide deck, the presenter zooms in and out of the presentation to visually demonstrate connections not
available in other slideware. The design of the software lends itself toward more rapidly changing visuals. This
helps to keep the viewer engaged but also lends itself to over-populating the blank canvas with images. ( (Note:

147
Yee, K., & Hargis, J. (2010). PREZI: A different way to present. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education
(TOJDE), 11(4), 9–11.))

Prezi’s fast moving images and, at times, unusual movement can make users dizzy or disoriented. Careful work is
needed during planning and practice so that the point of the talk isn’t the wow factor of the Prezi software, but that
your visuals enhance your presentation. The best way to learn more about this emerging tool is to visit the Prezi
website to view examples.

If opting to use Prezi in a corporate environment, you should strongly consider one of the paid options for the sole
purpose of removing the Prezi logo from the presentation.
Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 13 Types of Visual Aids. Authored by
by: Sheila Kasperek, MLIS, MSIT. Provided by
by: Mansfield University, Mansfield, PA. Located at at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
Project: The Public Speaking
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Project. License
• Firefighters Onboard Royal Navy Destroyer HMS Edinburgh. Provided by by: UK Ministry of Defence. Located at License: CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial
at: https://flic.kr/p/aijcYa. License
• Honestly I Don't Remember Much from This Lecture. Authored by by: Daniel Lu. Located at License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
at: https://flic.kr/p/58GKQt. License
• A dad teaches his daughter the hula hoop at the 2011 Downton Cuckoo Fair. Authored by by: Anguskirk. Located at License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
at: https://flic.kr/p/9DRxFa. License
• Image of poster presentation. Authored byby: Rev. Xanatos Satanicos Bombasticos (ClintJCL). Located at License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
at: https://flic.kr/p/dt1umd. License
• Steve Jobs Presentation 2. Authored by
by: Ken.gz. Located at
at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Steve_Jobs_Presentation_2.jpg. License License: CC BY: Attribution
• https://www.flickr.com/photos/clintjcl/8181921972/. Authored by by: Rev. Xanatos Satanicos Bombasticos. Located at License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-
at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/clintjcl/8181921972/. License
NonCommercial-ShareAlike

Public domain content

• Image of distributing handouts. Authored by
by: Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Kerryl Cacho. Provided by
by: U.S. Navy. Located at
at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
License: Public
File:US_Navy_070808-N-9421C-143_Lt._Lydia_Battey_distributes_handouts_explaining_the_symptoms_of_tuberculosis_to_local_residents_at_Bunabun_Health_Center_in_Madang,_Papua_New_Guinea.jpg. License
Domain: No Known Copyright

DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Slide and slide show design have a major impact on your ability to get your message across to your audience.
Numerous books address various design fundamentals and slide design, but there isn’t always consensus on
what is “best.” What research has shown, though, is that people have trouble grasping information when it comes
at them simultaneously. “They will either listen to you or read your slides; they cannot do both.” ( (Note: Duarte, N.
(2008). Slide:ology: The art and science of creating great presentations. Sebastopol, CA : O’Reilly Media.)) This
leaves you, the presenter, with a lot of power to direct or scatter your audience’s attention. This section will serve
as an overview of basic design considerations that even novices can use to improve their slides.

148
First and foremost, design with your audience in mind.
Your slide show is not your outline. The show is also not
your handout. As discussed earlier, you can make a
significantly more meaningful, content-rich handout that
complements your presentation if you do not try to save
time by making a slide show that serves as both. Keep
your slides short, create a separate handout if needed, and
write as many notes for yourself as you need.

All decisions, from the images you use to their placement,

should be done with a focus on your message, your
medium, and your audience. Each slide should reinforce or
enhance your message, so make conscious decisions
about each element and concept you include ( (Note:
Reynolds, G. (2008). Presentation Zen: Simple ideas on
presentation design and delivery. Berkeley, CA: New
Riders.)) and edit mercilessly. Taken a step further,
graphic designer Robin Williams ( (Note: Williams, R.
(2004). The nondesigner’s design book: Design and
typographic principles for the visual novice (2nd ed.).
Berkeley, CA: Peachpit Press.)) suggests each element be
placed on the slide deliberately in relation to every other
element on the slide.

Providing the right amount of information, neither too much

nor too little, is one of the key aspects in effective
communication. ( (Note: Kosslyn, S. M. (2007). Clear and
to the point: 8 psychological principles for compelling
PowerPoint presentations. New York, NY: Oxford
University Press.)) See Figure 13.1 as an example of
slides with too little or too much information. The
foundation of this idea is that if the viewers have too little
information, they must struggle to put the pieces of the
presentation together. Most people, however, include too
much information (e.g., slides full of text, meaningless
images, overly complicated charts), which taxes the
audience’s ability to process the message. “There is simply Figure 13.1 by the Public Speaking Project. CC-BY-NC-ND.
a limit to a person’s ability to process new information
efficiently and effectively.” ( (Note: Reynolds 2008)) As a presenter, reducing the amount of information directed
at your audience (words, images, sounds, etc.) will help them to better remember your message. ( (Note: Mayer,
R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.)) In this case, less is actually
more.

The first strategy to keeping it simple is to include only one

concept or idea per slide. If you need more than one slide,
use it, but don’t cram more than one idea on a slide. While
many have tried to proscribe the number of slides you
need based on the length of your talk, there is no formula
that works for every presentation. Use only the number of
slides necessary to communicate your message, and
make sure the number of slides corresponds to the amount
of time allotted for your speech. Practice with more and
fewer slides and more and less content on each slide to
find the balance between too much information and too
little.

With simplicity in mind, the goal is to have a slide that can

be understood in 3 seconds. Think of it like a billboard you
are passing on the highway. ( (Note: Duarte, N. (2010).

149
Resonate: Present visual stories that transform audiences.
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.)) You can achieve this Figure 13.2 by the Public Speaking Project. CC-BY-NC-ND.
by reducing the amount of irrelevant information, also
known as noise
noise, in your slide as much as possible. This might include eliminating background images, using clear
icons and images, or creating simplified graphs. Your approach should be to remove as much from your slide as
possible until it no longer makes any sense if you remove more. ( (Note: Reynolds 2008))

Slide Layout
It is easy to simply open up your slideware and start typing in the bullet
points that outline your talk. If you do this, you will likely fall into the traps for
which PowerPoint is infamous. Presentation design experts Reynolds (
(Note: Reynolds 2008)) and Duarte ( (Note: Duarte 2010)) both recommend
starting with paper and pen. This will help you break away from the text-
based, bullet-filled slide shows we all dread. Instead, consider how you
can turn your words and concepts into images. Don’t let the software lead
you into making a mediocre slide show.

Regarding slide design, focus on simplicity. Don’t over-crowd your slide with
text and images. Cluttered slides are hard to understand (see Figure 13.2).
Leaving empty space, also known as white space space, gives breathing room to
your design. The white space actually draws attention to your focus point
and makes your slide appear more elegant and professional. Using
repetition of color, font, images, and layout throughout your presentation will
help tie all of your slides together. This is especially important if a group is
putting visuals together collaboratively. If you have handouts, they should
also match this formatting in order to convey a more professional look and
tie all your pieces together. ( (Note: Reynolds 2008))

Another general principle is to use contrast to highlight your message.

Contrast should not be subtle. Make type sizes significantly different. Make
contrasting image placements, such as horizontal and vertical, glaringly
obvious. A general principle to follow: if things are not the same, then make
them very, very different, ( (Note: Williams 2004 )) as in Figure 13.3.
Figure 13.3 by the Public Speaking
A common layout design is called the rule of thirds
thirds. If you divide the screen
Project. CC-BY-NC-ND.
using two imaginary lines horizontally and two vertically, you end up with
nine sections. The most visually interesting and pleasing portions of the screen will be at the points where the
lines intersect.

150
Figure 13.4 by the Public Speaking Project. Figure 13.5 by the Public Speaking Project. CC-BY-
CC-BY-NC-ND. NC-ND.

151
 Figure 13.6 by the Public Speaking Project.
CC-BY-NC-ND.

Aligning your text and images with these points is preferred to centering everything on the screen. ( (Note:
Kadavy, D. (2011). Design for hackers: Reverse-engineering beauty. West Sussex, UK : John Wiley & Sons)) (
(Note: Reynolds 2008)) See Figure 13.4. Feel free to experiment with the right and left aligned content for
contrast and interest. Sticking with a centered layout means more work trying to make the slide interesting. (
(Note: Williams 2004))

Understanding how people view images (and thus slides) can help you direct the viewer’s attention to the main
point of your slide. In countries that read text from left to right and top to bottom, like English-speaking countries,
people tend to also read images and slides the same way. Starting in the upper left of the screen, they read in a Z
pattern
pattern, exiting the page in the bottom right corner unless their vision is side-tracked by the objects they are
looking at (as in Figure 13.5).

Viewers’ eyes are scanning from focus point to focus point in an image, so you need to consciously create visual
cues to direct them to the relevant information. Cues can be created subtly by the placement of objects in the
slide, by showing movement, or more obviously by using a simple arrow. ( (Note: Malamed, C. (2009). Visual
language for designers: Principles for creating graphics that people understand. Beverly, MA: Rockport
Publishers.)) Make sure all people and pets are facing into your slide and preferably at your main point, as in
Figure 13.6. If your slide contains a road, path, car, plane, etc., have them also facing into your slide. When the
natural motion or gaze of your images points away from your slide, your viewers look that way too. Being aware of
this and addressing the natural tendencies of people when viewing images can help you select images and
design slides that keep the viewer engaged in your message. ( (Note: Duarte 2008))

Backgrounds and Effects

PowerPoint and other slideware has a variety of templates containing backgrounds that are easy to implement for
a consistent slide show. Most of them, however, contain distracting graphics that are counter to the simplicity you
are aiming for in order to produce a clear message. It is best to use solid colors, if you even need a background at

152
all. For some slide shows, you can make the slides with full-screen images, thus eliminating the need for a
background color.

Graphic design is the paradise of individuality, eccentricity, heresy, abnormality, hobbies and humors. –
George Santayana

Should you choose to use a background color, make sure you are consistent throughout your presentation.
Different colors portray different meanings, but much of this is cultural and contextual, so there are few hard and
fast rules about the meaning of colors. One universal recommendation is to avoid the color red because it has
been shown to reduce your ability to think clearly. Bright colors, such as yellow, pink, and orange, should also be
avoided as background colors, as they are too distracting. Black, on the other hand, is generally associated with
sophistication and can be a very effective background as long as there is sufficient contrast with the other
elements on your slide. ( (Note: Kadavy 2011))

When designing your presentation, it is tempting to show off your tech skills with glitzy transitions, wipes, fades,
moving text, sounds, and a variety of other actions. These are distracting to your audience and should be
avoided. They draw attention away from you and your message, instead focusing the audience’s attention on the
screen. Since people naturally look at what is moving and expect it to mean something, meaningless effects, no
matter how subtle, distract your audience, and affect their ability to grasp the content. Make sure that all your
changes are meaningful and reinforce your message ( (Note: Duarte 2008; Kosslyn 2007)).

Colors
There are complicated and fascinating biological and psychological processes associated with color and color
perception that are beyond the scope of this chapter. Because color can have such a huge impact on the ability to
see and understand your visuals, this section will explore basic rules and recommendations for working with color.

Color does not add a pleasant quality to design—it reinforces it. – Pierre Bonnard

Much of what we perceive in terms of a color is based on

what color is next to it. Be sure to use colors that contrast
so they can be easily distinguished from each other (think
yellow and dark blue for high contrast, not dark blue and
purple).High contrast improves visibility, particularly at a
distance. To ensure you have sufficient contrast, you can
view your presentation in greyscale either in the software if
available or by printing out your slides on a black and white
printer. ( (Note: Bajaj, G. (2007). Cutting edge PowerPoint
2007 for dummies. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Publishing.))

As seen in Figure 13.7, warm colors (reds, oranges,

yellows) appear to come to the foreground when set next
to a cool color (blues, grays, purples) which recede into the
background. Tints (pure color mixed with white, think pink)
stand out against a darker background. Shades (pure color
mixed with black, think maroon ) recede into a light
background. ( (Note: Kadavy 2011)) If you want something
to stand out, these color combination rules can act as a
guide.
Figure 13.7 by the Public Speaking Project. CC-BY-NC-ND.

153
Avoid using red and green closely together. Red-green color blindness
is the predominate form of color blindness, meaning that the person
cannot distinguish between those two colors (Vorick, 2011). There are
other forms of color blindness, and you can easily check to see if your
visuals will be understandable to everyone using an online tool such as
the Coblis Color Blindness Simulator to preview images as a color-
blindperson would see it. Certain red-blue pairings can be difficult to
look at for the non-color blind. These colors appear to vibrate when
adjacent to each other and are distracting and sometimes unpleasant
to view. ( (Note: Kosslyn 2007))

With all these rules in place, selecting a color palette

palette, the group of
colors to use throughout your presentation, can be daunting. Some
color pairs, like complementary colors or analogous colors as in Figure
13.8, are naturally pleasing to the eye and can be easy options for the
color novice. There are also online tools for selecting pleasing color
palettes using standard color pairings including Kuler and Color
Scheme Designer. You can also use websites like Colorbrewer to help
identify an appropriate palette of colors that are visually distinct,
appropriate for the colorblind, and that will photocopy well, should you
decide to also include this information in a handout.

I’m a visual thinker, not a language-based thinker. My brain is like

Google Images. – Temple Grandin

Figure 13.8 by the Public Speaking Project.

CC-BY-NC-ND.

154
Fonts
There are thousands of fonts available today. One might
even say there has been a renaissance in font design with
the onset of the digital age. Despite many beautiful
options, it is best to stick to standard fonts that are
considered screen-friendly. These include the serif fonts
Times New Roman, Georgia, and Palatino, and the sans
serif fonts Ariel, Helvetica, Tahoma, and Veranda. ( (Note:
Kadavy 2011)) These fonts work well with the limitations of
computer screens and are legible from a distance if sized
appropriately. Other non-standard fonts, while attractive
and eye-catching, may not display properly on all
computers. If the font isn’t installed on the computer you
are presenting from, the default font will be used which
alters the text and design of the slide.

Readability is a top concern with font use, particularly for

those at the back of your audience, furthest from the
screen. After you have selected a font (see previous
paragraph), make sure that the font size is large enough
for everyone to read clearly. If you have the opportunity to
use the presentation room before the event, view your
slides from the back of the room. They should be clearly
visible. This is not always possible and should not be done
immediately preceding your talk, as you won’t have time to
effectively edit your entire presentation. Presentation guru
Duarte ( (Note: Duarte 2008)) describes an ingenious way
to test visibility from your own computer. Measure your Figure 13.9 by the Public Speaking Project. CC-BY-NC-ND.
monitor diagonally in inches, display your slides, then step
back the same number of feet as you measured on your monitor in inches. If you have a 17 inch screen, step
back 17 feet to see what is legible.

Create your own visual style… let it be unique for yourself and yet identifiable for others. – Orson
Welles

In addition to font style and size, there are other font “rules” to improve your slides. Don’t use decorative, script, or
visually complex fonts. Never use the Comic Sans font if you want to retain any credibility with your audience. If
you must use more than one font, use one serif font and one sansserif font. Use the same font(s) and size(s)
consistently throughout your presentation. Don’t use all upper case or all bold. Avoid small caps and all word art,
shadows, outlines, stretching text, and other visual effects. Use italics and underlines only for their intended
purposes, not for design. While there are many rules listed here, they can be summarized as” keep it as simple as
possible.” ( (Note: Kadavy 2011; Kosslyn 2007)) See Figure 13.9 for examples of poor font choices.

Text
Nothing is more hotly debated in slide design than the amount of text that should be on a slide. Godin says “no
more than six words on a slide. EVER.” ( (Note: Reynolds 2008)) Other common approaches include the 5×5
rule—5 lines of text, 5 words per line—and similar 6×6 and 7×7 rules. ( (Note: Weaver, M. (1999). Reach out
through technology: Make your point with effective A/V. Computers in Libraries, 19(4), 62.)) Even with these
recommendations, it is still painfully common to see slides with so much text on them that they can’t be read by
the audience. The type has to be so small to fit all the words on the slide that no one can read it. Duarte ( (Note:
Duarte 2008)) keenly points out that if you have too many words, you no longer have a visual aid. You have either
a paper or a teleprompter, and she recommends opting for a small number of words.

155
Once you understand that the words on the screen are competing for your audience’s attention, it will be easier to
edit your slide text down to a minimum. The next time you are watching a presentation and the slide changes,
notice how you aren’t really grasping what the speaker is saying, and you also aren’t really understanding what
you are reading. Studies have proved this split-attention affects our ability to retain information; ( (Note: Mayer
2001)) so when presenting, you need to give your audience silent reading time when you display a new slide.
That is: talk, advance to your next slide, wait for them to read the slide, and resume talking. If you consider how
much time your audience is reading rather than listening, hopefully you will decide to reduce the text on your slide
and return the focus back to you, the speaker, and your message.

There are several ways to reduce the number of words on your page, but don’t do it haphazardly. Tufte ( (Note:
Tufte, E. R. (2003). The cognitive style of PowerPoint. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press.)) warns against
abbreviating your message just to make it fit. He says this dumbs down your message, which does a disservice to
your purpose and insults your audience’s intelligence. Instead, Duarte ( (Note: Duarte 2008)) and Reynolds (
(Note: Reynolds 2008)) recommend turning as many concepts as possible into images. Studies have shown that
people retain more information when they see images that relate to the words they are hearing. ( (Note: Mayer
2001)) And when people are presented information for a very short time, they remember images better than
words. ( (Note: Reynolds 2008))

Tip
An easy way to judge how much time your audience needs to read your slide silently, is to read the slide text
to yourself in reverse order.

The ubiquitous use of bulleted lists is also hotly debated.

PowerPoint is practically designed around the bulleted-list
format, even though is it regularly blamed for dull, tedious
presentations with either overly dense or overly superficial
content. ( (Note: Tufte 2003)) Mostly this format is used
(incorrectly) as a presenter’s outline. “No one can do a
good presentation with slide after slide of bullet points. No
One.” ( (Note: Reynolds 2008)) Reserve bulleted lists for
specifications or explaining the order of processes. In all
other cases, look for ways to use images, a short phrase,
or even no visual at all.

Quotes, on the other hand, are not as offensive to design

when they are short, legible, and infrequently used. They
can be a very powerful way to hammer a point home or to
launch into your next topic. ( (Note: Reynolds 2008)) See
Figure 13.10 for an example. If you do use a quote in your
slide show, immediately stop and read it out loud or allow
time for it to be read silently. If the quote is important
enough for you to include it in the talk, the quote deserves
the audience’s time to read and think about it. Alternately, Figure 13.10 by the Public Speaking Project. CC-BY-NC-
use a photo of the speaker or of the subject with a phrase ND.
from the quote you will be reading them, making the slide
enhance the point of the quote.

Images
Images can be powerful and efficient ways to tap into your audience’s emotions. Use photographs to introduce an
abstract idea, to evoke emotion, to present evidence, or to direct the audience attention, just make sure it is
compatible with your message. ( (Note: Kosslyn 2007)) Photos aren’t the only images available. You might
consider using simplified images like silhouettes
silhouettes, line art
art, diagrams, enlargements, or exploded views
views, but these
should be high quality and relevant. Simplified can be easier to understand, particularly if you are showing
something that has a lot of detail. Simple images also translate better than words to a multicultural audience. (

156
(Note: Malamad 2009)) In all cases, choose only images that enhance your spoken words and are professional-
quality. This generally rules out the clip art that comes with slideware, whose use is a sign of amateurism. Select
high-quality images and don’t be afraid to use your entire slide to display the image. Boldness with images often
adds impact.

When using images, do not enlarge them to the point that the image becomes blurry, also known as pixelation
pixelation.
Pixelation, (Figure 13.11) is caused when the resolution of your image is too low for your output device (e.g.
printer, monitor, projector). When selecting images, look for clear ones that can be placed in your presentation
without enlarging them. A good rule of thumb is to use images over 1,000 pixels wide for filling an entire slide. If
your images begin to pixelate, either reduce the size of the image or select a different image.

Figure 13.12 by the Public Speaking Project. CC-BY-NC-

ND.

Figure 13.11 by the Public Speaking Project. CC-BY-NC-

ND.

Never use an image that has a watermark on it, as in Figure 13.2. A watermark is text or a logo that is placed in a
digital image to prevent people from re-using it. It is common for companies that sell images to have a preview
available that has a watermark on it. This allows you, the potential customer, to see the image, but prevents you
from using the image until you have paid for it. Using a watermarked image in your presentation is unprofessional.
Select another image without a watermark, take a similar photo yourself, or pay to get the watermark-free version.

You can create images yourself, use free images, or pay for images from companies like iStockphoto for your
presentations. Purchasing images can get expensive quickly, and searching for free images is time consuming.
Be sure to only use images that you have permission or rights to use and give proper credit for their use. If you
are looking for free images, try searching the Creative Commons database for images from places like Flickr,
Google, and others. The creators of images with a Creative Commons License allow others to use their work, but
with specific restrictions. What is and isn’t allowed is described in the license for each image. Generally, images
can be used in educational or non-commercial settings at no cost as long as you give the photographer credit.
Also, images created by the U.S. government and its agencies are copyright free and can be used at no cost.

157
One final consideration with using images: having the same image on every page, be it part of the slide
background or your company logo, can be distracting and should be removed or minimized. As mentioned earlier,
the more you can simplify your slide, the easier it will be for your message to be understood.

Graphs and Charts

If you have numerical data that you want to present, consider using a graph or chart. You are trying to make a
specific point with the data on the slide, so make sure that the point—the conclusion you want your audience to
draw—is clear. This may mean that you reduce the amount of data you present, even though it is tempting to
include all of your data on your slide.

It is best to minimize the amount of information and focus instead on the simple and clear conclusion. ( (Note:
Duarte 2008)) You can include the complete data set in your handout if you feel it is necessary. ( (Note: Reynolds
2008)) Particularly when it comes to numerical data, identify the meaning in the numbers and exclude the rest.
“Audiences are screaming ‘make it clear,’ not ‘cram more in.’ You won’t often hear an audience member say,
‘That presentation would have been so much better if it were longer.” ( (Note: Duarte 2008)) In some cases you
can even ditch the graph altogether and display the one relevant fact that is your conclusion.

158
Figure 13.13 by the Public Speaking Project. CC-BY-NC-
ND.

159
Different charts have different purposes, and it is important to select the one that puts your data in the appropriate
context to be clearly understood. ( (Note: Tufte 2003)) Pie charts show how the parts relate to the whole and are
suitable for up to eight segments, as long as they remain visually distinct. ( (Note: Duarte 2008)) Start your first
slice of the pie at 12:00 with your smallest portion and continue around the circle clockwise as the sections
increase in size. Usea line graph to show trends over time or how data relates or interacts. Bar charts are good
for showing comparisons of size or magnitude ( (Note: Kosslyn 2007)) and for showing precise comparisons. (
(Note: Duarte 2008)) There are other types of charts and graphs available, but these are the most common.

When designing charts, one should use easily distinguishable colors with clear labels. Be consistent with your
colors and data groupings. ( (Note: Kosslyn 2007)) For clarity, avoid using 3-D graphs and charts, and remove as
much of the background noise (lines, shading, etc.) as possible. ( (Note: Reynolds 2008)) All components of your
graph, once the clutter is removed, should be distinct from any background color. Finally, don’t get too complex in
any one graph, make sure your message is as clear as possible, and make sure to visually highlight the
conclusion you want the audience to draw.
Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 13 Design Principles. Authored by
by: Sheila Kasperek, MLIS, MSIT. Provided by
by: Mansfield University, Mansfield, PA. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
Project: The Public Speaking
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Project. License
• Figures 13.1-13.14. Authored by
by: Sheila Kasperek and Tom Oswald . Located at at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-
Project: The Public Speaking Project. License
NonCommercial-NoDerivatives

IMPLEMENTATION

If you have chosen to use visual aids in your presentation, it is important to give credit where credit is due. Make
sure to mention the source of your props if you borrowed them from a person or organization. You should cite the
source of all data and images used in your presentation. There are conflicting opinions about whether the source
citations should be on the individual slides or at the end of the presentation on a final slide. Including citations
throughout the slide deck places the source information adjacent to the relevant text, but it is often so small as to
be unreadable. Placing citations at the end of your presentation reduces clutter on the slides and allows the
citation information to be larger and more legible. In all cases, refer to your sources when speaking and be able to
provide exact citations for anyone interested in your sources. Citing your sources provides credibility to your
content and shows you are a professional.

160
 “Astronomy Picture of the Day 2008 May 18” by NASA. Public domain.

Once you have decided on which visual aids to use and have prepared them for your presentation, you should
practice with them repeatedly. Through practice you will be able to seamlessly incorporate them into your
presentation, which will reduce distractions, increase your credibility, and keep the audience’s attention focused
on your message. Practice will also help determine the time required for your presentation so you can edit before
you speak if necessary. No audience benefits from the speaker looking at the time, admitting how off schedule
they are, or rushing through their remaining slides.

No matter which visual aid(s) you have chosen, they should be displayed only when you are ready to talk about
them. Otherwise, the audience will spend time reading any text or guessing the meaning of the visual instead of
focusing on the presenter’s words. Once used, visuals should also be removed from sight so as not to continue to
distract the audience. ( (Note: Palmer, E. (2011). Well spoken: Teaching speaking to all students. Portland, ME:
Stenhouse Publishers.))

A picture is the expression of an impression. If the beautiful were not in us, how would we ever
recognize it? – Ernst Haas

Licensing & Attributions

CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 13 Implementation. Authored by by: Sheila Kasperek, MLIS, MSIT. Provided by
by: Mansfield University, Mansfield, PA. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
Project: The Public Speaking
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Project. License

Public domain content

• Astronomy Picture of the Day 2008 May 18. Authored by
by: Dana Berry. Provided by
by: NASA. Located at
at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NASA_Astronomy_Picture_of_the_Day_2008_May_18_-_clip_01.jpg%20.
License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
License

VISUAL AID TIPS

Table 13.1: Visual Aid Tips

Select only visual aids that enhance or clarify your message.

Select visual aids that will have the greatest impact on your audience.

Speak to your audience not to your visual aid or the screen.

Reveal your visuals only when they are relevant to your current point, and take them away when they are no
longer being talked about.

Practice with your visual aids and make sure all demonstrations work smoothly.

Design visuals so they can be understood within three seconds.

Keep your visuals as simple as possible while still conveying your message.

When presenting text to your audience, give them time to read before you begin speaking again.

Be prepared to move on with your presentation should any of the visual aids falter or fail. No matter how great
your visuals are, you need to be prepared to speak without them.

161
Licensing & Attributions
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by: Sheila Kasperek, MLIS, MSIT. Provided by
by: Mansfield University, Mansfield, PA. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
Project: The Public Speaking Project.
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
License

CONCLUSION, REVIEW QUESTIONS, AND

ACTIVITIES

Conclusion
This chapter addresses both the role and value of using visual aids, including slideware, objects, audio and video
clips, and demonstrations. They should be used only when they help to clarify or enhance your spoken words or
will help your audience remember your message.

Be sure that any visual aid you use adds to what you are saying. Slides should be brief, easy to understand, and
complement your message. Objects and slides should not be revealed before you begin talking about them, lest
your audience become distracted from your point. Remember that people cannot read your slides or handouts at
the same time as they are listening to you.

When designing slides make sure they are clear and visible to the entire audience. Contrasting colors with
consideration for common color blindness should be used. Screen- friendly fonts of sufficient size to be read from
the back of the room are extremely important. Avoid clutter on your slides and leverage the power of white space,
aiming always for simplicity and impact.

Practice your presentation with your visual aids, remembering to allow time for your audience to read any new
text you present. Be prepared to continue in a professional manner should your visuals falter or fail. The ease with
which you implement your visuals and move past any problems demonstrates your professionalism and bolsters
your credibility.

Effective selection, design, and implementation of visual aids will increase your audience’s attention and help to
vanquish “death by PowerPoint.” It will make you and your message clearer and more memorable, which will help
you to achieve your primary goal: an audience that understands and connects with your message.

Review Questions
1. Other than slides, list three types of visual aids that can be used in a presentation and give an
example of each.
2. What are the ways that visual aids can benefit a presentation? Harm a presentation?
3. Describe the benefits of white space in design.
4. Explain the different purposes and content of handouts as compared to slide shows.
5. List and explain two considerations when using color in your slides.
6. Discuss the pros and cons of having a large amount of text on a slide.

162
 Activities
1. Using the data below, design 3 different types of charts/graphs to effectively display data from this
table. Which is most effective and why?

Median Home Median Household Unemployment

City
Cost Income Rate

Richmond,
$218,900 $38,266 6.90%
Virginia

Asheville, North
$201,300 $39,408 8.50%
Carolina

Durango,
$302,400 $53,882 7.00%
Colorado
2. Design 6 different slides that express the following “The USDA study indicated that in 2010, 17.2
million households in America had difficulty providing enough food due to a lack of resources.” (From
http://www.fns.usda.gov/cga/pressreleases/2011/0391.htm)
Which slide most clearly gets your point across and why?
3. Identify as many problems as you can in the slide on the right. Then re-design the slide to more
effectively communicate the message.

“Slide for Question 3” by Public Speaking Project. CC-BY-NC-ND.

Licensing & Attributions

CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 13 Conclusion, Review Questions, and Activities. Authored by
by: Sheila Kasperek, MLIS, MSIT. Provided by
by: Mansfield University, Mansfield, PA. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html.
Project License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Project: The Public Speaking Project. License

163
 GLOSSARY AND REFERENCES

Glossary

TERM DEFINITION

Analogous
Colors that are next to each other on the color wheel, such as yellow and orange.
Colors

Color Palette The selection of colors that are used throughout a single project.

Complementary
Colors on opposite sides of the color wheel, such as red and green.
Colors

Creative A designation by the copyright holder of an image or other work that it can be reused. The
Commons license identifies what specifically is allowed under what conditions and what credit must be
License given.

A picture or diagram where an object appears disassembled so the viewer can see the
Exploded View component parts in proper relationship to each other. They are used to show how things fit
together and how parts interact to make a whole.

An image that has all the color information removed and replaced with appropriate shades
Greyscale
of grey. These images are sometimes referred to as black- and-white.

Simplified drawings made only of solid lines without color or shading. They are useful for
Line Art
showing the basic shape and construction of complicated objects.

Noise In design, it refers to excess information on a slide or image or a cluttered image.

A presentation format that uses exactly 20 slides, and each slide is only viewed for 20
Pecha Kucha
seconds. This format focuses on timing, brevity, and practice.

The blurry appearance of images which are enlarged on a computer beyond their
Pixelation
resolution. This often occurs when a small image is stretched to cover an entire slide.

A newer type presentation software that allows for non- linear presentations and is more
Prezi
graphically oriented rather than text oriented.

A layout design grid that divides a page into nine equal squares. Placing or aligning content
Rule of Thirds
along the grid lines creates a more powerful image.

A type face whose characters do not have the small lines or flourishes at the end points of
Sans Serif Font
letters. Sans serif fonts include Arial, Helevetica, and Tahoma.

A type face whose characters have small lines or flourishes at the end points of letters. Serif
Serif Font
fonts include Times New Roman, Georgia, and Palatino.

A simplified image of a person or object created from the outline of the image and filled in
Silhouette
with a solid color, usually black.

164
 A term that refers to all the slides in a slideware presentation. It is a more generic term for
Slide Deck
PowerPoint slides.

The software used to display digital slide shows. Examples of slideware include Microsoft
Slideware
PowerPoint, Apple iWork, Keynote, Google Drive Presentation, OpenOffice Impress.

A noticeable image or graphic in an image that is placed there primarily to prevent reuse of
that image by identifying the owner of the copyright. Often found on online images, it is
Watermark
designed to let you preview the image before you purchase it, at which time, the watermark
is removed.

Empty space in your design that helps direct the viewers’ attention to the parts of the slide
White Space
that really matter. Use of white space can help reduce clutter on your slide.

The natural tendency of people from English-speaking countries, among others, to view
Z Pattern images in the same way that they read text, that is, left to right, top to bottom. This results in
the eye tracking along a Z-shaped path through the image.

References
Bajaj, G. (2007). Cutting edge PowerPoint 2007 for dummies. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Publishing.

Beyer, A. (2011). Improving student presentations: Pecha Kucha and just plain PowerPoint. Teaching of
Psychology, 38(2), 122-126.

Detz, J. (2000). It’s not what you say, it’s how you say it. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Griffen.

Duarte, N. (2008). Slide:ology: The art and science of creating great presentations. Sebastopol, CA : O’Reilly
Media.

Duarte, N. (2010). Resonate: Present visual stories that transform audiences. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Gries, L. E., & Brooke, C. (2010). An inconvenient tool: Rethinking the role of slideware in the writing classroom.
Composition Studies, 38(1), 11-28.

Kadavy, D. (2011). Design for hackers: Reverse-engineering beauty. West Sussex, UK : John Wiley & Sons

Kosslyn, S. M. (2007). Clear and to the point: 8 psychological principles for compelling PowerPoint presentations.
New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Lehtonen, M. (2011). Communicating competence through PechaKucha presentations. Journal of Business

Communication, 48(4), 464-481.

Malamed, C. (2009). Visual language for designers: Principles for creating graphics that people understand.
Beverly, MA: Rockport Publishers.

Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Palmer, E. (2011). Well spoken: Teaching speaking to all students. Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers.

Panag, S. (2010). A Web 2.0 Toolkit for Educators. Youth Media Reporter, 489-91.

Reynolds, G. (2008). Presentation Zen: Simple ideas on presentation design and delivery. Berkeley, CA: New
Riders.

Tufte, E. R. (2003). The cognitive style of PowerPoint. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press.

Tufte, E. R. (1997). Visual and statistical thinking: Displays of evidence for making decisions. Cheshire, CT:
Graphics Press.

165
Vasile, A. J. (2004). Speak with confidence: A practical guide (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.

Vorvick, L. J. (2011). Color blindness. In MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. Retrieved from

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlinepl us/ency/article/001002.htm

Weaver, M. (1999). Reach out through technology: Make your point with effective A/V. Computers in Libraries,
19(4), 62.

Williams, R. (2004). The non-designer’s design book: Design and typographic principles for the visual novice (2nd
ed.). Berkeley, CA: Peachpit Press.

Yee, K., & Hargis, J. (2010). PREZI: A different way to present. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education
(TOJDE), 11(4), 9-11.

Young, K. S., & Travis, H. P. (2008). Oral communication: Skills, choices, and consequences (2nd ed.). Long
Grove, IL: Waveland Press.

photo credits
p. 1 Magic Tap http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Grifo_m%C3%A 1gico.JPG By emijrp

p. 2 Cheeseburger Cake http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CakeBurgerSupreme.JPG

by Michael Prudhomme

p. 5 Steve Jobs Presentation http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Steve_Jobs_Presentation_2.jpg By Ken.gz

p. 5 Handouts http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:US_Navy_070808-N-9421C-143_Lt._Lydia_Battey_distributes_handouts_explaining_the_symptoms_of_tuberculosis_to_lo
adang,_Papua_New_Guinea.jpg By U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Kerryl Cacho

p. 6 Dahlia http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dalia.jpg By Wirtual24

p. 6 – 12 Figures 13.1 – 13.14

Slide Graphics by Sheila Kasperek and Tom Oswald

p. 7 Beach leaping (In Figure 13.4): http://www.flickr.com/photos/foxtongue/4466028696/

By Foxtongue

P. 11 Roosevelt and Muir on Glacier Point (In Figure 13.10) http://memory.loc.gov/cgi- bin/query/
D?consrvbib:4:./temp/~ammem_BRht: By Library of Congress

p. 13 Planets http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NASA_Astronomy_Picture_of_the_Day_2008_May_18_-
_clip_01.jpg By Dana Berry
Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 13 Glossary and References. Authored byby: Sheila Kasperek, MLIS, MSIT. Provided by
by: Mansfield University, Mansfield, PA. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
Project: The Public
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Speaking Project. License

166
 CRITICAL THINKING AND REASONING

VIDEO: SAMPLE STUDENT DEMONSTRATION

SPEECHES

Demonstration Speech by Heather Pederson: “How to Make Kimbap”

Watch this video online: https://youtu.be/PY4rqJnnFy0

Demonstration Speech by Joanne Eller: “Chocolate covered strawberries with Grand Marnier”

Watch this video online: https://youtu.be/qmly4i3sFS8

Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
• Public Speaking. Authored by
by: Christie Fierro and Brent Adrian. Provided by
by: Lumen Learning. Located at
at: http://lumenlearning.com/. Project License: CC BY: Attribution
Project: Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License

CC licensed content, Shared previously

• How to Make Kimbap. Authored by
by: Jasmine Pedersen. Located at License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PY4rqJnnFy0. License

All rights reserved content

• Chocolate covered strawberries with Grand Marnier. Authored by
by: Joanne Moore. Located at License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms
at: http://youtu.be/qmly4i3sFS8. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

THOU SHALT NOT COMMIT LOGICAL FALLACIES

POSTER

Here’s a helpful poster that reviews many of the most common Logical Fallacies.

https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/oerfiles/Public+Speaking/FallaciesPoster24x36.pdf
Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
• Public Speaking. Authored by
by: Christie Fierro and Brent Adrian. Provided by
by: Lumen Learning. Located at
at: http://lumenlearning.com/. Project License: CC BY: Attribution
Project: Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License

CC licensed content, Shared previously

• Thou Shalt Not Commit Logical Fallacies. Authored by
by: Jesse Richardson. Located at License: CC BY-ND: Attribution-NoDerivatives
at: https://yourlogicalfallacyis.com/pdf/FallaciesPoster24x36.pdf. License

167
 OBJECTIVES, OUTLINE, AND INTRODUCTION

Chapter 6: Critical Thinking & Reasoning

By Terri Russ, J.D., Ph.D.
Saint Mary’s College, Notre Dame, IN

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Understand and explain the importance of critical thinking
• Identify the core skills associated with critical thinking
• Demonstrate the difference between deductive and inductive reasoning
• Construct a logically sound and well-reasoned argument
• Avoid the various fallacies that can arise through the misuse of logic
• Apply chapter concepts in final questions and activities

Chapter Outline
• Introduction
• Critical Thinking
◦ Critical Thinking Defined
◦ Critical Thinking Traits and Skills
◦ The Value of Critical Thinking
• Logic and the Role of Arguments
◦ Defining Arguments
◦ Defining Deduction
◦ Defining Induction
• Understanding Fallacies
• Formal Fallacies
◦ Bad Reasons Fallacy
◦ Masked Man Fallacy
◦ Fallacy of Quantitative Logic
• Informal Fallacies
◦ Accident Fallacy
◦ Ad Hominem
◦ Fallacy of Ambiguity
◦ Fallacies of Appeal
◦ Begging the Question
◦ Black and White Fallacy
◦ Fallacy of Composition
◦ Fallacy of Division
◦ Non causa, pro causa Fallacy
◦ Red Herring Fallacy
◦ Slippery Slope Fallacy
◦ Weak Analogy Fallacy
• Conclusion
• Review Questions and Activities
• Glossary
• References

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Introduction
As we meander through our daily routines, we are
surrounded by numerous messages and people trying to
get our attention and convince us to do something. We
sign into our e-mail accounts and are bombarded with
sales pitches to help us get rich quick or promise to fix all
of our embarrassing physical problems. We drive to school
and see billboards touting tantalizing restaurants or
pitching local political candidates. We converse with our
friends and family about current events like the crazy car
thief who tried to avoid the police by driving down train
tracks right into an oncoming train. Throughout all of these
exchanges, we must constantly strive to make sense of the
messages and determine which are true and which are not
true, which are probably and which are improbable, which
are intended and which are unintended. When we do this
we practice critical thinking
thinking. We evaluate the arguments
presented and determine if their logic is sound or if they
rely on fallacies to build their case. In this chapter you will
learn how to use critical thinking in all areas of your life,
including preparing and presenting speeches. You will also
learn how to construct a logical argument that avoids the
pitfalls of fallacious thinking. “Filos segundo logo” by Filosofias filosoficas. CC-BY.
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CRITICAL THINKING

We are approaching a new age of synthesis. Knowledge cannot be merely a degree or a skill…it
demands a broader vision, capabilities in critical thinking and logical deduction, without which we
cannot have constructive progress. – Li Ka Shing

Critical thinking has been defined in numerous ways. At its most basic, we can think of critical thinking as active
thinking in which we evaluate and analyze information in order to determine the best course of action. We will look
at more expansive definitions of critical thinking and its components in the following pages.

Before we get there, though, let’s consider a hypothetical example of critical thinking in action.

Shonda was researching information for her upcoming persuasive speech. Her goal with the speech was to
persuade her classmates to drink a glass of red wine every day. Her argument revolved around the health
benefits one can derive from the antioxidants found in red wine. Shonda found an article reporting the results
of a study conducted by a Dr. Gray. According to Dr. Gray’s study, drinking four or more glasses of wine a
day will help reduce the chances of heart attack, increase levels of good cholesterol, and help in reducing
unwanted fat. Without conducting further research, Shonda changed her speech to persuade her classmates
to drink four or more glasses of red wine per day. She used Dr. Gray’s study as her primary support. Shonda
presented her speech in class to waves of applause and support from her classmates. She was shocked
when, a few weeks later, she received a grade of “D”. Shonda’s teacher had also found Dr. Gray’s study and
learned it was sponsored by a multi-national distributor of wine. In fact, the study in question was published
in a trade journal targeted to wine and alcohol retailers. If Shonda had taken a few extra minutes to critically
examine the study, she may have been able to avoid the dreaded “D.”

169
Shonda’s story is just one of many ways that critical thinking impacts our lives. Throughout this chapter we will
consider the importance of critical thinking in all areas of communication, especially public speaking. We will first
take a more in-depth look at what critical thinking is—and isn’t.

Before we get too far into the specifics of what critical thinking is and how we can do it, it’s important to clear up a
common misconception. Even though the phrase critical thinking uses the word “critical,” it is not a negative thing.
Being critical is not the same thing as criticizing. When we criticize something, we point out the flaws and errors in
it, exercising a negative value judgment on it. Our goal with criticizing is less about understanding than about
negatively evaluating. It’s important to remember that critical thinking is not just criticizing. While the process may
involve examining flaws and errors, it is much more.

Critical Thinking Defined

Just what is critical thinking then? To help us understand, let’s consider a common
definition of critical thinking. The philosopher John Dewey, often considered the
father of modern day critical thinking, defines critical thinking as:

“Active, persistent, careful consideration of a belief or supposed form of

knowledge in light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to
which it tends.” ( (Note: Dewey, J. (1933). Experience and education. New
York: Macmillan, 1933.))

The first key component of Dewey’s definition is that critical thinking is active. Critical
thinking must be done by choice. As we continue to delve deeper into the various
facets of critical thinking, we will learn how to engage as critical thinkers.

Probably one of the most concise and easiest to understand definitions is that
offered by Barry Beyer: “Critical thinking… means making reasoned judgments.” ( “John Dewey” by Eva
(Note: Beyer, B. K. (1995) Critical thinking. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Watson-Schütze. Public
Educational Foundation.)) In other words, we don’t just jump to a conclusion or a domain.
judgment. We rationalize and justify our conclusions. A second primary component
of critical thinking, then, involves questioning. As critical thinkers, we need to question everything that confronts
us. Equally important, we need to question ourselves and ask how our own biases or assumptions influence how
we judge something.

In the following sections we will explore how to do critical thinking more in depth. As you read through this
material, reflect back on Dewey’s and Beyer’s definitions of critical thinking.
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LOGIC AND THE ROLE OF ARGUMENTS

Critical thinkers tend to exhibit certain traits that are common to them. These traits are summarized in Table 6.1: (
(Note: Adapted from Facione, P. A. (1990). Critical Thinking: A Statement of Expert Consensus for Purposes of
Educational Assessment and Instruction, The Delphi Report (Executive Summary). Millbrae, CA: California
Academic Press.))

170
 Table 6.1 Traits of Critical Thinkers

Critical thinkers are open and receptive to all ideas and arguments, even those with which they
may disagree. Critical thinkers reserve judgment on a message until they have examined the
Open- claims, logic, reasoning, and evidence used. Critical thinkers are fair-minded and understand
mindedness that a message is not inherently wrong or flawed if it differs from their own thoughts. Critical
thinkers remain open to the possibility of changing their view on an issue when logic and
evidence supports doing so.

Critical thinkers are interested in understanding what is happening in a message. Critical

Analytic
thinkers ask questions of the message, breaking it into its individual components and examining
Nature
each in turn. Critical thinkers dissect these components looking for sound logic and reasoning.

Systematic Critical thinkers avoid jumping to conclusions. Critical thinkers take the time to systematically
by Method examine a message. Critical thinkers apply accepted criteria or conditions to their analyses.

Critical thinkers are curious by nature. Critical thinkers ask questions of what is going on around
Inquisitive
them and in a message. Critical thinkers want to know more and take action to learn more.

Critical thinkers are prudent in acting and making judgments. Critical thinkers are sensible in
Judicious their actions. That is, they don’t just jump on the bandwagon of common thought because it
looks good or everyone else is doing it.

Truth-
Critical thinkers exercise an ethical foundation based in searching for the truth. Critical thinkers
Seeking
understand that even the wisest people may be wrong at times.
Ethos

Critical thinkers have faith in the power of logic and sound reasoning. Critical thinkers
Confident in
understand that it is in everyone’s best interest to encourage and develop sound logic. More
Reasoning
importantly, critical thinkers value the power of letting others draw their own conclusions.

Recall that critical thinking is an active mode of thinking. Instead of just receiving messages and accepting them
as is, we consider what they are saying. We ask if messages are well-supported. We determine if their logic is
sound or slightly flawed. In other words, we act on the messages before we take action based on them. When we
enact critical thinking on a message, we engage a variety of skills including: listening, analysis, evaluation,
inference and interpretation or explanation, and self-regulation ( (Note: Adapted from Facione, P. A. (1990).))

Next, we will examine each of these skills and their role in

critical thinking in greater detail. As you read through the
explanation of and examples for each skill, think about how
it works in conjunction with the others. It’s important to
note that while our discussion of the skills is presented in a
linear manner, in practice our use of each skill is not so
straightforward. We may exercise different skills
simultaneously or jump forward and backward.

Without an open-minded mind, you can never be a

great success. – Martha Stewart

Listening
“Martha Stewart” by nrkbeta. CC-BY-SA.

In order to understand listening, we must first understand the difference between listening and hearing. At its
most basic, hearing refers to the physiological process of receiving sounds, while listening refers to
the psychological process of interpreting or making sense of those sounds.

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Every minute of every day we are surrounded by hundreds of different noises and sounds. If we were to try to
make sense of each different sound we would probably spend our day just doing this. While we may hear all of
the noises, we filter out many of them. They pass through our lives without further notice. Certain noises,
however, jump to the forefront of our consciousness. As we listen to them, we make sense of these sounds. We
do this every day without necessarily thinking about the process. Like many other bodily functions, it happens
without our willing it to happen.

Critical thinking requires that we consciously listen to messages. We must focus on what is being said – and not
said. We must strive not to be distracted by other outside noises or the internal noise of our own preconceived
ideas. For the moment we only need to take in the message.

Listening becomes especially difficult when the message contains highly charged information. Think about what
happens when you try to discuss a controversial issue such as abortion. As the other person speaks, you may
have every good intention of listening to the entire argument.

However, when the person says something you feel strongly about you start formulating a counter-argument in
your head. The end result is that both sides end up talking past each other without ever really listening to what the
other says.

Analysis
Once we have listened to a message, we can begin to analyze it. In practice we often begin analyzing messages
while still listening to them. When we analyze something, we consider it in greater detail, separating out the main
components of the message. In a sense, we are acting like a surgeon on the message, carving out all of the
different elements and laying them out for further consideration and possible action.

Let’s return to Shonda’s persuasive speech to see analysis in action. As part of the needs section of her speech,
Shonda makes the following remarks:

Americans today are some of the unhealthiest people on Earth. It seems like not a week goes by without
some news story relating how we are the fattest country in the world. In addition to being overweight, we
suffer from a number of other health problems. When I was conducting research for my speech, I read
somewhere that heart attacks are the number one killer of men and the number two killer of women. Think
about that. My uncle had a heart attack and had to be rushed to the hospital. They hooked him up to a bunch
of different machines to keep him alive. We all thought he was going to die. He’s ok now, but he has to take
a bunch of pills every day and eat a special diet. Plus he had to pay thousands of dollars in medical bills.
Wouldn’t you like to know how to prevent this from happening to you?

If we were to analyze this part of Shonda’s speech (see Table 6.2), we could begin by looking at the claims she
makes. We could then look at the evidence she presents in support of these claims. Having parsed out the
various elements, we are then ready to evaluate them and by extension the message as a whole.

Evaluation
When we evaluate something we continue the process of analysis by assessing the various claims and
arguments for validity. One way we evaluate a message is to ask questions about what is being said and who is
saying it. The following is a list of typical questions we may ask, along with an evaluation of the ideas in Shonda’s
speech.

Is the speaker credible?

Yes. While Shonda may not be an expert per se on the issue of health benefits related to wine, she has made
herself a mini-expert through conducting research.

172
Does the statement ring true or false based on common sense?
It sounds kind of fishy. Four or more glasses of wine in one sitting doesn’t seem right. In fact, it seems like it might
be bordering on binge drinking.

Does the logic employed hold up to scrutiny?

Based on the little bit of Shonda’s speech we see here, her logic does seem to be sound. As we will see later on,
she actually commits a few fallacies.

What questions or objections are raised by the message?

In addition to the possibility of Shonda’s proposal being binge drinking, it also raises the possibility of creating
alcoholism or causing other long term health problems.

How will further information affect the message?

More information will probably contradict her claims. In fact, most medical research in this area contradicts the
claim that drinking 4 or more glasses of wine a day is a good thing.

Will further information strengthen or weaken the claims?

Most likely Shonda’s claims will be weakened.

What questions or objections are raised by the claims?

In addition to the objections we’ve already discussed, there is also the problem of the credibility of Shonda’s
expert “doctor.”

Table 6.2 Analysis of Shonda’s Speech

Claims Evidence

• Americans are unhealthy

• American is the fattest country
• Americans suffer from many health • Some news stories about America as the fattest
problems country
• Heart attacks are the number one killer of • Research about heart attacks
men • Story of her uncle’s heart attack
• Heart attacks are the number-two killer of
women

A wise man proportions his belief to the evidence. – David Hume

173
Inference and Interpretation or Explanation

“Imply” or “Infer”?
For two relatively small words, imply and infer seem to generate an inordinately large amount of confusion.
Understanding the difference between the two and knowing when to use the right one is not only a useful skill, but
it also makes you sound a lot smarter!

Let’s begin with imply. Imply means to suggest or convey an idea. A speaker or a piece of writing implies things.
For example, in Shonda’s speech, she implies it is better to drink more red wine. In other words, she never
directly says that we need to drink more red wine, but she clearly hints at it when she suggests that drinking four
or more glasses a day will provide us with health benefits.

Now let’s consider infer. Infer means that something in a speaker’s words or a piece of writing helps us to draw a
conclusion outside of his/her words. We infer a conclusion. Returning to Shonda’s speech, we can infer she would
want us to drink more red wine rather than less. She never comes right out and says this. However, by
considering her overall message, we can draw this conclusion.

Another way to think of the difference between imply and infer is: A speaker (or writer for that matter) implies. The
audience infers.

Therefore, it would be incorrect to say that Shonda infers we should drink more rather than less wine. She implies
this. To help you differentiate between the two, remember that an inference is something that comes from outside
the spoken or written text.

The next step in critically examining a message is to interpret or explain the conclusions that we draw from it. At
this phase we consider the evidence and the claims together. In effect we are reassembling the components that
we parsed out during analysis. We are continuing our evaluation by looking at the evidence, alternatives, and
possible conclusions.

Before we draw any inferences or attempt any explanations, we should look at the evidence provided. When we
consider evidence we must first determine what, if any, kind of support is provided. Of the evidence we then ask:
1. Is the evidence sound?
2. Does the evidence say what thespeaker says it does?
3. Does contradictory evidenceexist?
4. Is the evidence from a validcredible source?

Even though these are set up as yes or no questions, you’ll probably find in practice
that your answers are a bit more complex. For example, let’s say you’re writing a
speech on why we should wear our seatbelts at all times while driving. You’ve
researched the topic and found solid, credible information setting forth the numerous
reasons why wearing a seatbelt can help save your life and decrease the number of
injuries experienced during a motor vehicle accident. Certainly, there exists
contradictory evidence arguing seat belts can cause more injuries. For example, if
you’re in an accident where your car is partially submerged in water, wearing a
seatbelt may impede your ability to quickly exit the vehicle. Does the fact that this
evidence exists negate your claims? Probably not, but you need to be thorough in
evaluating and considering how you use your evidence.

A man who does not think for himself does not think at all. – Oscar Wilde
Seatbelt by M.Minderhoud,
CC-BY-SA.
Self-Regulation
The final step in critically examining a message is actually a skill we should exercise throughout the entire
process. With self-regulation, we consider our pre-existing thoughts on the subject and any biases we may have.
We examine how what we think on an issue may have influenced the way we understand (or think we
understand) the message and any conclusions we have drawn. Just as contradictory evidence doesn’t

174
automatically negate our claims or invalidate our arguments, our biases don’t necessarily make our conclusions
wrong. The goal of practicing self-regulation is not to disavow or deny our opinions. The goal is to create distance
between our opinions and the messages we evaluate.

The Value of Critical Thinking

In public speaking, the value of being a critical thinker cannot be overstressed. Critical thinking helps us to
determine the truth or validity of arguments. However, it also helps us to formulate strong arguments for our
speeches. Exercising critical thinking at all steps of the speech writing and delivering process can help us avoid
situations like Shonda found herself in. Critical thinking is not a magical panacea that will make us super
speakers. However, it is another tool that we can add to our speech toolbox.

When the mind is thinking, it is talking to itself. – Plato

As we will learn in the following pages, we construct arguments based on logic. Understanding the ways logic can
be used and possibly misused is a vital skill. To help stress the importance of it, the Foundation for Critical
Thinking has set forth universal standards of reasoning. These standards can be found in Table 6.3.

Table 6.3

Universal Standards of Reasoning

All reasoning has a purpose.

All reasoning is an attempt to figure something out, to settle some question, to solve some problem.

All reasoning is based on assumptions.

All reasoning is done from some point of view.

All reasoning is based on data, information, and evidence.

All reasoning is expressed through, and shaped by, concepts and ideas.

All reasoning contains inferences or interpretations by which we draw conclusions and give meaning to data.

All reasoning leads somewhere or has implications and consequences.

Logic and the Role of Arguments

We use logic every day. Even if we have never formally
studied logical reasoning and fallacies, we can often tell
when a person’s statement doesn’t sound right. Think
about the claims we see in many advertisements
today—Buy product X, and you will be beautiful/thin/happy
or have the carefree life depicted in the advertisement.
With very little critical thought, we know intuitively that
simply buying a product will not magically change our lives.
Even if we can’t identify the specific fallacy at work in the
argument (non causa in this case), we know there is some
flaw in the argument. “Sharia Law Billboard” by Matt57. Public domain.

By studying logic and fallacies we can learn to formulate stronger and more cohesive arguments, avoiding
problems like that mentioned above. The study of logic has a long history. We can trace the roots of modern
logical study back to Aristotle in ancient Greece. Aristotle’s simple definition of logic as the means by which we
come to know anything still provides a concise understanding of logic. ( (Note: Aristotle. (1989). Prior Analytics

175
(Trans. Robin Smith). Cambridge, MA: Hackett Publishing.)) Of the classical pillars of a core liberal arts education
of logic, grammar, and rhetoric, logic has developed as a fairly independent branch of philosophical studies. We
use logic everyday when we construct statements, argue our point of view, and in myriad other ways.
Understanding how logic is used will help us communicate more efficiently and effectively.

Defining Arguments
When we think and speak logically, we pull together statements that combine reasoning with evidence to support
an assertion, arguments. A logical argument should not be confused with the type of argument you have with your
sister or brother or any other person. When you argue with your sibling, you participate in a conflict in which you
disagree about something. You may, however, use a logical argument in the midst of the argument with your
sibling. Consider this example:

Brother and sister, Sydney and Harrison are arguing about whose turn it is to
clean their bathroom. Harrison tells Sydney she should do it because she is a
girl and girls are better at cleaning. Sydney responds that being a girl has
nothing to do with whose turn it is. She reminds Harrison that according to their
work chart, they are responsible for cleaning the bathroom on alternate weeks.
She tells him she cleaned the bathroom last week; therefore, it is his turn this
week. Harrison, still unconvinced, refuses to take responsibility for the chore.
Sydney then points to the work chart and shows him where it specifically says it
is his turn this week. Defeated, Harrison digs out the cleaning supplies.

Throughout their bathroom argument, both Harrison and Sydney use logical
arguments to advance their point. You may ask why Sydney is successful and
Harrison is not. This is a good question. Let’s critically think about each of their
arguments to see why one fails and one succeeds. “Man and Woman Arguing”
by mzacha. morgueFile.
Let’s start with Harrison’s argument. We can summarize it into three points:
1. Girls are better at cleaning bathrooms than boys.
2. Sydney is a girl.
3. Therefore, Sydney should clean the bathroom.

Harrison’s argument here is a form of deductive reasoning, specifically a syllogism. We will consider syllogisms in
a few minutes. For our purposes here, let’s just focus on why Harrison’s argument fails to persuade Sydney.
Assuming for the moment that we agree with Harrison’s first two premises, then it would seem that his argument
makes sense. We know that Sydney is a girl, so the second premise is true. This leaves the first premise that girls
are better at cleaning bathrooms than boys. This is the exact point where Harrison’s argument goes astray. The
only way his entire argument will work is if we agree with the assumption girls are better at cleaning bathrooms
than boys.

Let’s now look at Sydney’s argument and why it works. Her argument can be summarized as follows:
1. The bathroom responsibilities alternate weekly according to the work chart.
2. Sydney cleaned the bathroom last week.
3. The chart indicates it is Harrison’s turn to clean the bathroom this week.
4. Therefore, Harrison should clean the bathroom.

176
Sydney’s argument here is a form of inductive reasoning. We will look at inductive
reasoning in depth below. For now, let’s look at why Sydney’s argument succeeds
where Harrison’s fails. Unlike Harrison’s argument, which rests on assumption for
its truth claims, Sydney’s argument rests on evidence. We can define evidence as
anything used to support the validity of an assertion. Evidence includes: testimony,
scientific findings, statistics, physical objects, and many others. Sydney uses two
primary pieces of evidence: the work chart and her statement that she cleaned the
bathroom last week. Because Harrison has no contradictory evidence, he can’t
logically refute Sydney’s assertion and is therefore stuck with scrubbing the toilet.

Defining Deduction
Deductive reasoning refers to an argument in which the truth of its premises
guarantees the truth of its conclusions. Think back to Harrison’s argument for “Decorative toilet seat” by
Sydney cleaning the bathroom. In order for his final claim to be valid, we must Bartux~commonswikiv. Public
accept the truth of his claims that girls are better at cleaning bathrooms than boys. domain.
The key focus in deductive arguments is that it must be impossible for the premises
to be true and the conclusion to be false. The classic example is:

All men are mortal.

Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

We can look at each of these statements individually and see each is true in its own right. It is virtually impossible
for the first two propositions to be true and the conclusion to be false. Any argument which fails to meet this
standard commits a logical error or fallacy. Even if we might accept the arguments as good and the conclusion as
possible, the argument fails as a form of deductive reasoning.

A few observations and much reasoning lead to error; many observations and a little reasoning to truth.
– Alexis Carrel

Another way to think of deductive reasoning is to think of it as moving from a general premise to a specific
premise. The basic line of reasoning looks like this:

177
 “Deductive Reasoning” CC-BY-NC-ND.

This form of deductive reasoning is called a syllogism. A syllogism need not have only three components to its
argument, but it must have at least three. We have Aristotle to thank for identifying the syllogism and making the
study of logic much easier. The focus on syllogisms dominated the field of philosophy for thousands of years. In
fact, it wasn’t until the early nineteenth century that we began to see the discussion of other types of logic and
other forms of logical reasoning.

Logic: the art of thinking and reasoning in strict accordance with the limitations and incapacities of the
human misunderstanding. – Ambrose Bierce

It is easy to fall prey to missteps in reasoning when we focus on syllogisms and deductive reasoning. Let’s return
to Harrison’s argument and see what happens.

178
 “Applied Deductive Reasoning” CC-BY-NC-ND.

Considered in this manner, it should be clear how the strength of the conclusion depends upon us accepting as
true the first two statements. This need for truth sets up deductive reasoning as a very rigid form of reasoning. If
either one of the first two premises isn’t true, then the entire argument fails.

Let’s turn to recent world events for another example.

179
 “US Invasion Deductive Reasoning Example” CC-BY-NC-ND.

In the debates over whether the United States should take military action in Iraq, this was the basic line of
reasoning used to justify an invasion. This logic was sufficient for the United States to invade Iraq; however, as
we have since learned, this line of reasoning also shows how quickly logic can go bad. We subsequently learned
that the “experts” weren’t quite so confident, and their “evidence” wasn’t quite as concrete as originally
represented.

Defining Induction
Inductive reasoning is often though of as the opposite of deductive reasoning; however, this approach is not
wholly accurate. Inductive reasoning does move from the specific to the general. However, this fact alone does
not make it the opposite of deductive reasoning. An argument which fails in its deductive reasoning may still stand
inductively.

Unlike deductive reasoning, there is no standard format inductive arguments must take, making them more
flexible. We can define an inductive argument as one in which the truth of its propositions lends support to the
conclusion. The difference here in deduction is the truth of the propositions establishes with absolute certainty the
truth of the conclusion. When we analyze an inductive argument, we do not focus on the truth of its premises.
Instead we analyze inductive arguments for their strength or soundness.

180
 “Inductive Reasoning Model” CC-BY-NC-ND.

Another significant difference between deduction and induction is inductive arguments do not have a standard
format. Let’s return to Sydney’s argument to see how induction develops in action:
1. Bathroom cleaning responsibilities alternate weekly according to the work chart.
2. Sydney cleaned the bathroom last week.
3. The chart indicates it is Harrison’s turn to clean the bathroom this week.
4. Therefore, Harrison should clean the bathroom.

What Sydney does here is build to her conclusion that Harrison should clean the bathroom. She begins by stating
the general house rule of alternate weeks for cleaning. She then adds in evidence before concluding her
argument. While her argument is strong, we don’t know if it is true. There could be other factors Sydney has left
out. Sydney may have agreed to take Harrison’s week of bathroom cleaning in exchange for him doing another
one of her chores. Or there may be some extenuating circumstances preventing Harrison from bathroom cleaning
this week.

You should carefully study the Art of Reasoning, as it is what most people are very deficient in, and I
know few things more disagreeable than to argue, or even converse with a man who has no idea of
inductive and deductive philosophy. – William John Wills

Let’s return to the world stage for another example. After the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center, we heard
variations of the following arguments:
1. The terrorists were Muslim (or Arab or Middle Eastern)
2. The terrorists hated America.
3. Therefore, all Muslims (or Arabs or Middle Easterners) hate America.

181
Clearly, we can see the problem in this line of reasoning.
Beyond being a scary example of hyperbolic rhetoric, we
can all probably think of at least one counter example to
disprove the conclusion. However, individual passions and
biases caused many otherwise rational people to say
these things in the weeks following the attacks. This
example also clearly illustrates how easy it is to get tripped
up in your use of logic and the importance of practicing
self-regulation.

“1993 Word Trade Center bombing” by Bureau of ATF 1993

Explosives Incident Report. Public domain.
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UNDERSTANDING FALLACIES

When we form arguments or examine others’ arguments, we need to be cognizant of possible fallacies. A fallacy
can be defined as a flaw or error in reasoning. At its most basic, a logical fallacy refers to a defect in the
reasoning of an argument that causes the conclusion(s) to be invalid, unsound, or weak. The existence of a
fallacy in a deductive argument makes the entire argument invalid. The existence of a fallacy in an inductive
argument weakens the argument but does not invalidate it.

It is important to study fallacies so you can avoid them in the arguments

you make. Studying fallacies also provides you with a foundation for
evaluating and critiquing other arguments as well. Once you start studying
and thinking about fallacies, you’ll find they are everywhere. You could say
that we live in a fallacious world!

The study of fallacies can be dated back to the start of the study of logic.
In ancient Greece, Aristotle classified fallacies into two
categories—linguistic and non-linguistic. Within these two categories, he
identified 13 individual fallacies. Through time we have reclassified
fallacies using various typologies and criteria. For our purposes, we will
focus on formal and informal fallacies.

“Exclamation in a circle” by Orikrin1998.

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182
 FORMAL FALLACIES

A formal fallacy exists because of an error in the structure of the argument. In other words, the conclusion doesn’t
follow from the premises. All formal fallacies are specific types of non sequiturs, or arguments in which the
conclusions do not follow from the premises. Formal fallacies are identified by critically examining the structure of
the argument exclusive of the individual statements. As you read through the following types of formal fallacies
and examples, this definition will become more clear.

Bad Reasons Fallacy (Argumentum ad Logicam)

In this fallacy, the conclusion is assumed to be bad because the arguments are bad. In practice, a premise of the
argument is bad and therefore the conclusion is bad or invalid. This fallacy is seen often in debate or
argumentation. We summarize the fallacy as: He gave bad reasons for his argument; therefore, his argument is
bad. Consider the following claim:

The new employee is too quiet and has no sense of style. We should fire him.

The problem here should be obvious. To be a good employee does not

require a certain look or the ability to put together interesting outfits. (Just
look around your campus or workplace and you’ll probably see how true
this is.) As such, the reasons for concluding the new faculty member
should be fired are bad. We commit a fallacy if the conclusion to fire him
is also bad or wrong. While the given reasons don’t necessarily support
the conclusion, there may be others that do.

Bad reasoning as well as good reasoning is possible; and this fact is

the foundation of the practical side of logic. – Charles Sanders
“Bow Tie” by ambimb. CC-BY-NC-SA.
Peirce

Masked Man Fallacy (Intentional Fallacy)

The masked man fallacy involves a substitution of parties. If the two things we substitute are identical, then the
argument is valid:

Rosamond Smith wrote the book Nemesis.

Rosamond Smith is an alias for Joyce Carol Oates.

Joyce Carol Oates wrote the book Nemesis.

This argument is valid because Rosamond Smith is in fact an alias for Joyce Carol Oates, so there is no flaw in
the structure of the argument.

Consider the following example:

Chris told police that a red-haired woman stole her car. Ginny is a red-haired woman. Therefore, Chris told
police that Ginny stole her car.

183
The fallacy in this example occurs between the second premise and the conclusion.
Looking at each premise individually, we can see that each is true. However, simply
because each premise is true doesn’t mean the conclusion is necessarily true. Even if
Ginny did steal Chris’s car, this fact doesn’t make the conclusion true. The existence of
this fact cannot be presumed to change what Chris told the police.

Fallacy of Quantitative Logic

Fallacies of quantitative logic revolve around the grammatical structure of the proposition.
The focus is on the use of some sort of quantifying word such as “all” or “some.” Consider
this example: “Callan” by Kristy
Davies. CC-BY-NC.
All philosophers are wise.

We can show the flaw in this statement by simply finding a counter-example. And since the fact of being wise is
abstract, how do we truly know if one is wise or not? Consider how the statement changes with the use of a
different quantifier:

Some philosophers are wise.

This statement is stronger because it allows for the possibility there are counter-examples. However, the error
arises from the fact that it is not a known quantity. We must infer from the statement that some philosophers are
not wise.

Let’s look at another example:

All conservatives are Republicans.

Therefore, all Republicans are conservatives.

Without thinking too hard you can probably think of one counter-example. Let’s try one more:

Some doctors are not MDs. Therefore, some MDs are not doctors.

While the first premise is true (there are other types of doctors), the second is clearly not true.

“…oops?” by jasmeet. CC-BY-NC-ND.

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184
 INFORMAL FALLACIES

An informal fallacy occurs because of an error in reasoning. Unlike formal fallacies which are identified through
examining the structure of the argument, informal fallacies are identified through analysis of the content of the
premises. In this group of fallacies, the premises fail to provide adequate reasons for believing the truth of the
conclusion. There are numerous different types of informal fallacies. In the following, we consider some of the
more common types.

accident (sweeping generalization)

A fallacy by accident occurs when a generally true statement is applied to a specific case that is somehow
unusual or exceptional. The fallacy looks like this:

Xs are normally Ys. Z is an (ab- normal) X. Therefore, Z is an Y.

Let’s look at a specific example to see how this fallacy can easily occur:

Dogs are good pets.

Coyotes are dogs.
Therefore, coyotes are good pets.

The fallacy here should be clear. I love dogs and coyotes, but I don’t know that I would
want a coyote for a pet. The fallacy in this case could be easily fixed with the use of a
simple qualifier such as the word “some.” If we changed the first premise to read “Some
dogs make good pets,” then we can see how even if the second premise is true it
doesn’t automatically lead to the stated conclusion. The basic problem here is that a
sometimes true statement is assumed to be universally true.

I do personal attacks only on people who specialize in personal attacks. – Al

Franken

genetic fallacy (ad hominem)

If we examine this exchange we can see that Bill’s arguments are sound and supported by what appears to be
good evidence. However, Jane ignores these and focuses on Bill’s supposed character – he’s a big jerk. The
fallacy happens when we connect the truth of a proposition to the person asserting it.

The ad hominem fallacy occurs when we shift our focus from the premises and conclusions of the argument and
focus instead on the individual making the argument. An easy way to remember this fallacy is to think of it as the
personal attack fallacy. It is the weak form of arguing that many of us employed on our elementary school
playgrounds such as this exchange:

Bill: I think we should go back to class now.

Jane: I don’t think we need to worry about it.

Bill: Well, the bell rang a few minutes ago. We’re going to be late.

Jane: Well, you’re a big jerk and don’t know anything, so we don’t have to go back to class.

If we examine this exchange we can see that Bill’s arguments are sound and supported by what appears to be
good evidence. However, Jane ignores these and focuses on Bill’s supposed character – he’s a big jerk. The
fallacy happens when we connect the truth of a proposition to the person asserting it.

185
Let’s consider a more serious example that we see in many political campaigns. We can map out the fallacy as
follows:

My opponent has trait X. Therefore, she is not qualified to do the job.

The focus here is on the individual’s trait, even when the trait in question has nothing to do with the job. We saw
this fallacy in play in the early days of the 2012 U.S. presidential campaign:

We will never get out of debt if we allow a Democrat to remain as president.

The focus here has nothing to do with any individual candidate’s skills, experience, or abilities. The focus is solely
on their political affiliation.

There is no greater impediment to the advancement of knowledge than the ambiguity of words. –
Thomas Reid

ambiguity (equivocation)
Fallacies caused by ambiguity occur, not surprisingly, when some ambiguous term is used in the argument. An
ambiguous term is one that has more than one meaning. The structure of the argument may be clear, and there
may be solid evidence supporting the propositions. The problem arises from having nothing solid on which to
base our conclusion. We saw this fallacy in play during the Clinton/Lewinsky investigations. If you recall, when
questioned about his relationship with Monica Lewinsky, President Clinton responded that he never had “sexual
relations” with that woman. The phrase “sexual relations” can include a whole range of sexual behaviors.

Let’s look at a more recent example:

We won’t be safe until we win the war on terrorism.

Can you spot the ambiguity? Actually there are two: safe and
terrorism. What is safe to one person is much less so to another.
Likewise, behaviors that appear terrorist-like to one person are
simply impassioned acts to another.

An appeal to the reason of the people has never been known

to fail in the long run. – James Russell Lowell

fallacies of appeal
This type of fallacy is actually a group of fallacies. At its most basic, the truth of the argument rests on reference
to some outside source or force. We will consider four of the most popular appeal fallacies – appeals to authority,
emotion, ignorance, and pity.

appeal to authority (ad vericundiam)

When we appeal to authority we claim the truth of a proposition is guaranteed because of the opinion of a famous
person. Appeals to authority look like this:

Authority figure X says Y. Therefore, Y is true.

186
We see this fallacy in play regularly in commercials or other
advertisements featuring a doctor, lawyer, or other
professional. Think about, for example, ads for the latest
weight loss supplement. A doctor will discuss the science of
the supplement. At times she will mention that she used the
supplement and successfully lost weight. Even though we
do learn something about the specifics of the supplement,
the focus is on the doctor and her implied authoritative
knowledge. We are to infer that the supplement will work
because the doctor says it will work.

The fallacy in this type of reasoning occurs when we

confuse the truth of the proposition with the person stating it.
Instead of considering the strength of the argument and any
evidence associated with it, we focus solely on the
individual.

It can be easy to fall into the trap of this fallacy. For many of your speeches, you will be asked to research the
issue at hand and present supporting evidence. This is a prime place for the fallacy to occur. While it is important
to support your arguments with outside research, it is also important to critically evaluate all aspects of the
information. Remember the example of Shonda’s speech that opened this chapter? Her blind reliance on the
research of Dr. Gray is an example of the appeal to authority fallacy.

Anyone who conducts an argument by appealing to authority is not using his intelligence; he is just
using his memory. – Leonardo da Vinci

appeal to emotion
This fallacy occurs with the use of highly emotive or charged language. The force of the fallacy lies in its ability to
motivate the audience to accept the truth of the proposition based solely on their visceral response to the words
used. In a sense, the audience is manipulated or forced into accepting the truth of the stated conclusions.
Consider the following example:

Any campus member who thinks clearly should agree that Dr. Lenick is a flaming, radical, feminist, liberal.
Dr. Lenick has made it clear she believes that equal rights should be granted to everyone without regard to
the traditions and history of this campus or this country. Therefore, Dr. Lenick is a bad teacher and should be
fired immediately.

The thrust of this argument revolves around two interrelated components – Dr. Lenick’s advocacy of equal rights
for all and her alleged disregard for tradition and history. The emotional appeal rests in the phrase “flaming,
radical, feminist, liberal” – words that indicate ideological beliefs, usually beliefs that are strongly held by both
sides. Additionally, hot button words like these tend to evoke a visceral response rather than a logical, reasoned
response.

The highest form of ignorance is when you reject something you don’t know anything about. – Wayne
Dyer

appeal to Ignorance (argumentum ad ignorantiam)

When we appeal to ignorance, we argue that the proposition must be accepted unless someone can prove
otherwise. The argument rests not on any evidence but on a lack of evidence. We are to believe the truth of the
argument because no one has disproven it. Let’s look at an example to see how appeals to ignorance can
develop:

People have been seeing ghosts for hundreds of years. No one has been able to prove definitively that
ghosts don’t exist. Therefore, ghosts are real.

187
Though rather simplistic, this example makes clear the thrust of this fallacy. The focus is not on supporting
evidence, but on a blatant lack of evidence. While ghosts may exist, we don’t know for sure they do – or don’t for
that matter. As such, we could also argue that because we can’t prove that ghosts are real they must not exist.

appeal to pity (argumentium ad misericordium)

Appeals to pity are another form of pulling on the emotions of the audience. In the appeal to pity, the argument
attempts to win acceptance by pointing out the unfortunate consequences that will fall upon the speaker. In effect,
the goal is to make us feel sorry for the speaker and ignore contradictory evidence. This form of fallacy is used
often by students. Consider this message a professor recently received at the end of the semester:

I know I have not done all the work for the semester and
have been absent a lot. However, I am the key point guard
for the basketball team. If I get any grade lower than a C, I
will not be able to play basketball next semester. If I don’t
play, the team will lose. Will you please make sure that you
give me at least a C for my final grade?

The student here acknowledges he does not deserve a grade of

C or higher. He has missed assignments, failed the midterm, and
accrued a number of absences. His argument asks the professor
to ignore these facts, though, and focus on the fact that without
him the team would lose. In other words, he hopes the professor
will feel sorry for him and ignore the evidence.

begging the question (petitio principii)

A begging the question fallacy is a form of circular reasoning that occurs when the conclusion of the argument is
used as one of the premises of the argument. Arguments composed in this way will only be considered sound or
strong by those who already accept their conclusion.

Dilbert: And we know mass creates gravity because more dense planets have more gravity.

Dogbert: How do we know which planets are more dense?

Dilbert: They have more gravity.

To see how begging the question develops as a fallacy, let’s turn to standard arguments in the abortion debate.
One of the common arguments made by those who oppose legalized abortion is the following:

Murder is morally wrong. Abortion is murder. Therefore, abortion is morally wrong.

Most people would agree with the first premise that murder is morally wrong. The problem, then rests in the
second premise. Not all individuals would agree that abortion is murder. However, as presented, the premise
creates a presumption it is valid in all cases.

Those who advocate for legalized abortion are not immune from this fallacy. One of their standard arguments is:

The Constitution guarantees Americans the right to control their bodies.

Abortion is a choice affecting women’s bodies.

Therefore, abortion is a constitutional right.

Like the previous example, the second premise generates a potential stopping point. While the choice to have or
not have an abortion does clearly impact a woman’s body, many individuals would argue this impact is not a
deciding issue.

188
black-or-white Fallacy (bifurcation)
This fallacy is also known as an Either/or fallacy or False Dichotomy. The thrust of the fallacy occurs when we are
only given the choice between two possible alternatives, when in fact more than two exist.
Returning to the abortion debates, we can see a form of this fallacy in
play by simply looking at the way each side refers to itself. Those who
oppose legalized abortion are Pro-Life. The implication here is that if
you are for abortion then you are against life. The fallacy in this case is
easy to figure out – there are many facets of life, not just abortion.
Those who favor legalized abortion are Pro-Choice. The implication
here is that if you are against abortion, then you are against choices.
Again, the reasoning is faulty.

There is no black-and-white situation. It’s all part of life. Highs,

lows, middles. – Van Morrison

Let’s look at another hot button topic to see how this fallacy develops in
action. In recent years many family advocacy groups have argued that,
what they call, the “liberal media” has caused the rapid moral decline of
America. They usually ask questions like: Do you support families or moral depravity? This question ignores the
whole range of choices between the two extremes.

composition
This fallacy occurs when we assume that if all the parts have a given quality, then the whole of the parts will have
it as well. We jump to a conclusion without concrete evidence. We see this fallacy at work in the following
example:

All of the basketball team’s players are fast runners, high jumpers, and winners. Therefore, the team is a
winner.

The problem here is the individuals must work together to make the team a winner. This might very well happen,
but it might not.

To make this fallacy more clear, let’s look at a humorous, though not so appetizing example:

I like smoothies for breakfast because I can drink them on the run. My favorite breakfast foods are scrambled
eggs, fresh fruit, bagels with cream cheese, soy sausage links, cottage cheese, oatmeal, cold pizza, and
triple espressos. Therefore, I would like a breakfast smoothie made of scrambled eggs, fresh fruit, bagels
with cream cheese, soy sausage links, cottage cheese, oatmeal, cold pizza, and triple espressos.

If you’re not feeling too nauseated to keep reading, you should be able to see the composition fallacy here. While
each of these breakfast items may be appetizing individually, they become much less so when dropped into a
blender and pureed together.

division
The opposite of the composition fallacy, a division fallacy occurs when we think the parts of the whole contain the
same quality as the whole. Let’s turn to another food-based example to see how this fallacy occurs:

Blueberry muffins taste good. Therefore, the individual ingredients comprising blueberry muffins also taste
good.

189
On the surface, this argument may not appear to be problematic. However, think
about the individual ingredients: blueberries, raw eggs, flour, sugar, salt, baking soda,
oil, and vanilla. Of these, blueberries are the only items that generally taste good on
their own. I don’t know about you, but sitting down to a bowl of baking soda doesn’t
sound too appetizing.

Here’s one more example to make the fallacy clearer:

Women in general make less money than men. Therefore, Brenda Barnes, CEO
of the Sara Lee company, makes less money than the male delivery drivers who
work for the company.

Common sense will tell you the CEO of a company makes more money than the hourly delivery drivers.
Additionally, a few quick minutes of research will confirm this inference.

false cause (non causa, pro causa)

Sometimes called a Questionable Cause fallacy, this occurs when there exists a flawed causal connection
between events. The fallacy is not just a bad inference about connection between cause and effect, but one that
violates the cannons of reasoning about causation. We see two primary types of this fallacy.
Accidental or coincidental connection occurs when we assume a connection where
one might or might not exist. We say event C caused event E when we have no
clear proof. Here’s an example:

Yesterday Jen went out in the rain and got soaked. The next day she was in
bed with the flu. Therefore, the rain caused her to get sick.

Most of us probably grew up hearing statements like this without ever realizing we
were being exposed to a logical fallacy in action. Flu is caused by exposure to a
virus, not to bad weather.

The other type of causal fallacy occurs with a general causation between types of
events. For example, we know that drinking excessive amounts of alcohol leads to
alcoholism and cirrhosis of the liver. However, not every individual who drinks
excessively develops either of these diseases. In other words, there is a possibility
the disease will occur as a result of excessive drinking, but it is not an absolute.

red herring (irrelevant thesis)

This fallacy occurs when we introduce an irrelevant issue into the argument. The phrase “red herring” comes from
the supposed fox hunting practice of dragging a dried smoke herring across the trail so as to throw off the hound
from the scent. In logical reasoning, the red herring fallacy works in much the same way. No, this doesn’t mean
you make the argument while smelling like an old fish. What it does mean is that we attempt to distract the
audience by introducing some irrelevant point, such as this:

Each year thousands of people die in car accident across the country. Why should we worry about
endangered animals?

This argument is trying to get us to focus on dead people instead of animals. While car accidents and the deaths
resulting from them are a serious issue, this fact does not lessen the importance of worrying about endangered
animals. The two issues are not equated with each other.

Political campaigns are a fertile ground for growing red herring fallacies. If you think back to the 2004 Presidential
campaign you will find a number of red herrings. For example, at one point we were inundated with ads reminding
us that John Kerry’s wife was heir to the Heinz ketchup fortune. The implication was that by extension John Kerry
was a rich elitist incapable of understanding the plight of working class and middle class individuals.

190
slippery slope

This fallacy occurs when we assume one action will initiate a chain of events culminating in an undesirable event
later. It makes it seem like the final event, the bottom of the slope, is an inevitability. Arguments falling prey to the
slippery slope fallacy ignore the fact there are probably a number of other things that can happen between the
initial event and the bottom of the slope.

We hear examples of the slippery slope fallacy all around us:

If we teach sex education in school, then students will have more sex. If students have more sex, we will
have a rash of unplanned pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases. Students will be forced to drop out
of school and will never have the chance to succeed in life.

Clearly, just learning about sex doesn’t automatically mean that you will engage in sex. Even more unlikely is the
fact that merely learning about sex will force you to drop out of school.

strawman
This fallacy occurs when the actual argument appears to be refuted, but in reality a related point is addressed.
The individual using a strawman argument will appear to be refuting the original point made but will actually be
arguing a point not made in the original. The best strawman arguments will argue the new point to a conclusion
that appears solid; however, because their point is not the original point, it is still a fallacy.

Examples of the strawman fallacy are everywhere and can appear to be quite persuasive:

President Obama cannot truly have American interests in mind because he’s not truly American but Muslim.

Statements similar to this were quite prevalent during the 2008 Presidential election and still appear on occasion.
The assumption here is that if a person follows Islam and identifies as Muslim they clearly can’t be American or
interested in America. While there are many potential flaws in this argument as presented, for our purpose the
most obvious is that there are many Americans who are Muslim and who are quite interested and concerned
about America.

false analogy
When we use analogies in our reasoning, we are comparing things. A fallacy of weak analogy occurs when there
exists a poor connection between examples. Structurally, the fallacy looks like this:

191
 A and B are similar.
A has characteristic X. Therefore, B has characteristic X.

This fallacy often occurs when we try to compare two things that on the
surface appear similar. For example:

Humans and animals are both living, breathing beings. Humans

have civil rights. Therefore, animals have civil rights.

The problem in this argument is that while humans and animals are
alike in their living and breathing status, there are numerous other ways
they differ. We commit a fallacy when we infer that based on this initial similarity, they are similar in all other ways
as well.

The other day while looking at houses, I heard another version of this argument from a real estate agent. The
house I was looking at was an older house needing some TLC. I asked how old the roof was and the real estate
agent responded:

I don’t know for sure, but it’s either 10 or 20 years old. You know, though, I put a roof on a house similar to
this when I was younger and we haven’t had to worry about it. It’s been over 20 years now.

Ignoring for the moment that there’s a big difference between a 10-year-old roof and a 20-year-old roof, the real
estate agent mistakenly assumes that his roof and the roof of the TLC house are the same. They both provide a
covering for the home, but that’s about where their similarities end.
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192
 CONCLUSION, REVIEW QUESTIONS, AND
ACTIVITIES

In this chapter we have examined what critical thinking is

and how it involves more than simply being critical.
Understanding critical thinking helps in formulating and
studying arguments. We see arguments every day in
advertising, use arguments to persuade others, and we
use them to benefit us. The overview of fallacies showed
not all arguments are valid or even logical. Always critically
think and examine any argument you confront, and
remember that if it sounds too good to be true, it probably
is a fallacious argument.

We practice critical thinking on a daily basis, often without

any extra effort. Now that you know a bit more about how
to do these things better, you should find that you can put
together more persuasive arguments that avoid the pitfalls
of fallacious thinking. More importantly, when you hear a “Quiet Moment” by anitapeppers. morgueFile.
statement such as, “You should drink at least four glasses
of wine per day,” you’ll know that something isn’t right. And if you do hear a statement like this, you will be
prepared to think critically about the statement, and will be in a position to make a more educated decision about
the information.

Review Questions
1. Explain the difference between critical thinking and being critical. Why should we care?
2. Explain how listening differs from hearing and why listening is the first component of practicing critical
thinking.
3. List and discuss at least three ways that we use logic and argumentation in our daily lives.
4. If I say, “There is plenty of pasta, so you should have some more,” am I implying or inferring that you
have not eaten enough?
5. What are a fallacies and why is it important that we study them?
6. Television commercials that use pictures of starving children and sad music as a way to get you to
donate money are an example of what type of fallacy?
7. Name, define, and give examples of three different fallacies you have heard recently.

Exercises
1. Throughout this chapter, we have turned to the abortion debates for examples. In order to practice
critical thinking in action, spend some time researching the major arguments each side uses.
Because the debates in this area are so complex, you might want to narrow your focus just a bit. For
example, you could focus on the issue of minors consenting to abortion or abortion in the case of
rape or other sexual assault. Compile a list of the most common arguments used by each side. Your
list should include: any evidence used to support claims, a list of the major claims, any conclusions.
Return to the core critical thinking skills and critically evaluate how each side forms arguments and
uses evidence. How do your own biases and thoughts on the issue of abortion influence your

193
 evaluation? If you were an advisor, what advisee would you give to each side to make their
arguments stronger and more logically sound?
2. Your local newspaper’s Letters to the Editor section is a prime spot to find logical fallacies in action.
For several days, read the Letters to the Editor and identify all of the fallacies you find. Keep a log of
the specific fallacies you find, dividing them by type. Once you have compiled a variety of example,
take a step back and evaluate them. Questions that you might want to ask include: what fallacy or
fallacies seem to be most popular? Why do you think this is? Pick a few of the most egregious
fallacies and rewrite them correcting for the flaw in reasoning.
3. Throughout this chapter, we have studied arguments by looking at their various parts. In practice,
arguments occur as part of larger statements or speeches making their analysis a bit more
complicated. To understand the ways arguments occur in daily life, visit the American Rhetoric page
(www.americanrhetoric.com). On this page you will find a number of political, activist, movie, and
other speeches. Pick one and try to identify the major arguments that are set forth. What are the
main claims? What are the sub-claims? What sorts of evidence or support are provided? Are there
any fallacies present in the argument? If you were a speech writer, what advice would you give to
improve the argument?

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GLOSSARY AND REFERENCES

Glossary

TERM DEFINITION

Accident A fallacy that occurs when a generally true statement is applied to a specific case that is
Fallacy unusual.

Ambiguity
A fallacy that occurs when a word having more than one meaning appears in the argument.
Fallacy

The process of asking what is happening in a message through breaking it into its individual
Analysis
components and asking questions of each section.

Appeal to A fallacy that occurs when the truth of a proposition is thought to rest in the opinion of a
Authority famous other or authority.

Appeal to A fallacy that occurs when we argue something must be accepted because it cannot be
Ignorance proven otherwise.

A fallacy that occurs when an argument attempts to win acceptance by focusing on the
Appeal to Pity
unfortunate consequences that will occur if it is not accepted.

Argument Statements that combine reasoning with evidence to support an assertion.

194
Bad Reasons A fallacy that occurs when then we assume the conclusion of an argument to be bad
Fallacy because a part of the argument is bad.

Begging the A fallacy that occurs when the conclusion of the argument is also used as one of the
Question premises.

Black and
A fallacy that occurs when the audience is only given two choices.
White Fallacy

Composition A fallacy that occurs when we assume that traits inherent in the parts are also present when
Fallacy the parts are combined into a whole.

Critical Active thinking in which we evaluate and analyze information in order to determine the best
Thinking course of action.

An argument in which the truth of the premises of the argument guarantee the truth of its
Deduction
conclusion.

A fallacy that occurs when we assume that the trait of a whole occurs when the whole is
Division
divided into its parts.

The process of assessing the various claims and premises of an argument to determine their
Evaluation
validity.

Evidence Research, claims, or anything else that is used to support the validity of an assertion.

Fallacy A flaw or error in reasoning.

Fallacy of
Quantitative A fallacy that occurs when we misuse quantifying words such as “all” or “some.”
Logic

A fallacy that occurs when there exists a poor connection between two examples used in an
False Analogy
argument.

False Cause A fallacy that occurs when there exists a flawed connection between two events.

Genetic
A fallacy that occurs when the individual is attacked.
Fallacy

Hearing The physiological process of receiving noise and sounds.

Imply To suggest or convey an idea.

Induction An argument in which the truth of its propositions lend support to the conclusion.

Infer To draw a conclusion that rests outside the message.

Interpretation Explaining and extrapolating the conclusions that we draw from a statement.

Listening The psychological process of attaching meaning to the sounds and noises we hear.

Masked Man
A fallacy that occurs when we substitute parties that are not identical within an argument.
Fallacy

An argument where the conclusion may be true or false, but in which there exists a
Non sequitor
disconnect within the argument itself.

195
 A proposition (statement) supporting or helping to support a conclusion; an assumption that
Premise
something is true.

Red Herring
A fallacy that occurs when an irrelevant issue is introduced into the argument.
Fallacy

The process of reflecting on our pre-existing thoughts and biases and how they may
Self-regulation
influence what we think about an assertion.

Slippery Slope A fallacy that occurs when we assume one action will initiate a chain of events that
Fallacy culminate in an undesirable event.

Strawman A fallacy that occurs when the actual argument appears to be refuted, but in reality a related
Fallacy point is addressed.

A form of deductive argument in which the conclusion is inferred from the premises. Most
Syllogism
syllogisms contain a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion.

References
Aristotle. (1989). Prior Analytics (Trans. Robin Smith). Cambridge, MA: Hackett Publishing.

Beyer, B. K. (1995) Critical thinking. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.

Dewey, J. (1933). Experience and education. New York: Macmillan, 1933.

Elder, L. & Richard, P. (1996). Universal Intellectual Standards. Dillon Beach, CA: Foundation for Critical
Thinking. Retrieved from: http://www.criticalthinking.org/page.cfm?Pag eID=527&CategoryID=68

Facione, P. A. (1990). Critical Thinking: A Statement of Expert Consensus for Purposes of Educational
Assessment and Instruction, The Delphi Report (Executive Summary). Millbrae, CA: California Academic Press.

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196
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 AUDIENCE ANALYSIS

VIDEO: MONROE'S MOTIVATED SEQUENCE

An introduction to MMS:

Watch this video online: https://youtu.be/k0ED3PckYaM

Example of a powerful persuasive speech:

Watch this video online: https://youtu.be/EzZzZ_qpZ4w

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All rights reserved content

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OUTLINE FOR MONROE’S MOTIVATED

SEQUENCE

Note
Note: The verbiage here is only meant to trigger the direction for each particular step of Monroe’s Sequence.
You should not use this exact wording in your outline. Your content should simply cover each area shown
here.

I. Attention Step

Thesis/Preview

II. Need-
1. The problem
2. Here’s proof that this is a serious problem
3. Here’s how this problem impacts your life, audience
4. Some people say this isn’t really a problem.
5. I say they’re wrong, and here’s why

Transition-

III. Satisfaction-
1. Here’s the solution to this problem:

198
 2. Here’s how the solution works:
3. Here’s proof that this solution does work to solve the problem:
4. Some say this kind of a solution won’t work.
5. I say they’re wrong, and here’s why:

Transition-

IV. Visualization-
1. Picture how much worse off we’ll be if we don’t move to use my solution
2. Picture how much better the world will be once we put my solution into place

V. Action-
1. Restate thesis:
2. Call to action:
3. Because if you don’t:
4. But if you do
5. Tie Down

Sources:

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OBJECTIVES, OUTLINE, AND INTRODUCTION

Chapter 5: Audience Analysis

By Lisa Schreiber, Ph.D. and Morgan Hartranft
Millersville University, Millersville, PA

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• List techniques for analyzing a specific target 
audience.
• Explain audience analysis 
by direct observation.
• Describe audience analysis 
by inference.
• Identify the purpose of a 
basic questionnaire.
• Recognize and apply data 
sampling.
• Determine when to use a 
Likert-type test.
• Define the five categories 
of audience analysis.
• Summarize the purpose of the situational analysis.
• Explain audience analysis by demography.
• Recognize the difference between beliefs, attitudes and values.
• Identify reasons for sampling a multicultural audience.

199
 • Apply the chapter concepts in final questions and activities.

Chapter Outline
• Introduction
• Approaches to Audience Analysis
◦ Direct Observation
◦ Inference
◦ Sampling
• Models of Communication
◦ Linear
◦ Transactional
• Categories of Audience Analysis
◦ Situational Analysis
◦ Demographic Analysis
◦ Psychological Analysis
◦ Multicultural Analysis
◦ Interest and Knowledge Analysis
• Conclusion
• Review Questions and Activities
• Glossary
• References

Introduction
Robert E. Mullins, a well-known local bank officer,
was preparing a speech for the Rotary Club in Dallas,
Texas on the topic of “finding the right loan” for a
rather diverse audience. He knew his topic extremely
well, had put a lot of hard work into his research, and
had his visual aids completely in order. One of the
things he had not fully considered, however, was the
audience to which he would be speaking. On the day
of the presentation, Mr. Mullins delivered a flawless
speech on “secured” car and home loans, but the
speech was not received particularly well. You see,
on this particular week, a major segment of the
audience consisted of the “Junior Rotarians” who
wanted to hear about “personal savings accounts”
and “college savings plans.” It was a critical error.
Had Mr. Mullins considered the full nature and
demographic makeup of his audience prior to the “RZA Audience Shankbone 2009 Tao of Wu” by David
event, he might not have been received so poorly. Shankbone. CC-BY.

In contemporary public speaking, the audience that you are addressing is the entire reason you are giving the
speech; accordingly, the audience is therefore the most important component of all speechmaking. It cannot be
said often or more forcefully enough: know your audience! Knowing your audience—their beliefs, attitudes, age,
education level, job functions, language, and culture—is the single most important aspect of developing your
speech strategy and execution plan. Your audience isn’t just a passive group of people who come together by
happenstance to listen to you. Your audience is assembled for a very real and significant reason: they want to
hear what you have to say. So, be prepared.

Spectacular achievement is always preceded by unspectacular preparation. – Robert H. Schuller

We analyze our audience because we want to discover information that will help create a bond between the
speaker and the audience. We call this bond “identification.” Aristotle loosely called it “finding a common ground.”

200
This isn’t a one-way process between the speaker and the audience; rather, it is a two-way transactional process.
When you ask an audience to listen to your ideas, you are inviting them to come partway into your personal and
professional experience as an expert speaker. And, in return, it is your responsibility and obligation to go partway
into their experience as an audience. The more you know and understand about your audience and their
psychological needs, the better you can prepare your speech and your enhanced confidence will reduce your own
speaker anxiety. ( (Note: Dwyer, K.K. (2005) Conquer your speech anxiety: Second Edition. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth.))

This chapter is dedicated to understanding how a speaker connects with an audience through audience analysis
by direct observation, analysis by inference, and data collection. ( (Note: Clevenger, T. (1966). Audience analysis.
Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill.)) In addition, this chapter explores the five categories of audience analysis: (1) the
situational analysis, (2) the demographic analysis, (3) the psychological analysis, (4) the multicultural analysis,
and (5) the topic interest and prior knowledge analysis.
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APPROACHES TO AUDIENCE ANALYSIS

Whenever thinking about your speech, it is always a good idea to begin with a thorough awareness of your
audience and the many factors comprising that particular audience. In speech communication, we simply call this
“doing an audience analysis.” An audience analysis is when you consider all of the pertinent elements defining the
makeup and demographic characteristics (also known as demographics
demographics) of your audience. ( (Note: McQuail, D.
(1997). Audience analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.)) From the Greek prefix demo (of the people),
we come to understand that there are detailed accounts of human population characteristics, such as age,
gender, education, occupation, language, ethnicity, culture, background knowledge, needs and interests, and
previously held attitudes, beliefs, and values. Demographics are widely used by advertising and public relations
professionals to analyze specific audiences so that their products or ideas will carry influence. However, all good
public speakers consider the demographic characteristics of their audience, as well. It is the fundamental stage of
preparing for your speech. Table 5.1 shows some examples of demographics and how they may be used when
developing your speech. Of course, this is not an all-inclusive list. But, it does help you get a good general
understanding of the demographics of the audience you will be addressing.

Table 5.1: Tailoring a Speech to Demographic Characteristics

Demographic
Do’s and Don’ts
Characteristics

Don’t try to use words or phrases to “cuddle up” to one race or another. You would lose
some credibility if you made a point in your speech and then said, “So get jiggy with it” or
Ethnicity “You could enjoy that with your afternoon tea ceremony.” ( (Note: Pearson, J.C., Nelson,
P.E., Titsworth, S. & Harter, L. (2011). Human communication (4th Ed.). Boston: McGraw-
Hill.))

Stay away from jargon from one age range or another, like “OMG” or “the cat’s pajamas” (
Age
(Note: Gamble, T.K. & Gamble, M. (2013). Communication works. New York: McGrawHill.))

Use words that are not sex/gender-specific. Instead of policeman, fireman, and stewardess,
use police officer, firefighter, and flight attendant. Do not use one sex/gender pronouns, like
Sex/Gender
assuming a teacher is a “she” and a dentist is a “he.” ( (Note: Eisenberg, I. & Wynn, D.
(2013) Think communication. Boston: Pearson.))

201
 Table 5.1: Tailoring a Speech to Demographic Characteristics

Demographic
Do’s and Don’ts
Characteristics

Some people in your audience will have more money than others. So if you keep fit by
maintaining membership in a prominent gym and you take classes there also, don’t assume
Income
everyone else can afford to do so. You can tell your audience what you do, but give them
options like parking far from the store and working out with a yoga or pilates CD at home.

Unless you are speaking at a convention where everyone in your audience works in the
same field, make your speech more explanatory. Your audience has not had extensive
Occupation training in medical terms nor legal terms. So you need to explain what you are talking about,
without using the big words which would make your audience feel confused, stupid, and put
down.

Realize that your audience will likely have a wide variety of religions represented, an some
people may have no religious or spiritual beliefs. So you can say that you read the Bible
Religion
every night for 10 minutes, but that you are suggesting that everyone choose a religious or
inspirational reading for presleep relaxation. ( (Note: Gamble & Gamble 2013))

Even if you are speaking to an audience of college freshmen, not everyone has had the
same educational experiences. For example, some of the people in your class may have
completed a high school equivalency program like the GED, some may be high school
Education students who are taking a college class, some may have gone to secondary school in
Level another country, some may have been homeschooled, and some may have gone to a private
honors-based prep school. You need to be careful not to talk down to your audience and not
to use fancy sentences and words to try to impress your audience. Gauging the right level of
communication for your speech is an important challenge.

So now you may be saying to yourself: “Gee, that’s great! How do I go about analyzing my particular audience?”
First, you need to know that there are three overarching methods (or “paradigms
paradigms”) for doing an audience analysis:
audience analysis by direct observation, audience analysis by inference, and audience analysis through data
collection. Once you get to know how these methods work, you should be able to select which one (or even
combination of these methods) is right for your circumstances.

Nothing has such power to broaden the mind as the ability to investigate systematically and truly all that
comes under thy observation in life. – Marcus Aurelius

Direct Observation
Audience analysis by direct observation, or direct experience, is, by far, the most simple of the three paradigms
for “getting the feel” of a particular audience. It is a form of qualitative data gathering. We perceive it through one
or more of our five natural senses—hearing, seeing, touching, tasting, and smelling. Knowledge that we acquire
through personal experience has more impact on us than does knowledge that we learn indirectly. Knowledge
acquired from personal experience is also more likely to affect our thinking and will be retained for a longer period
of time.
We are more likely to trust what we hear, see, feel, taste, and smell rather than what we learn from secondary
sources of information. ( (Note: Pressat, R. (1972). Demographic analysis; methods, results, applications.
Chicago: Aldine-Atherton.))

All you really need to do for this method of observation is to examine your audience. If you are lucky enough to be
able to do this before speaking to your audience, you will be able to gather some basic reflective data (How old
are they? What racial mix does this audience have? Does their non-verbal behavior indicate that they are excited
to hear this speech?) that will help you arrange your thoughts and arguments for your speech. ( (Note:
Nierenberg, G.I. & Calero, H.H. (1994) How to read a person like a book. New York: Barnes and Noble Books.))

202
One excellent way to become informed about your
audience is to ask them about themselves. In its most
basic form, this is data collection. Whenever possible,
have conversations with them—interact with members of
your audience—get to know them on a personal level
(Where did you go to school? Do you have siblings/pets?
What kind of car do you drive?) Through these types of
conversations, you will be able to get to know and
appreciate each audience member as both a human being
and as an audience member. You will come to understand
what interests them, convinces them, or even makes them
laugh. You might arouse interest and curiosity in your topic
while you also gain valuable data.

For example, you want to deliver a persuasive speech

about boycotting farm-raised fish. You could conduct a
short attitudinal survey to discover what your audience “MobileHCI 2008 Audience” by Nhenze. CC-BY-SA.
thinks about the topic, if they eat farm-raised fish, and if
they believe it is healthy for them. This information will help you when you construct your speech because you will
know their attitudes about the subject. You would be able to avoid constructing a speech that potentially could do
the opposite of what you intended.

Another example would be that you want to deliver an informative speech about your town’s recreational activities
and facilities. Your focus can be aligned with your audience if, before you begin working on your speech, you find
out if your audience has senior citizens and/or high school students and/or new parents.

Clearly this cannot be done in every speaking situation, however. Often, we are required to give an unacquainted-
audience presentation
presentation. Unacquainted-audience presentations are speeches when you are completely unfamiliar
with the audience and its demographics. In these cases, it is always best to try and find some time to sit down and
talk with someone you trust (or even several people) who might be familiar with the given audience. These
conversations can be very constructive in helping you understand the context in which you will be speaking.

Not understanding the basic demographic characteristics of an audience, or further, that audience’s beliefs,
values, or attitudes about a given topic makes your presentation goals haphazard, at best. Look around the room
at the people who will be listening to your speech. What types of gender, age, ethnicity, and educational- level
characteristics are represented? What are their expectations for your presentation? This is all-important
information you should know before you begin your research and drafting your outline. Who is it that I am going to
be talking to?

If we knew what it was we were doing, it would not be called research, would it? – Albert Einstein

Inference
Audience analysis by inference is merely a logical extension of your observations drawn in the method above. It is
a form of critical thinking known as inductive reasoning, and another form of qualitative data gathering. An
inference is when you make a reasoned tentative conclusion or logical judgment on the basis of available
evidence. It is best used when you can identify patterns in your evidence that indicate something is expected to
happen again or should hold true based upon previous experiences. A good speaker knows how to interpret
information and draw conclusions from that information. As individuals we make inferences—or reasonable
assumptions—all the time. For example, when we hear someone speaking Arabic, we infer that they are from the
Middle East. When we see this person carrying a copy of The Koran, we infer that they are also a follower of the
Muslim faith. These are reasoned conclusions that we make based upon the evidence available to us and our
general knowledge about people and their traits.

When we reason, we make connections, distinctions, and predictions; we use what is known or familiar to us to
reach a conclusion about something that is unknown or unfamiliar for it to make sense. Granted, of course,
inferences are sometimes wrong. Here’s a familiar example: You reach into a jar full of jelly beans, and they turn
out to be all black. You love black jelly beans. You reach back into the jar and take another hand full, which turn
out to be, again, all black. Since you can’t see the jelly beans inside the jar you make an assumption based on

203
empirical evidence (two handfuls of jelly beans) that all of the jelly beans are black. You reach into the jar a third
time and take a hand full of jelly beans out, but this time they aren’t any black jelly beans, but white, pink, and
yellow. Your conclusion that all of the jelly beans were black turned out to be fallacious.

Data Sampling
Unlike audience analysis by direct observation and analysis by
inference, audience analysis by data sampling uses statistical
evidence to quantify and clarify the characteristics of your audience.
These characteristics are also known as variables, ( (Note: Tucker,
K.T.; Weaver, II, R.L.; Berryman-Fink, C. (1981). Research in speech
communication. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.)) and are
assigned a numerical value so we can systematically collect and
classify them. They are reported as statistics, also known as
quantitative analysis or quantitative data collection. Statistics are
numerical summaries of facts, figures, and research findings.
Audience analysis by data sampling requires you to survey your
audience before you give your speech. You need to know the basics
of doing a survey before you actually collect and interpret your data.
“Here’s a Jellybean for You” by KaCey97078.
If you make listening and observation your occupation, you will CC-BY.
gain much more than you can by talk. – Robert Baden-Powell

Basic Questionnaire
There are a great number of survey methods available to the speaker. However, we will cover three primary types
in this section because they are utilized the most. The first type of survey method you should know about is the
basic questionnaire, which is a series of questions advanced to produce demographic and attitudinal data from
your audience.

Clearly, audience members should not be required to identify

themselves by name on the basic questionnaire. Anonymous
questionnaires are more likely to produce truthful information.
Remember, all you are looking for is a general read of your audience;
you should not be looking for specific information about any respondent
concerning your questionnaire in particular. It is a bulk sampling tool,
only.

While you can easily gather basic demographic data (examples of

demographic questions are shown in the chart following this section),
we need to adjust our questions a bit more tightly, or ask more focused
questions, in order to understand the audience’s “predispositions” to
think or act in certain ways. For example, you can put an attitudinal
extension on the basic questionnaire (examples of attitudinal questions
are shown in Figure 5.1).

These questions probe more deeply into the psyche of your audience
members, and will help you see where they stand on certain issues. Of
course, you may need to tighten these questions to get to the heart of
your specific topic. But, once you do, you’ll have a wealth of data at
your disposal that, ultimately, will tell you how to work with your target “Man With a Clipboard” by Elizabeth M. CC-
audience. BY.

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Ordered Categories
Another method of finding out your audience’s value set is to survey them according to their value hierarchy. A
value hierarchy is a person’s value structure placed in relationship to a given value set. ( (Note: Rokeach, M.
(1968). Beliefs, attitudes, and values; a theory of organization and change (1st ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass.)) The way to determine a person’s value hierarchy is to use the ordered categories sampling method. Here,
each audience member is given a list of values on a piece of paper, and each audience member writes these
values on another piece of paper in order according to their importance to him/her. Each response is different, of
course, because each audience member is different, but when analyzed by the speaker, common themes will
present themselves in the overall data. Accordingly, the speaker can then identify with those common value
themes. (Examples of an Ordered Value Set appear in Figure 5.1).

Likert-type Testing

Figure 5.1: Examples of Survey Questions

Attitudinal Questions
Demographic Questions
1. I regard myself as
1. Academic level in college
1. conservative
1. freshman
2. liberal
2. sophomore
3. socialist
3. junior
4. independent
4. senior
2. I believe that abortion
2. Marital status
1. should be illegal
1. single
2. should remain legal
2. married
3. should be legal only in cases
3. divorced
of rape
4. widowed
4. not sure
3. Age
3. I think that prayer should be permitted in
1. less than 18 years old
public schools
2. 18–30 years old
1. yes
3. 31–45 years old
2. no
4. over 46 years of age
3. undecided

Likert-Type Questions
Value Ordered Questions
Indicate the degree to which you agree or
Place the following list of values in order of importance, disagree with each question.
from most important (1) to least important (5).
1. Unsolicited email should be illegal.
Freedom Strongly Agree 1 2 3 4 5
Liberty Strongly Disagree
Justice 2. Making unsolicited email illegal would
Democracy be fundamentally unfair to businesses.
Safety Strongly Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly
1. __________ Disagree
2. __________ 3. I usually delete unsolicited email before
3. __________
even opening it.
4. __________
5. __________ Strongly Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly
Disagree

The final method of asserting your audience’s attitudes deals with Likert-type testing. Likert-type testing is when
you make a statement, and ask the respondent to gauge the depth of their sentiments toward that statement

205
either positively, negatively, or neutrally. Typically, each scale will have 5 weighted response categories, being
+2, +1, 0, -1, and -2. What the Likert-type test does, that other tests do not do, is measure the extent to which
attitudes are held. See how the Likert-type test does this in the example on “unsolicited email” in Figure 5.1.

A small Likert-type test will tell you where your audience, generally speaking, stands on issues. As well, it will
inform you as to the degree of the audience’s beliefs on these issues. The Likert-type test should be used when
attempting to assess a highly charged or polarizing issue, because it will tell you, in rough numbers, whether or
not your audience agrees or disagrees with your topic.

No matter what kind of data sampling you choose, you need to allow time to collect the information and then
analyze it. For example, if you create a survey of five questions, and you have your audience of 20 people
complete the survey, you will need to deal with 100 survey forms. At high levels such as political polling, the
audience members quickly click on their answers on a webpage or on a hand-held “clicker,” and the specific
survey software instantly collects and collates the information for researchers. If you are in a small community
group or college class, it is more likely that you will be doing your survey “the old-fashioned way”–so you will need
some time to mark each individual response on a “master sheet” and then average or summarize the results in an
effective way to use in your speech-writing and speech-giving.
Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 5 Approaches to Audience Analysis. Authored by by: Peter DeCaro, Ph.D., Tyrone Adams, Ph.D., and Bonnie Jefferis, Ph.D.. Provided by by: University of Alaska - Fairbanks, University of Louisiana - Lafayette, and St.
Petersburg College. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Project: The Public Speaking Project. License
• MobileHCI 2008 Audience. Authored by by: Nhenze. Located at
at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MobileHCI_2008_Audience.jpg. LicenseLicense: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
• Here's a Jellybean for You. Authored by
by: KaCey97078. Located at License: CC BY: Attribution
at: https://flic.kr/p/q1m9u. License
• Man With a Clipboard. Authored by by: Elizabeth M. Located at License: CC BY: Attribution
at: https://flic.kr/p/74U8kN. License

CATEGORIES OF AUDIENCE ANALYSIS

No matter which of the above inquiry methods you choose to do your audience analysis, you will, at some point,
need to direct your attention to the five “categories” of audience analysis. These are the five categories through
which you will learn to better appreciate your audience. Let’s now examine these categories and understand the
variables and constraints you should use to estimate your audience’s information requirements.

Situational Analysis
The situational audience analysis category considers the
situation for which your audience is gathered. This
category is primarily concerned with why your audience is
assembled in the first place. ( (Note: Caernarven-Smith, P.
(1983). Audience analysis & response (1st Ed.).
Pembroke, MA: Firman Technical Publications.)) Are they
willingly gathered to hear you speak? Have your audience
members paid to hear you? Or, are your audience
members literally “speech captives” who have somehow
been socially or systematically coerced into hearing you?
These factors are decisively important because they place
a major responsibility upon you as a speaker, whichever is
the case. The entire tone and agenda of your speech rests
largely upon whether or not your audience even wants to
hear from you.

Many audiences are considered captive audiences in that Untitled by Konrad-Adenauer-Gemeinschaftshauptschule

they have no real choice regarding the matter of hearing a Wenden. CC-BY-NC-SA.
given speech. In general, these are some of the most
difficult audiences to address because these members are being forced to listen to a message, and do not have
the full exercise of their own free will. Consider for a moment when you have been called to a mandatory work
meeting. Were you truly happy to listen to the speaker, in all honesty? Some might say “yes,” but usually most

206
would rather be doing something else with their time. This is an important factor to keep in mind when preparing
your speech: some people simply do not want to listen to a speech they believe is compulsory.

The voluntary audience situation, in stark contrast, is completely different. A voluntary audience is willingly
assembled to listen to a given message. As a rule, these audiences are much easier to address because they are
interested in hearing the speech. To visualize how this works, reflect upon the last speech, concert, or show
you’ve chosen to attend. While the event may or may not have lived up to your overall expectations, the very fact
that you freely went to the occasion speaks volumes about your predisposition to listen to—and perhaps even be
persuaded by—the information being presented.

Sometimes audiences are mixed in their situational settings, too. Take the everyday classroom situation, for
instance. While students choose to attend higher education, many people in the college classroom environment
sadly feel as if they are still “trapped” in school and would rather be elsewhere. On the other hand, some students
in college are truly there by choice, and attentively seek out knowledge from their teacher-mentors. What results
from this mixed audience situation is a hybrid captive-voluntary audience, with those who are only partially
interested in what is going on in the classroom and those who are genuinely involved. You literally get to hone
your speech skills on both types of audiences, thereby learning a skill set that many never get to exercise. You
should begin this wonderful opportunity by considering ways to inform, persuade, and humor a mixed situation
audience. Think of it as a learning occasion, and you’ll do just fine.

Being popular with an audience is a very rickety ladder to be on. – Louis C. K.

Demographic Analysis
The second category of audience analysis is demography
demography. As mentioned before, demographics are literally a
classification of the characteristics of the people. Whenever addressing an audience, it is generally a good idea to
know about its age, gender, major, year in school, race, ethnicity, religious affiliation, et cetera. There are two
steps in doing an accurate demographic analysis: gathering demographic data and interpreting this data. ( (Note:
Benjamin, B. (1969). Demographic analysis. New York: Praeger.))

Sometimes, this information is gathered by the questionnaire sampling method, and is done formally. On other
occasions, this information is already available in a database and is made available to the speaker. Some
noteworthy speakers even have “scouts” who do demographic research on an audience prior to a speaking event,
and make interpretations on that audience based upon key visual cues. For example, congresspersons and
senators frequently make public appearances where they use stock speeches to appeal to certain audiences with
specific demographic uniqueness. In order to know what type of audience he or she will be addressing, these
politicians dispatch staff aides to an event to see how many persons of color, hecklers, and supporters will be in
attendance. Of course, studying demographic characteristics is, indeed, more an art form than a science. Still, it is
a common practice among many professional speakers.

Consider for a moment how valuable it would be to you as

a public speaker to know that your audience will be mostly
female, between the ages of 25 and 40, mostly married,
and Caucasian. Would you change your message to fit this
demographic? Or, would you keep your message the
same, no matter the audience you were addressing?
Chances are you would be more inclined to talk to issues
bearing upon those gender, age, and race qualities.
Frankly, the smart speaker would shift his or her message
to adapt to the audience. And, simply, that’s the purpose of
doing demographics: to embed within your message the
acceptable parameters of your audience’s range of needs.

This, of course, raises an extremely important ethical issue

for the modern speaker. Given the ability to study
demographic data and therefore to study your audience, “Wiki Conference 2011” by Sucheta Ghoshal. CC-BY-SA.
does a speaker shift his or her message to play to the
audience entirely? Ethically, a speaker should not shift his or her message and should remain true to his or her
motives. Only you will be able to alleviate the tension between a speaker’s need to adapt to an audience and his

207
or her need to remain true to form. ( (Note: Natalle, E.J. & Bodenheimer, F.R. (2004) The woman’s public
speaking handbook. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.))

My greatest challenge has been to change the mindset of people. Mindsets play strange tricks on us.
We see things the way our minds have instructed our eyes to see. – Muhammad Yunus

Psychological Analysis
Unless your selected speech topic is a complete mystery to your audience, your listeners will already hold
“attitudes, beliefs, and values” toward the ideas you will inevitably present. As a result, it is always important to
know where your audience stands on the issues you plan to address ahead of time. The best way to accomplish
this is to sample your audience with a quick questionnaire or survey prior to the event. This is known as the third
category of audience analysis, or psychological description
description. When performing a description you seek to identify
the audience’s attitudes, beliefs, and values. ( (Note: Campbell, K.K. & Huxman, S.S. The Rhetorical Act:
Thinking, Speaking, and Writing Critically (3rd Ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.)) They are your keys to
understanding how your audience thinks.

Attitudes
In basic terms, an attitude is a learned disposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner
with respect to a person, an object, an idea, or an event. ( (Note: Jastrow, J. (1918). The psychology of
conviction: A study of beliefs and attitudes. New York: Houghton Mifflin.)) Attitudes come in different forms. You
are very likely to see an attitude present itself when someone says that they are “pro” or “anti” something. But,
above all else, attitudes are learned and not necessarily enduring. Attitudes can change, and sometimes do,
whereas beliefs and values do not shift as easily. A sample list of attitudes can be found in Table 5.2.

Table 5.2: Examples of Attitudes

Pro-/Anti-war

Pro-diversity

Anti-affirmative action

Pro-choice

Pro-life

Pro-/Anti-gambling

Pro-/Anti-prostitution

Pro-/Anti-capital punishment

Pro-/Anti-free trade

Pro-/Anti-outsourcing

Pro-/Anti-welfare

Pro-/Anti-corporate tax cuts

Pro-/Anti-censorship

208
These are just a small range of issues that one can either be “for” or “against.” And, while we are simplifying the
social scientific idea of an attitude considerably here, these examples serve our purposes well. Remember,
attitudes are not as durable as beliefs and values. But, they are good indicators of how people view the persons,
objects, ideas, or events that shape their world.

Other people’s beliefs may be myths, but not mine. – Mason Cooley

Beliefs
Beliefs are principles ( (Note: Bem, D. J. (1970). Beliefs, attitudes, and human affairs. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole
Pub. Co.)) or assumptions about the universe.

Beliefs are more durable than attitudes because beliefs are hinged to ideals and not issues. For example, you
may believe in the principle: “what goes around comes around.” If you do, you believe in the notion of karma. And
so, you may align your behaviors to be consistent with this belief philosophy. You do not engage in unethical or
negative behavior because you believe that it will “come back” to you. Likewise, you may try to exude behaviors
that are ethical and positive because you wish for this behavior to return, in kind. You may not think this at all, and
believe quite the opposite. Either way, there is a belief in operation driving what you think. Some examples of
beliefs are located in Table 5.3.

Table 5.3: Examples of Beliefs

The world was created by God.

Marijuana is an addictive gateway drug.

Ghosts are all around us.

Smoking causes cancer.

Anyone can acquire HIV.

Evolution is fact, not fiction.

Marijuana is neither addictive or harmful.

Ghosts are products of our imagination.

Smoking does not cause cancer.

Only high-risk groups acquire HIV.

Values
A value, on the other hand, is a guiding belief that regulates our attitudes. ( (Note: Rokeach, M. (1968). Beliefs,
attitudes, and values; a theory of organization and change (1st ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.)) Values are
the core principles driving our attitudes. If you probe into someone’s attitudes and beliefs far enough, you will
inevitably find an underlying value. Importantly, you should also know that we structure our values in accordance
to our own value hierarchy, or mental schema of values placed in order of their relative individual importance.
Each of us has our own values that we subscribe to and a value hierarchy that we use to navigate the issues of
the world. But we really aren’t even aware that we have a value hierarchy until some of our values come in direct
conflict with each other. Then, we have to negotiate something called cognitive dissonance
dissonance, or the mental stress
caused by the choice we are forced to make between two considerable alternatives.

For example, let’s assume that you value “having fun” a great deal. You like to party with your friends and truly
enjoy yourself. And, in this day and age, who doesn’t? However, now that you are experiencing a significant

209
amount of independence and personal freedom, you have many life options at your disposal. Let’s also say that
some of your close personal friends are doing drugs. You are torn. Part of you wants to experience the “fun” that
your close friends may be experiencing; but, the more sane part of you wants to responsibly decline. In honesty,
you are juxtaposed between two of your own values—having “fun” and being responsible. This real life example is
somewhat exaggerated for your benefit. Realize that we make decisions small and grand, based on our value
hierarchies. Some basic values common to people around the world can be found in Table 5.4.

Table 5.4: Examples of Values

Inner harmony Enjoyment Belonging

Friendship Trust Equality

Control Family Security

Peace Wisdom Tradition

Unity Achievement Power

Generosity Conformity Intelligence

Leadership Creativity Responsibility

Health Independence Loyalty

Values aren’t buses… They’re not supposed to get you anywhere. They’re supposed to define who you
are. – Jennifer Crusie

Multicultural Analysis
Demography looks at issues of race and ethnicity in a basic sense. However, in our increasingly diverse society, it
is worthy to pay particular attention to the issue of speaking to a multicultural audience (as discussed in Chapter
14 Speaking to a Global Audience). Odds are that any real world audience that you encounter will have an
underlying multicultural dimension. As a speaker, you need to recognize that the perspective you have on any
given topic may not necessarily be shared by all of the members of your audience. ( (Note: Ting-Toomey. S &
Chung, L.C. (2005). Understanding intercultural communication. Los Angeles: Roxbury Publishing.)) Therefore, it
is imperative that you become a culturally effective speaker. Culturally effective speakers develop the capacity to
appreciate other cultures and acquire the necessary skills to speak effectively to people with diverse ethnic
backgrounds. Keep these factors in mind when writing a speech for a diverse audience.

Language
Many people speak different languages, so if you are translating words, do not use slang or jargon, which can be
confusing. You could add a visual aid (a poster, a picture, a PowerPoint slide or two) which would show your
audience what you mean – which instantly translates into the audience member’s mind. ( (Note: Klopf, D.W. &
Cambra, R.E. (1991) Speaking skills for prospective teachers (2nd Ed.). Englewood, CO: Morton Publishing
Company. Tauber, R.T. & Mester, C.S. Acting Lessons for Teachers, Using Performance Skills in the Classroom.
Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.))

210
Cognition
Realize that different cultures have different cultural-cognitive processes,
or ways of looking at the very concept of logic itself. Accordingly, gauge
your audience as to their diverse ways of thinking and be sensitive to
these differing logics.

Ethnocentricity
Remember that in many cases you will be appealing to people from other
cultures. Do not assume that your culture is dominant or better than other
cultures. That assumption is called ethnocentrism, and ethnocentric
viewpoints have the tendency to drive a wedge between you and your “Audience Applause at MIT meeting in
audience. ( (Note: Pearson, J.C., Nelson, P.E., Titsworth, S. & Harter, L. Beijing” by Philip McMaster. CC-BY-NC.
(2011). Human communication (4th Ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.))

Christian, Jew, Muslim, shaman, Zoroastrian, stone, ground, mountain, river, each has a secret way of
being with the mystery, unique and not to be judged. – Rumi

Values
Not only do individuals have value systems of their own, but societies promote value systems, as well. Keep in
mind the fact that you will be appealing to value hierarchies that are socially-laden, as well as those that are
individually-borne.

Communication Styles
While you are trying to balance these language, cognition, cultural, and value issues, you should also recognize
that some cultures prefer a more animated delivery style than do others. The intelligent speaker will understand
this, and adapt his or her verbal and nonverbal delivery accordingly.

Interest and Knowledge Analysis

Finally, if the goal of your speech is to deliver a unique and
stirring presentation (and it should be), you need to know
ahead of time if your audience is interested in what you
have to say, and has any prior knowledge about your topic.
You do not want to give a boring or trite speech. Instead,
you want to put your best work forward, and let your
audience see your confidence and preparation shine
through. And, you don’t want to make a speech that your
audience already knows a lot about. So, your job here is to
“test” your topic by sampling your audience for their topic
interest and topic knowledge. Defined, topic interest is the
significance of the topic to a given audience; often related
to the uniqueness of a speaker’s topic. Likewise, topic
knowledge is the general amount of information that the
audience possesses on a given topic. These are not mere “25th March 2011” by Grace Flora. CC-BY-NC-ND.
definitions listed for the sake of argument; these are
essential analytical components of effective speech construction.

Anyone who teaches me deserves my respect, honoring and attention. – Sonia Rumzi

211
Unlike multicultural audience analysis, evaluating your audience’s topic interest and topic knowledge is a fairly
simple task. One can do this through informal question and answer dialogue, or through an actual survey. Either
way, it is best to have some information, rather than none at all. Imagine the long list of topics that people have
heard over and over and over. You can probably name some yourself, right now, without giving it much thought. If
you started listing some topics to yourself, please realize that this is the point of this section of this module; your
audience is literally thinking the same exact thing you are. Given that, topic preparation is strategically important
to your overall speech success.

Again, do not underestimate the power of asking your audience whether or not your topic actually interests them.
If you find that many people are not interested in your topic, or already know a lot about it, you have just saved
yourself from a potentially mind- numbing exercise. After all, do you really want to give a speech where your
audience could care less about your topic—or even worse— they know more about the topic than you do
yourself? Not at all! The purpose of this section is to help you search for the highly sought-after public speaking
concept called uniqueness
uniqueness, which is when a topic rises to the level of being singularly exceptional in interest and
knowledge to a given audience.

We know that you wish to excel in giving your speech, and indeed you shall. But first, let’s make sure that your
audience is engaged by your topic and hasn’t already heard the subject matter so much that they, themselves,
could give the speech without much (if any) preparation.

One final note: There’s an old adage in communication studies that reasons: “know what you know; know what
you don’t know; and, know the difference between the two.” In other words, don’t use puffery to blind your
audience about your alleged knowledge on a particular subject. Remember, there is likely to be someone in your
audience who knows as much about your topic, if not more, than you do. If you get caught trying to field an
embarrassing question, you might just lose the most important thing you have as a speaker: your credibility. If you
know the answer, respond accordingly. If you do not know the answer, respond accordingly. But, above all, try
and be a resource for your audience. They expect you to be something of an expert on the topic you choose to
address.

Given the choice between trivial material brilliantly told versus profound material badly told, an audience
will always choose the trivial told brilliantly. – Robert McKee

Licensing & Attributions

CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 5 Categories of Audience Analysis. Authored byby: Peter DeCaro, Ph.D., Tyrone Adams, Ph.D., and Bonnie Jefferis, Ph.D.. Provided by by: University of Alaska - Fairbanks, University of Louisiana - Lafayette, and St.
Petersburg College. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Project: The Public Speaking Project. License
• Untitled. Authored by
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at: https://flic.kr/p/bjyxL. License
• Wiki Conference 2011. Authored byby: Sucheta Ghoshal. Located at License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_Conference_2011.JPG. License
• Audience Applause at MIT meeting in Beijing 00071. Authored by by: Philip McMaster. Located at
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• 25th March 2011. Authored byby: Grace Flora. Located at License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
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212
 CONCLUSION, REVIEW QUESTIONS, AND
ACTIVITIES

When considering topics for your speech, it is critical for

you to keep your audience in mind. Not doing so will put
your speech at risk of not corresponding with the
information needs of your audience, and further jeopardize
your credibility as a speaker. This chapter examined
methods of conducting an audience analysis and five
categories of audience analysis. In sum, this information
equips you with the foundational knowledge and skill-set
required to ensure that your topic complements your
audience. And, after all, if we are not adapting to meet the
needs of our audience, we are not going to be informative
or convincing speakers.

Winston Churchill is credited with the origin of the saying:

“Fail to plan, plan to fail.” ( (Note: Lakein, A. (1989) How to “Philip Levy spoke at the U.S. Embassy” by US Embassy.
get control of your time and your life. New York: Signet.)) CC-BY-ND.
We, your authors, believe that if you have failed to fully
consider the nature, make-up, and characteristics of your audience, you are—for all intents and
purposes—neglecting the spirit of the public speaking exercise. Confidently speaking to audiences can be
somewhat addictive. The experience, when properly executed, can be empowering and help you succeed
personally and professionally throughout your life. But, you must first consider the audience you will be
addressing and take their every requirement into account. ( (Note: Lewis, D. (1989) The secret language of
success. New York: Galahad Books.)) We are linked to, joined with, if not bound by, our audiences. Your main
speaking ambition should be to seek identification with them, and for them to seek identification with you.

Review Questions
1. Why is it important to conduct an audience analysis prior to developing your speech?
2. What is the purpose of performing a demographics survey?
3. Why is audience analysis by direct observation the most simple of the three paradigms?
4. What are some the problems a speaker faces when delivering an unacquainted-audience
presentation?
5. Under what circumstances would a speaker make inferences about an audience during the course of
an audience analysis??
6. What is a variable, and how is it used in data sampling?
7. Why are statistics considered to be a form of quantitative analysis and not qualitative analysis?
8. How does conducting a value hierarchy help the speaker when developing a speech?
9. What value does performing a Likert-type testing of attitudes give the speaker?
10. Which of the Five Categories of Audience Analysis is the most effective, and why do you think that?
11. What are the differences between beliefs, attitudes, and values?
12. What challenges does a speaker face when delivering a speech to a multicultural audience?

213
 Activities
1. If you know who your audience will be prior to speaking, try performing a demographic analysis. You
may want to find out data, such as age, group affiliation, sex, socio-economic status, marital status,
etc. Once you’ve done that, see if any of that information can impact any aspects of your speech. If it
does, then determine how and why it impacts your speech.
2. Another survey to conduct is an attitudinal survey. If you are delivering a persuasive speech, you’ll
want to know what your audience thinks about your topic. Audience members who have opinions
about things generally have a self-interest in it; that is why they are interested in what you have to
say. Perform a Likert-type survey analysis to help you determine how best to create your speech.
3. As you know, a person’s values are the most difficult for any speaker to change. You can perform a
values survey to determine how difficult it will be to change the minds of your audience. Every
persuasive speech addresses some value or values. Take a position, such as “consuming horse
meat as an alternative to beef,” and ask potential audience members how they feel about eating
horse meat—why and why not. By conducting a hypothetical survey you begin to understand how to
create an effective survey and why it is so important to the speaker to conduct.

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• Chapter 5 Conclusion, Review Questions, and Activities. Authored by by: Peter DeCaro, Ph.D., Tyrone Adams, Ph.D., and Bonnie Jefferis, Ph.D.. Provided by by: University of Alaska - Fairbanks, University of Louisiana - Lafayette,
and St. Petersburg College. Located atat: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Project: The Public Speaking Project. License
• June 29, 2010 - Philip Levy spoke at the U.S. Embassy in Wellington on the state of American Trade Policy. Authored by by: US Embassy. Located at at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/us_embassy_newzealand/4747176345/.
License: CC BY-ND: Attribution-NoDerivatives
License

GLOSSARY AND REFERENCES

Glossary

TERM DEFINITION

An attitude is a learned disposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable

Attitude
manner with respect to a person, an object, an idea, or an event.

Audience A speaker analyzes an audience for demographics, dispositions and knowledge of the
Analysis topic.

Beliefs are principles and are more durable than attitudes because beliefs are hinged to
Beliefs
ideals and not issues.

Cognitive The psychological discomfort felt when a person is presented with two competing ideas or
Dissonance pieces of evidence.

Demographics Demographics are the most recent statistical characteristics of a population.

Demographic
Demographic characteristics are facts about the make-up of a population.
Characteristics

Demography Demographics are literally a classification of the characteristics of the people.

214
 Making an inference is the act or process of deriving logical conclusions from premises
Inference
known or assumed to be true.

Ordered An ordered category is a condition of logical or comprehensible arrangement among the

category separate elements of a group.

A paradigm is a pattern that describes distinct concepts or thoughts in any scientific

Paradigm
discipline or other epistemological context.

Psychological
A psychological description is a description of the audience’s attitudes, beliefs, and values.
Description

Quantitative A quantitative analysis is the process of determining the value of a variable by examining
Analysis its numerical, measurable characteristics.

Statistics Statistics is the study of the collection, organization, analysis, and interpretation of data.

Unacquainted-
An unacquainted-audience presentation is a speech when you are completely unaware of
Audience
your audience’s characteristics.
Presentation

Uniqueness occurs when a topic rises to the level of being exceptional in interest and
Uniqueness
knowledge to a given audience.

A variable is a characteristic of a unit being observed that may assume more than one of a
Variable set of values to which a numerical measure or a category from a classification can be
assigned.

Value A value is a guiding belief that regulates our attitudes.

Value Hierarchy A value hierarchy is a person’s value structure placed in relationship to a given value set.

References
Bem, D. J. (1970). Beliefs, attitudes, and human affairs. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Pub. Co.

Benjamin, B. (1969). Demographic analysis. New York: Praeger.

Caernarven-Smith, P. (1983). Audience analysis & response (1st Ed.). Pembroke, MA: Firman Technical
Publications.

Campbell, K.K. & Huxman, S.S. The Rhetorical Act: Thinking, Speaking, and Writing Critically (3rd Ed.). Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth.

Clevenger, T. (1966). Audience analysis. Indianapolis: Bobbs- Merrill.

Dwyer, K.K. (2005) Conquer your speech anxiety: Second Edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Eisenberg, I. & Wynn, D. (2013) Think communication.

Boston: Pearson. Gamble, T.K. & Gamble, M. (2013). Communication works. New York: McGraw- Hill.

Jastrow, J. (1918). The psychology of conviction: A study of beliefs and attitudes. New York: Houghton Mifflin.

Klopf, D.W. & Cambra, R.E. (1991) Speaking skills for prospective teachers (2nd Ed.). Englewood, CO: Morton
Publishing Company.

Lakein, A. (1989) How to get control of your time and your life. New York: Signet.

215
Lewis, D. (1989) The secret language of success. New York: Galahad Books.

McQuail, D. (1997). Audience analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Natalle, E.J. & Bodenheimer, F.R. (2004) The woman’s public speaking handbook. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Nierenberg, G.I. & Calero, H.H. (1994) How to read a person like a book. New York: Barnes and Noble Books.

Pearson, J.C., Nelson, P.E., Titsworth, S. & Harter, L. (2011). Human communication (4th Ed.). Boston: McGraw-
Hill.

Pressat, R. (1972). Demographic analysis; methods, results, applications. Chicago: Aldine- Atherton.

Rokeach, M. (1968). Beliefs, attitudes, and values; a theory of organization and change (1st ed.). San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.

Tauber, R.T. & Mester, C.S. Acting Lessons for Teachers, Using Performance Skills in the Classroom. Westport,
CT: Praeger Publishers.

Ting-Toomey. S & Chung, L.C. (2005). Understanding intercultural communication. Los Angeles: Roxbury
Publishing.

Tucker, K.T.; Weaver, II, R.L.; Berryman-Fink, C. (1981). Research in speech communication. Englewood Cliffs,
N.J.: Prentice-Hall.

photo credits
p. 1 Audience at RZA book reading http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:RZA_Audience_Shankbone_2009_Tao_of_Wu.jpg By David Shankbone

p. 3 Mobile HCI 2008 Audience http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MobileHCI_ 2008_Audience.jpg By

Nhenze

p. 6 Speakers at Wiki Conference 2011 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_Confe rence_2011.JPG By

Sucheta Ghoshal

p. 9 Audience enjoys Stallman’s jokes http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/

Audience_enjoy_Stallman%27s_jokes By Damian Buonamico

p. 9 Side shot audience http://www.flickr.com/photos/us_embassy_newzealan d/4747176345/ By U.S. Embassy

New Zealand
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• Chapter 5 Glossary and References. Authored by by: Peter DeCaro, Ph.D., Tyrone Adams, Ph.D., and Bonnie Jefferis, Ph.D.. Provided by
by: University of Alaska - Fairbanks, University of Louisiana - Lafayette, and St. Petersburg
College. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
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216
 PERSUASIVE SPEAKING

OBJECTIVES, OUTLINE, AND INTRODUCTION

Chapter 16: Persuasive Speaking

By Sarah Stone Watt, Ph.D., Pepperdine University Malibu, CA
& Joshua Trey Barnett, Indiana University Bloomington, IN

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Explain what a persuasive speech is.
• Describe the functions of persuasive speeches.
• List the different types of persuasive speeches.
• Identify persuasive strategies that make a speech more effective.
• Apply the appropriate organizational pattern based on your persuasive goals.
• Distinguish between ethical and unethical forms of persuasion.
• Apply module concepts in final questions and activities.

Chapter Outline
• Introduction
• What is Persuasive Speaking?
• Functions of Persuasive Speeches
◦ Speeches to Convince
◦ Speeches to Actuate
• Types of Persuasive Speeches
◦ Propositions of Fact
◦ Propositions of Value
◦ Propositions of Policy
• Choosing a Persuasive Speech Topic
• Approaching Audiences
◦ Receptive Audiences
◦ Neutral Audiences
◦ Hostile Audiences
• Persuasive Strategies
◦ Ethos
◦ Logos
◦ Pathos
• Organizing Persuasive Messages
◦ Monroe’s Motivated Sequence

217
 ◦ Direct Method Pattern
◦ Causal Pattern
◦ Refutation Pattern
• Conclusion
• Module Activities
• Glossary
• References

Introduction
At the gas pump, on eggs in the grocery store, in the
examination room of your doctor’s office, everywhere you go,
advertisers are trying to persuade you to buy their product. This
form of persuasion used to be reserved for magazines and
television commercials, but now it is unavoidable. One
marketing research firm estimates that a person living in a large
city today sees approximately 5,000 ads per day. ( (Note: Story,
L. (2007, January 15). Anywhere the eye can see, it’s likely to
see an ad. The New York Times. Retrieved from:
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/15/business/media/
15everywhere.html? pagewanted=all)) It is easy to assume that
our over-exposure to persuasion makes us immune to its effect,
but research demonstrates that we are more susceptible than
ever. In fact, advertisers have gotten even better at learning
exactly the right times and places to reach us by studying
different audiences and techniques. ( (Note: Aral, S. & Walker,
D. (2012, 20 July). Identifying influential and susceptible
members of social networks. Science, 327(6092), 337–)341.
Retrieved from: http://www.sciencemag.org/content/337/6092/
337.abstract) ( (Note: Blackman, S. (2009, September 3). Tired
consumers more susceptible to advertising. CBS Money Watch.
Retrieved from: http://www.cbsnews.com/news/tired- “Judi Chamberlin” by Tom Olin. CC-BY-SA.
consumers-more-susceptible-to-advertising/)) ( (Note:
Rosendaal, E., Lapierre, M.A., vanReijmersdal, E.A., & Buijzen, M. (2011). Reconsidering advertising literacy as a
defense against advertising effects. Media Psychology, 14(4), 333–354.))

I do not read advertisements. I would spend all of my time wanting things. – Franz Kafka

We also encounter persuasion in our daily interactions. Imagine you stop at a café on your way to school, and the
barista persuades you to try something new. While enjoying your espresso, a sales person attempts to persuade
you to upgrade your home Internet package. Later, while walking across campus, you observe students who are
enthusiastically inviting others to join their organizations. Within thirty minutes, you have encountered at least
three instances of persuasion, and there were likely others emanating in the background unbeknownst to you.
Amidst being persuaded, you were also actively persuading others. You may have tried to convince the Internet
sales person to give you a better deal and an extended contract, and later persuaded a group of friends to enjoy a
night on the town. Persuasion is everywhere.
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by: Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA and Indiana University, Bloomington, IN. Located at
at:
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Project: The Public Speaking Project. License
• Judi Chamberlin 2000 From Privileges to Rights. Authored byby: Tom Olin. Located at License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Judi_Chamberlin_2000_From_Privileges_to_Rights.jpg. License

218
 WHAT IS PERSUASIVE SPEAKING?

You are used to experiencing persuasion in many forms, and may have an easy time identifying examples of
persuasion, but can you explain how persuasion works? Osborn and Osborn define persuasion this way: “the art
of convincing others to give favorable attention to our point of view.” ( (Note: Osborn, M., & Osborn, S. (1997).
Public speaking (4th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.)) There are two components that make this
definition a useful one. First, it acknowledges the artfulness, or skill, required to persuade others. Whether you are
challenged with convincing an auditorium of 500 that they should sell their cars and opt for a pedestrian lifestyle
or with convincing your friends to eat pizza instead of hamburgers, persuasion does not normally just happen.
Rather it is planned and executed in a thoughtful manner. Second, this definition delineates the ends of
persuasion—to convince others to think favorably of our point of view. Persuasion “encompasses a wide range of
communication activities, including advertising, marketing, sales, political campaigns, and interpersonal relations.”
( (Note: German, K. M., Gronbeck, B. E., Ehninger, D., & Monroe, A. H. (2004). Principles of public speaking
(15th ed.). Boston: Pearson.)) Because of its widespread utility, persuasion is a pervasive part of our everyday
lives.

Although persuasion occurs in nearly every facet

of our day-to-day lives, there are occasions when
more formal acts of persuasion—persuasive
speeches—are appropriate. Persuasive speeches
“intend to influence the beliefs, attitudes, values,
and acts of others.” ( (Note: O’Hair, D., & Stewart,
R. (1999). Public speaking: Challenges and
choices. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s.)) Unlike an
informative speech, where the speaker is charged
with making some information known to an
audience, in a persuasive speech the speaker
attempts to influence people to think or behave in
a particular way. This art of convincing others is
propelled by reasoned argument, the cornerstone
of persuasive speeches. Reasoned arguments,
which might consist of facts, statistics, personal “Michael Bruno” by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Northeast Region.
testimonies, or narratives, are employed to CC-BY.
motivate audiences to think or behave differently
than before they heard the speech.

There are particular circumstances that warrant a persuasive approach. As O’Hair and Stewart point out, it makes
sense to engage strategies of persuasion when your end goal is to influence any of these things—“beliefs,
attitudes, values, and acts”—or to reinforce something that already exists. For instance, safe sex advocates often
present messages of reinforcement to already safe sexual actors, reminding them that wearing condoms and
asking for consent are solid practices with desirable outcomes. By the same token, safer sex advocates also
routinely spread the message to populations who might be likely to engage in unsafe or nonconsensual sexual
behavior.

In a nutshell, persuasive speeches must confront the complex challenge of influencing or reinforcing peoples’
beliefs, attitudes, values, or actions, all characteristics that may seem natural, ingrained, or unchangeable to an
audience. Because of this, rhetors (or speakers) must motivate their audiences to think or behave differently by
presenting reasoned arguments.

The triumph of persuasion over force is the sign of a civilized society. – Mark Skousen

Licensing & Attributions

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by: Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA and Indiana University, Bloomington, IN. Located at
at:
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219
 FUNCTIONS OF PERSUASIVE SPEECHES

So far, we have discussed the functions of persuasive speeches—to influence or reinforce—only peripherally as
they relate to our working definition. Next, we turn to an in-depth discussion about how persuasive speeches
function.

Speeches
peeches to C
Convince
onvince
Some persuasive speeches attempt to influence or reinforce particular beliefs,
attitudes, or values. In these speeches, called speeches to convince
convince, the speaker
seeks to establish agreement about a particular topic. For instance, a climatologist
who believes that global warming is caused by human behavior might try to
convince an audience of government officials to adopt this belief. She might end her
speech by saying, “In recent years, humans have been producing machines that
expel CO2 either in their production, their consumption, or in both. At the same time,
the level of CO2 in the atmosphere increased dramatically. The connection is clear
to many of us that humans have caused this damage and that it is up to us to
similarly intervene.” Throughout her speech, the scientist would likely recite a
number of statistics linking human productivity with global warming in her effort to
convince the government officials that both the causes and solutions to the climatic
changes were a distinctly human problem.

Speeches to Actuate
“AirPollutionSource” by US
Environmental Protection
Agency. Public domain.
Other times, persuasive speeches attempt to influence or reinforce actions.
Speeches to actuate are designed to motivate particular behaviors. Think of a time when you found yourself up at
2 a.m. watching infomercials. Someone on the television screen was trying very hard to sell you a $20 spatula
that morphed into a spoon with the click of a button. The salesperson described its utility and innovation for your
kitchen, and he described why it would be a good purchase for you—after all, how does a busy person like you
have time to use two different utensils? “But wait,” he would say, “there’s more!” In case he had not already
convinced you that you needed this kitchen tool, he ended his spiel with a final plea—an extra Spoonatula for
free. In this infomercial, the salesperson attempted to convince you that you needed to buy the kitchen tool—it will
save you time and money. Thus, not only was the commercial an attempt to convince you to change how you felt
about spoons and spatulas, but also an effort to incite you to action—to actually purchase the Spoonatula. This
illustrates a function of persuasive speeches, to motivate behavior.
Licensing & Attributions
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at:
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Public domain content

• AirPollutionSource. Provided by
by: US Environmental Protection Agency. Located at License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:AirPollutionSource.jpg. License

TYPES OF PERSUASIVE SPEECHES

Persuasive speeches revolve around propositions that can be defended through the use of data and reasoning.
Persuasive propositions respond to one of three types of questions: questions of fact, questions of value, and

220
questions of policy. These questions can help the speaker determine what forms of argument and reasoning are
necessary to support a specific purpose statement.

Everything we hear is an opinion, not a fact. Everything we see is a perspective, not the truth. – Marcus
Aurelius

Propositions of Fact
Questions of fact ask whether something “can potentially be verified as either true or false.” ( (Note: Herrick, J.A.
(2011). Argumentation: Understanding and Shaping Arguments. State College, PA: Strata Publishing.)) These
questions can seem very straightforward—something is or it is not—but in reality, the search for truth is a complex
endeavor. Questions of fact rarely address simple issues such as, “is the sky blue?” They tend to deal with deep-
seated controversies such as the existence of global warming, the cause of a major disaster, or someone’s guilt
or innocence in a court of law. To answer these questions, a proposition of fact may focus on whether or not
something exists. For example, in the U.S. there is a debate over the prevalence of racial profiling, the practice of
law enforcement officers targeting people for investigation and arrest based on skin color. On one hand, the
American Civil Liberties Union advances the proposition: “Racial profiling continues to be a prevalent and
egregious form of discrimination in the United States.” ( (Note: American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). (2012).
Racial Profiling. Retrieved from: http://www.aclu.org/racialjustice/racial-profiling)) They verify this claim using data
from government studies, crime statistics, and personal narratives. However, journalist Heather MacDonald
proposes that studies confirming racial profiling are often based in “junk science”; in fact she says, “there’s no
credible evidence that racial profiling exists.” ( (Note: MacDonald, H. (2002, March 27). The racial profiling myth
debunked. City Journal. Retrieved from: http://www.city-journal.org/html/eon_3_27_02hm.html)) To substantiate
her proposition, MacDonald relies on a study of traffic stops on the New Jersey turnpike along with personal
narratives, policy analysis, and testimony from a criminologist. The claim that racial profiling exists is either true or
false, but there is evidence for and against both propositions; therefore no consensus exists.

While some propositions of fact deal with the existence of a particular phenomenon or the accuracy of a theory,
others focus on causality. For example, the U.S. government appointed a commission to evaluate the causes of
the nation’s recent economic crisis. In their report the commission concluded by proposing that recklessness in
the financial industry and failures on the part of government regulators caused the economic crisis. However,
Congressman Paul Ryan has proposed that Medicare is to blame, and the chief investment officer at JP Morgan
has proposed that U.S. housing policy is the root cause of the problem. ( (Note: Angelides, P. (2011, June 28).
The real causes of the economic crisis? They’re history. The Washington Post. Retrieved from:
http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/the-real-causes-of-theeconomic-crisis-theyrehistory/2011/06/27/
AG2nK4pH_story.html)) Each of these three propositions of fact is backed by its own set of historical and
economic analysis.

Propositions of fact may also be used to make predictions

concerning what will happen in the future. In the summer
of 2011, ten miles of a popular Southern California freeway
were closed for an entire weekend. Motorists, news
outlets, and government officials called the closure
“Carmageddon” because they proposed there would be an
“inevitable and likely epic traffic tie-up.” ( (Note: Kandel, J.
(2011, July 14). Los Angeles braces for weekend of
“Carmageddon.” Reuters. Retrieved from:
http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/07/15/us-
carmageddon-losangeles-idUSTRE76D2D720110715)) As
a result of the predictions motorists stayed off the roads
and made alternative plans that weekend resulting in much
lighter traffic than expected. The proposition may have
been true, but the prediction was not fulfilled because “Interstate 10 looking east from Crenshaw Boulevard” by
people were persuaded to stay off the freeway. Downtowngal. CC-BY-SA.

When advancing propositions of fact, you should focus on the evidence you can offer in support of your
proposition. First, make sure that your speech contains sufficient evidence to back up your proposition. Next, take
the time to interpret that evidence so that it makes sense to your audience. Last, emphasize the relationship
between your evidence and your proposition as well as its relevance to the audience. ( (Note: Herrick 2011))

221
 Bitter experience has taught us how fundamental our values are and how great the mission they
represent. – Jan Peter Balkenende

Propositions of Value
Persuasive speakers may also be called to address questions of value, which call for a proposition judging the
(relative) worth of something. These propositions make an evaluative claim regarding morality, aesthetics,
wisdom, or desirability. For example, some vegetarians propose that eating meat is immoral because of the way
that animals are slaughtered. Vegetarians may base this claim in a philosophy of utilitarianism or animal rights. (
(Note: DeGrazia, D. (2009). Moral vegetarianism from a very broad basis. Journal of Moral Philosophy, 6.
Retrieved from: https://philosophy.columbian.gwu.edu/sites/philosophy.columbian.gwu.edu/files/image/
DeGraziaMoral.pdf ))

Sometimes a proposition of value compares multiple

options to determine which is best. Consumers call for
these comparisons regularly to determine which products
to buy. Car buyers may look to the most recent Car and
Driver “10 Best Cars” list to determine their next purchase.
In labeling a car one of the best on the market for a given
year, Car and Driver says that the cars “don’t have to be
the newest, and they don’t have to be expensive . . . They
just have to meet our abundant needs while satisfying our
every want.” ( (Note: Car and Driver (2011, December).
2012 10Best Cars. Car and Driver. Retrieved from:
http://www.caranddriver.com/features/2012-10best-cars-
feature))

Both the vegetarian and car examples offer standards for

evaluating the proposition. Since propositions of value tend “McLarenF1” by Jagvar. Public domain.
to be more subjective, speakers need to establish
evaluation criteria by which the audience can judge and choose to align with their position. When advancing a
proposition of value, offer a clear set of criteria, offer evidence for your evaluation, and apply the evidence to
demonstrate that you have satisfied the evaluation criteria. ( (Note: Herrick 2011))

An inner process stands in need of outward criteria. – Ludwig Wittgenstein

The 2005 disagreement between family members over removing a woman’s feeding tube after she had been in a
coma for 15 years sparked a national debate over the value of life that highlights the importance of evaluation
criteria. After years of failed medical treatments and rehabilitation attempts, Terri Schiavo’s husband petitioned
the court to remove her feeding tube, initiating a legal battle with her parents that went all the way to the President
of the United States. ( (Note: Cerminara, K. & Goodman, K. (2012). Schiavo Timeline. Retrieved from University
of Miami Ethics Program: http://www.miami.edu/index.php/ethics/projects/schiavo/schiavo_timeline/)) Opposing
sides in the debate both claimed to value life. To support his proposition that his wife had a right to die, Mr.
Schaivo applied the evaluation criteria of quality of life and argued that she would not want to continue to live in a
vegetative state. ( (Note: Caplan, A. (2005). The time has come to let Terri Schiavo die: Politicians, courts must
allow husband to make final decision. NBC News. Retrieved from: http://www.nbcnews.com/id/7231440/ns/health-
health_care/t/time-has-come-let-terri-schiavo-die/)) Ms. Schiavo’s parents vehemently disagreed with his
argument. They also claimed to value life and, with the support of religious groups, relied on the evaluation criteria
of the sanctity of life to contend that she should be kept alive. ( (Note: Catholic Culture. (2005). The death of Terri
Schiavo. Catholic World News. Retrieved from: https://www.catholicculture.org/news/features/
index.cfm?recnum=37860)) Both sides gained widespread support based on people’s agreement or disagreement
with their evaluation criteria. Despite intervention on behalf of both state and federal legislators, the courts
eventually ruled that Mr. Schiavo had the right to have his wife’s feeding tube removed and allow her to die.

A policy is a temporary creed liable to be changed, but while it holds good, it has got to be pursued with
apostolic zeal. – Mahatma Gandhi

222
Propositions of Policy
Although the Schiavo case was rooted in a question of value, the debate resulted in a question of
policy. Questions of policy ask the speaker to advocate for an appropriate course of action. This form of
persuasive speech is used every day in Congress to determine laws, but it is also used interpersonally to
determine how we ought to behave. A proposition of policy may call for people to stop a particular behavior, or to
start one. For example, some U.S. cities have started banning single use plastic bags in grocery stores. Long
before official public policy on this issue was established, organizations such as The Surfrider Foundation and the
Earth Resource Foundation advocated that people stop using these bags because of the damage plastic bags
cause to marine life. In this case local governments and private organizations attempted to persuade people to
stop engaging in a damaging behavior— shopping with single use plastic bags. However, the organizations also
attempted to persuade people to start a new behavior—shopping with reusable bags.

When answering a question of policy, speakers will typically begin by describing the status quo. If you are arguing
that a change must be made, you must first identify the problem inherent in the current behavior, and then
demonstrate that the problem is significant enough to warrant immediate consideration. Once you have
established that there is a problem which the audience ought to consider, you can then offer your proposal for a
preferable course of action. ( (Note: Herrick 2011)) Then, it is up to you to demonstrate that your proposed policy
will have more benefits than costs.

In 2011 the U.S. Postal Service, the nation’s second-

largest employer, told Congress it was facing an $8.3
billion budget shortfall. ( (Note: Bingham, A. (2011, July
22). Postal Service pushes to end Saturday delivery. ABC
News. Retrieved from: http://abcnewsradioonline.com/
business-news/postal-service-pushes-to-end-saturday-
delivery.html)) To solve the problem, the Postal Service
proposed that be permitted to end Saturday mail delivery
and close some post offices. To make their argument, they
first described the status quo saying that the demand for
their service had dramatically decreased with the
popularity of email and online bill-pay services. They
explained that in preceding years they laid off workers and
cut spending to help with the shortfall of revenue, but now
another plan was necessary to avoid defaulting on their
financial obligations. They offered evidence that people
preferred ending Saturday mail to alternatives such as
paying more for stamps or allocating more tax money to
post offices. ( (Note: Bingham 2011)) Although they made “USPS mailboxes” by EraserGirl. CC-BY.
a compelling case, the USPS still needed to overcome
perceived disadvantages to their proposition such as the negative impact on businesses and rural towns. ( (Note:
Bingham 2011)) ( (Note: Stephenson, E. (2012, August 1). Senators blast House leaders over Postal Service
default. Reuters. Retrieved from: http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/08/01/us-usa-postal-default-
idUSBRE8701HO20120801)) A full year later, the policy proposition passed the U.S. Senate but continues to
await approval in the House. ( (Note: Stephenson 2012))
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223
 CHOOSING A PERSUASIVE SPEECH TOPIC

In order to offer a persuasive speech, you must decide precisely what it is

you want to talk about, to whom you will be speaking, and to what ends you
hope the speech will lead. Persuasive speeches do not normally happen
within a vacuum, even in a public speaking course where that might seem to
be the case. In fact, most persuasive speeches serve as a response to larger
circumstances—gas prices increase dramatically and drivers cannot afford to
fill up their tanks; war veterans suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD) and can find little governmental assistance for the necessary
treatments; an election is forthcoming and candidates need to secure votes.
These are just a few times when a persuasive speech would make sense. A
driver might try to persuade their employer to embrace telecommuting as a
response to the high rate of gasoline. Veterans with PTSD might stage
speeches to a national audience imploring them to advocate for better
mental health care for people who have fought in wars. And candidates, of
course, will give many speeches during a campaign that tease out the
various reasons they, and not another candidate, should be elected.
Appendix A (at the end of the chapter) offers a lengthier list of possible topics
for persuasive speaking, but keep in mind the advice that Burnett offers in
Chapter 8 (public speaking: the virtual text) regarding topic selection. The
topics in Appendix A are written as propositions that can be defended. Some
are propositions of fact, others are propositions of value, and yet others are
“Jade Raymond” by Gamerscore Blog. propositions of policy.
CC-BY-SA.
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APPROACHING AUDIENCES

If I can get you to laugh with me, you like me better, which makes you more open to my ideas. And if I
can persuade you to laugh at the particular point I make, by laughing at it you acknowledge its truth. –
John Cleese

When choosing a topic for your persuasive speech, it is crucial to consider the composition of your audience.
Because persuasive speeches are intended to influence or reinforce an audience’s thoughts or behaviors,
speakers must consider what and how the audience thinks, feels, and does. Your audience might be ambivalent
about your topic, or they may be strongly opposed, in strong agreement, or somewhere along the spectrum. In
persuasive speeches, it matters where they fall on this continuum. For instance, if you want to argue that abortion
should be illegal and your audience is composed of pro-life advocates, your speech might seem like you are
preaching to the choir. But if your audience is made up of staunch pro-choice activists, your speech would be
raising a significant objection to a set of beliefs, values, attitudes, and actions the audience was already
committed to.

224
Decaro, Adams and Jefferis offer advice for carrying out a
thorough audience analysis in Chapter 5 of this book.
Some questions you might ask before giving a speech
include, “Who is hosting the speech?” Often this can
provide a great deal of information about who will be in the
audience. Audience members at a National Rifle
Association gathering probably do not need to be
convinced that the Second Amendment to the U.S.
Constitution— the right to keep and bear arms—is worth
upholding. You should also ask, “Is the audience fairly
heterogeneous?” In a public speaking class, you may be
able to gauge that through your interactions with your
fellow classmates before you make your way to the
podium; but in other settings this may not be the case. If
an organization is sponsoring or has invited you to speak, “Photo Essay” by United States Armed Force. Public
this is a question that can be directed to organizational domain.
staff with access to demographic information. Some
demographics that may be useful as you craft your speech include age, gender, sexual orientation, ethnic or
cultural background, socioeconomic status, religion, and political affiliation. Each of these characteristics is known
to influence a listener’s beliefs, attitudes, values, and actions.

Receptive Audiences
Persuasive speakers will not generally address an
audience that already fully agrees with them and is
behaving in the way they would like, because that
audience no longer needs to be persuaded. However, you
may find yourself in situations that allow you to appeal to a
receptive audience which already knows something about
your topic and is generally supportive of, or open to, the
point you are trying to make. For example, parents are
generally interested in keeping their children safe. If you
seek to persuade them that they should work with their
kids to prevent them from being taken advantage of on
social networking sites, they are likely to welcome what
you have to say. Although they are already convinced that
it is important to keep their children safe, this audience
may not yet be persuaded that they have the need or “Children Play in Push Car” by Nils Fretwurst. CC-BY-SA.
ability to keep their kids safe in an online environment. In
order to persuade this receptive audience, you should first attempt to foster identification with them by highlighting
things you have in common. If you are a parent you might say something like, “I have two children and one of my
biggest concerns is making sure they are safe.” If you are not a parent you might say, “one of the things I
appreciate most about my parents is that I know they are always trying to keep me safe.” With these statements,
you not only relate to the audience, but also demonstrate that you share a common concern.

If you would persuade, you must appeal to interest rather than intellect. – Benjamin Franklin

Next, offer a clear statement of purpose and tell the audience what you would like them to do in response to your
message. If the audience is already likely to agree with your point, they will be looking for ways to act on it. Offer
practical steps that they can take. Even if the steps must be carried out later (i.e. the parents in our example may
have to wait to get home and start talking with their child about social networking habits), give them a way to
respond to the message immediately and show their support. In this case you may have them write down the first
thing they will say to their child, or practice saying it to the person next to them. Having them act on your message
before leaving reinforces their already favorable response to what you are asking. ( (Note: Beebe, S.A. & Beebe,
S.J. (2003). Public Speaking: An Audience Centered Approach (5th ed.). Boston: Pearson.))

I swore never to be silent whenever and wherever human beings endure suffering and humiliation. We
must always take sides. Neutrality helps the oppressor, never the victim. Silence encourages the
tormentor, never the tormented. – Elie Wiesel

225
Neutral Audiences
Most of the groups that a persuasive speaker addresses
are neutral audiences
audiences. These audiences are not
passionate about the topic or speaker, often because they
do not have enough information or because they are not
aware that they should be concerned. Beebe & Beebe
explain that the challenge in addressing a neutral audience
is to foster their interest in your proposition. ( (Note:
(Beebe & Beebe 2003))) They offer a few tips for
cultivating interest in a neutral audience. Begin by gaining
their attention. To do this you might offer a story or statistic
that relates the topic directly to the dominant demographic
in the audience. If you are trying to convince first-year
college students to avoid credit card solicitors on campus
you might start with something like, “I know those t-shirts
the credit card vendors are handing out are stylish and, “Untitled” by Petr Kratochvil. CC-0.
best of all, free! But that t-shirt could cost you thousands of
dollars before you even graduate.” Rather than beginning with a diatribe on the evils of debt, which many of them
may not yet have experienced, you relate to their desire for a free t-shirt and a common belief they are likely to
share, that “free” should not translate to “expensive.” If you cannot relate the topic directly to the audience,
another approach is to relate the topic to someone they care about, like a family member or friend. Keep in mind
that, while the receptive audience may be eager to respond immediately, the neutral audience may simply be
more concerned about the topic or more inclined to consider the behavior change you are advocating. ( (Note:
(Beebe & Beebe 2003))) In this case, consider offering resources for more information, or a few minor steps they
can take when they are ready.

He who dreads hostility too much is unfit to rule. – Lucius Annaeus Seneca

Hostile Audiences
Unfortunately, some audiences may be resistant or even hostile to your persuasive speech. A hostile audience
may take issue with your topic or with you as a speaker. In this case, your primary goal is to persuade the
audience to listen to what you have to say. ( (Note: (Beebe & Beebe 2003))) Once they are willing to listen, then
you will have the ability to change their minds in the future. Later in this chapter we will address ways that you can
foster a better relationship with the audience by building your ethos. However, if the audience is opposed to your
proposition, there are a few steps that you can take to encourage them to at least hear you out. If the audience is
not likely to agree with your proposition, wait until later in the speech to offer it. Opening with a clear statement of
purpose, which a receptive audience welcomes, will make an unreceptive audience more hostile to your goals.
For example, if you begin by telling business owners that you think they should pay workers more, they are likely
to think of all the reasons that will threaten their livelihood rather than listening to your message. Instead, begin by
highlighting issues on which you agree. You might open with a discussion of the challenges businesses face in
attempting to retain quality workers and increase productivity.

I have spent many years of my life in opposition, and I rather like the role. – Eleanor Roosevelt

Once you have identified areas of agreement, you can offer your proposition as a way of addressing your shared
goals. To promote an increase in wages, you might explain that a study of more than 10,000 workers and
managers in a variety of industries demonstrated that companies who pay their workers more were also more
motivated to invest in new technology, enhance their management techniques, better train workers, and better
deliver their services, all of which lead to higher productivity and increased profits. ( (Note: Applebaum, E. &
Berhardt, A. (2004, December 18). Employers also benefit from a higher minimum wage. Brennan Center for
Justice. Retrieved from: http://www.brennancenter.org/analysis/employers-also-benefit-higher-minimum-wage))
Focusing on areas of agreement will make the audience more receptive to your proposition, but they will still hold
some reservations. Acknowledge those reservations and demonstrate that you have given them ample
consideration. Cite credible evidence that supports your proposition in light of those reservations. Showing that
you understand and respect their opposing position is the most important step toward encouraging a hostile
audience to at least hear you out.

226
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Known Copyright

PERSUASIVE STRATEGIES

Ethos
In addition to understanding how your audience feels about the topic
you are addressing, you will need to take steps to help them see you as
credible and interesting. The audience’s perception of you as a speaker
is influential in determining whether or not they will choose to accept
your proposition. Aristotle called this element of the speech ethos
ethos, “a
Greek word that is closely related to our terms ethical and ethnic.” (
(Note: Campbell, K.K. & Huxman, S.S. (2009). The Rhetorical Act:
Thinking, Speaking, and Writing Critically. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.))
He taught speakers to establish credibility with the audience by
appearing to have good moral character, common sense, and concern
for the audience’s well-being. ( (Note: Beebe, S.A. & Beebe, S.J.
(2003). Public Speaking: An Audience Centered Approach (5th ed.).
Boston: Pearson.)) Campbell & Huxman explain that ethos is not about
conveying that you, as an individual, are a good person. It is about
“mirror[ing] the characteristics idealized by [the] culture or group”
(ethnic), ( (Note: Campbell & Huxman 2009)) and demonstrating that
you make good moral choices with regard to your relationship within the
group (ethics).

While there are many things speakers can do to build their ethos
throughout the speech, “assessments of ethos often reflect superficial
first impressions,” and these first impressions linger long after the “Danny Shine Speaker’s Corner” by
speech has concluded. ( (Note: Zarefsky, D. (2005). Public Speaking: Acapeloahddub. Public domain.
Strategies for Success (Special edition for The Pennsylvania State
University). Boston: Pearson.)) This means that what you wear and how you behave, even before opening your
mouth, can go far in shaping your ethos. Be sure to dress appropriately for the occasion and setting in which you
speak. Also work to appear confident, but not arrogant, and be sure to maintain enthusiasm about your topic
throughout the speech. Give great attention to the crafting of your opening sentences because they will set the
tone for what your audience should expect of your personality as you proceed.

I covered two presidents, LBJ and Nixon, who could no longer convince, persuade, or govern, once
people had decided they had no credibility; but we seem to be more tolerant now of what I think we
should not tolerate. – Helen Thomas

Logos
Another way to enhance your ethos, and your chances of persuading the audience, is to use sound arguments. In
a persuasive speech, the argument will focus on the reasons for supporting your specific purpose statement. This
argumentative approach is what Aristotle referred to as logos
logos, or the logical means of proving an argument. (
(Note: Braet, A.C. (1992). Ethos, pathos, and logos in Aristotle’s rhetoric: A reexamination. Argumentation, 6(3),
pp. 307–320.))

227
When offering an argument you begin by making an assertion that requires a logical leap based on the available
evidence. ( (Note: Campbell & Huxman 2009)) One of the most popular ways of understanding how this process
works was developed by British philosopher Stephen Toulmin. ( (Note: Herrick, J.A. (2011). Argumentation:
Understanding and Shaping Arguments. State College, PA: Strata Publishing.)) Toulmin explained that basic
arguments tend to share three common elements: claim, data, and warrant. The claim is an assertion that you
want the audience to accept. Data refers to the preliminary evidence on which the claim is based. For example, if
I saw large gray clouds in the sky, I might make the claim that “it is going to rain today.” The gray clouds (data)
are linked to rain (claim) by the warrant
warrant, an often unstated general connection, that large gray clouds tend to
produce rain. The warrant is a connector that, if stated, would likely begin with “since” or “because.” In our rain
example, if we explicitly stated all three elements, the argument would go something like this: There are large
gray clouds in the sky today (data). Since large gray clouds tend to produce rain (warrant), it is going to rain today
(claim). However, in our regular encounters with argumentation, we tend to only offer the claim and (occasionally)
the warrant.

To strengthen the basic argument, you will need backing for the claim. Backing provides foundational support for
the claim ( (Note: Herrick 2011)) by offering examples, statistics, testimony, or other information which further
substantiates the argument. To substantiate the rain argument we have just considered, you could explain that
the color of a cloud is determined by how much light the water in the cloud is reflecting. A thin cloud has tiny
drops of water and ice crystals which scatter light, making it appear white. Clouds appear gray when they are
filled with large water droplets which are less able to reflect light. ( (Note: Brill, R. (2003, July 21). Why do clouds
turn gray before it rains? Scientific American. Retrieved from: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-do-
clouds-turn-gray-b/))

Table 16.1: The Toulmin Model

Basic Argument

data
claim
I had a hard time finding a place to park on
The school needs more parking spaces.
campus.

warrant

If I can’t find a place to park, there must be a shortage of spaces.

Argument with Backing

claim
data
U.S. citizens should be encouraged to eat less processed
Obesity is a serious problem in the U.S.
foods.

warrant

Processed foods contribute to obesity more than natural or unprocessed foods.

backing

“As a rule processed foods are more ‘energy dense’ than fresh foods: they contain less water and fiber but
more added fat and sugar, which makes them both less filling and more fattening.” (Pollan, 2007) ( (Note:
Pollan, M. (2007, April 22). You are what you grow. The New York Times. Retrieved from:
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/22/magazine/22wwlnlede.t.html?pagewanted=all))

228
 Logic is the beginning of wisdom, not the end. – Leonard Nimoy

The elements that Toulmin identified (see Table 16.1) may be arranged in a variety of
ways to make the most logical argument. As you reason through your argument you
may proceed inductively, deductively, or causally, toward your claim. Inductive
reasoning moves from specific examples to a more general claim. For example, if you
read online reviews of a restaurant chain called Walt’s Wine & Dine and you noticed
that someone reported feeling sick after eating at a Walt’s, and another person reported
that the Walt’s they visited was understaffed, and another commented that the tables in
the Walt’s they ate at had crumbs left on them, you might conclude (or claim) that the
restaurant chain is unsanitary. To test the validity of a general claim, Beebe and Beebe
encourage speakers to consider whether there are “enough specific instances to
support the conclusion,” whether the specific instances are typical, and whether the
instances are recent. ( (Note: Beebe & Beebe 2003))

The opposite of inductive reasoning is deductive reasoning

reasoning, moving from a general
principle to a claim regarding a specific instance. In order to move from general to “Dining Booth” by Wayne
specific we tend to use syllogisms
syllogisms. A syllogism begins with a major (or general) Truong. CC-BY.
premise, then moves to a minor premise, then concludes with a specific claim. For
example, if you know that all dogs bark (major premise), and your neighbor has a dog (minor premise), you could
then conclude that your neighbor’s dog barks (specific claim). To verify the accuracy of your specific claim, you
must verify the truth and applicability of the major premise. What evidence do you have that all dogs bark? Is it
possible that only most dogs bark? Next, you must also verify the accuracy of the minor premise. If the major
premise is truly generalizable, and both premises are accurate, your specific claim should also be accurate.

Your reasoning may also proceed causally. Causal

reasoning examines related events to determine which one
caused the other. You may begin with a cause and attempt
to determine its effect. For example, when the Deepwater
Horizon drilling rig exploded in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010,
scientists explained that because many animals in the Gulf
were nesting and reproducing at the time, the spill could
wipe out “an entire generation of hundreds of species.” (
(Note: Donovan, T.W. (2010, July 10). 7 Long term effects
of the Gulf oil spill. Huffington Post. Retrieved from:
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/05/10/7-long-term-
effects-of-
th_n_562947.html#s87787title=Environmental_Damage))
Their argument reasoned that the spill (cause) would result
in species loss (effect). Two years later, the causal
reasoning might be reversed. If we were seeing species “Deepwater Horizon offshore drilling unit on fire” by US
loss in the Gulf (effect), we could reason that it was a Coast Guard. Public domain.
result of the oil spill (cause). Both of these claims rely on
the evidence available at the time. To make the first claim, scientists not only offered evidence that animals were
nesting and reproducing, but they also looked at the effects of an oil spill that occurred 21 years earlier in Alaska.
( (Note: Donovan 2010)) To make the second claim, scientists could examine dead animals washing up on the
coast to determine whether their deaths were caused by oil.

Pathos
While we have focused heavily on logical reasoning, we must also recognize the strong role that emotions play in
the persuasive process. Aristotle called this element of the speech pathos
pathos. Pathos draws on the emotions,
sympathies, and prejudices of the audience to appeal to their non-rational side. ( (Note: Beebe & Beebe 2003)) (
(Note: Reike, R.D., Sillars, M.O., & Peterson, T.R. (2009). Argumentation and Critical Decision Making (7th ed.).
Boston: Pearson.)) Human beings are constantly in some emotional state, which means that tapping into an
audience’s emotions can be vital to persuading them to accept your proposition. ( (Note: Dillard, J.P. & Meijnders,
A. (2002). Persuasion and the structure of affect. In J.P. Dillard & M. Pfau (Eds.), The Persuasion Handbook:
Developments in Theory and Practice (309–328). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.))

229
One of the most helpful strategies in appealing to your audience’s emotions is to use clear examples that illustrate
your point. Illustrations can be crafted verbally, nonverbally, or visually. To offer a verbal illustration, you could tell
a compelling story. For example, when fundraising for breast cancer
research, Nancy Brinker, creator of Susan G. Komen for the Cure, has plenty
of compelling statistics and examples to offer. Yet, she regularly talks about
her sister, explaining:

Susan G. Komen fought breast cancer with her heart, body and soul.
Throughout her diagnosis, treatments, and endless days in the hospital,
she spent her time thinking of ways to make life better for other women
battling breast cancer instead of worrying about her own situation. That
concern for others continued even as Susan neared the end of her fight.
( (Note: Komen National. (n.d.). St. Louis Affiliate of Susan G. Komen for
the Cure: Who We Are. Retrieved from: http://www.komenstlouis.org/
site/PageServer?pagename=whoweare_national))

Brinker promised her sister that she would continue her fight against breast
cancer. This story compels donors to join her fight.

Speakers can also tap into emotions using nonverbal behaviors to model the
desired emotion for their audience. In the summer of 2012, the U.S. House of
Representatives debated holding the Attorney General in contempt for
refusing to release documents concerning a controversial gun-tracking
operation. Arguing for a contempt vote, South Carolina Representative Trey
Gowdy did not simply state his claim; instead he raised his voice, slowed his pace, and used hand motions to
convey anger with what he perceived as deception on the part of the Attorney General. ( (Note: Gowdy, T. (2012).
Trey Gowdy’s emotional speech on Holder contempt [Video file]. Retrieved from: https://youtu.be/2bP-G4Btwp0))
His use of volume, tone, pace, and hand gestures enhanced the message and built anger in his audience.

Speech is power: speech is to persuade, to convert, to compel. It is to bring another out of his bad
sense into your good sense. – Ralph Waldo Emerson

In addition to verbal and nonverbal illustrations, visual imagery can enhance the emotional appeal of a message.
For example, we have all heard about the dangers of drugs, and there are multiple campaigns that attempt to
prevent people from even trying them. However, many young adults experiment with drugs under the assumption
that they are immune from the negative effects if they only use the drug recreationally. To counter this assumption
regarding methamphetamines, the Montana Meth project combines controversial statements with graphic images
on billboards to evoke fear of the drug (see the Montana Meth Project for some disturbing examples). Young
adults may have heard repeated warnings that meth is addictive and that it has the potential to cause sores,
rotten teeth, and extreme weight loss, but Montana Meth Project’s visual display is more compelling because it
turns the audience’s stomach, making the message memorable. This image, combined with the slogan, “not even
once,” conveys the persuasive point without the need for other forms of evidence and rational argument.

Appeals to fear, like those in the Montana Meth Project ads, have proven effective in motivating people to change
a variety of behaviors. However, speakers must be careful with their use of this emotion. Fear appeals tend to be
more effective when they appeal to a high-level fear, such as death, and they are more effective when offered by
speakers with a high level of perceived credibility. ( (Note: Beebe & Beebe 2003)) Fear appeals are also more
persuasive when the speaker can convince the audience they have the ability to avert the threat. If audiences
doubt their ability to avoid or minimize the threat, the appeal may backfire. ( (Note: Witte, K. & Allen, M. (2000). A
metaanalysis of fear appeals: Implications for effective public health campaigns. Health Education & Behavior,
27(5), 591–615.))

I would rather try to persuade a man to go along, because once I have persuaded him, he will stick. If I
scare him, he will stay just as long as he is scared, and then he is gone. – Dwight D. Eisenhower

David Brooks argues that, “emotions are not separate from reason, but they are the foundation of reason because
they tell us what to value.” ( (Note: Brooks, D. (2011, November 17). TED 2001: David Brooks explains why there
is no reason without emotion. Huffington Post. Retrieved from: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/03/14/ted-
david-brooks_n_835476.html)) Those values are at the core of fostering a credible ethos. All of Aristotle’s
strategies, ethos, logos, and pathos, are interdependent. The most persuasive speakers will combine these
strategies to varying degrees based on their specific purpose and audience.

230
Ethics of Persuasion
In addition to considering their topic and persuasive
strategy, speakers must take care to ensure that their
message is ethical. Persuasion is often confused with
another kind of communication that has similar ends, but
different methods—coercion. Like persuasion, coercion is
a process whereby thoughts or behaviors are altered. But
in coercive acts, deceptive or harmful methods propel the
intended changes, not reason. Strong and Cook
contrasted the two: “persuasion uses argument to compel
power to give way to reason while coercion uses force to
compel reason to give way to power.” ( (Note: Strong, W.
F., & Cook, J. A. (1992). Persuasion: Strategies for public
influence (3rd ed.). Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt
Publishing.)) The “force” that Strong and Cook mention
frequently manifests as promises for reward or
punishment, but sometimes it arises as physical or “Speakers Corner Speaker 1987” by Deborah MacLean.
emotional harm. Think of almost any international crime Public domain.
film you have seen, and you are likely to remember a
scene where someone was compelled to out their compatriots by way of force. Jack Bauer, the protagonist in the
American television series 24, became an infamous character by doing whatever it took to get captured criminals
to talk. Although dramatic as an example, those scenes where someone is tortured in an effort to produce
evidence offer a familiar reference when thinking about coercion. To avoid coercing an audience, speakers should
use logical and emotional appeals responsibly.

The pendulum of the mind alternates between sense and nonsense, not between right and wrong.
– Carl Jung

Persuasive speakers must be careful to avoid using fallacies in their reasoning. Fallacies are errors in reasoning
that occur when a speaker fails to use appropriate or applicable evidence for their argument. There are a wide
variety of fallacies, and it is not possible to list them all here. However, speakers should watch for four common
categories of fallacies: “fallacies of faulty assumption,” which occur when the speaker reasons based on a
problematic assumption; “fallacies directed to the person,” which occur when the speaker focuses on the
attributes of an individual opponent rather than the relevant arguments; “fallacies of case presentation,” which
occur when the speaker mischaracterizes the issue; and “fallacies of suggestion,” which occur when the speaker
implies or suggests an argument without fully developing it. ( (Note: Herrick 2011)) See the Table 16.2 on the
following page for examples of each of these types of fallacies. To learn more about fallacies, see Chapter 6 by
Russ (Critical Thinking and Reasoning), or see the supplemental handout found on the Persuasive Speaking
chapter homepage.

Table 16.2: Examples of Fallacies

Fallacies of
Faulty
Assumption

It is cloudy outside, and I feel sick. Cloudy days make me sick.

Casual Fallacy
The school board voted to buy new picnic tables for the lunch room. Many students were
out sick the following day. The students must be upset about the picnic tables.

Bandwagon Everyone takes out a loan to buy a car, so you should too.
Fallacy
None of the cool kids wear helmets when they ride bikes. You should take yours off.

231
 Table 16.2: Examples of Fallacies

Begging the The Lion King is an excellent film because it has excellent animation.
Question
Marijuana is good for you because it is natural.

Fallacies Directed to the Person

Ad Hominem We should reject President Obama’s healthcare legislation because it is socialism.

Before the defense makes their closing statement, keep in mind that their client has not said
Poisoning the
Well one truthful word throughout the trial.

My opponent is going to try to manipulate you into thinking her plan is better for the city.

First, I wanted to tell you that this is my favorite class. I tell all my friends how much I love it.
Appeal to
Flattery I just think I deserve a better grade on my exam.

You are such a generous person. I know you’ll want to donate to this cause.

Fallacies of Case Presentation

I don’t plan to vote today because I am moving next week.

Non Sequitur
You should clean your room because I am going to do the laundry.

I should not be fined for parking in a red zone when there are so many people out there
Red Herring committing real crimes like robbery and murder.

War is wrong, but in times of crisis we should support the president.

Appeal to This diet is the best one for people with my health condition. Oprah said so.
Misplaced
Authority I want to visit the Museum of Modern Art. My English professor says they have the best
collection anywhere!

Fallacies of Suggestion

I’m not saying he cheated; he just did uncharacteristically well on that exam.
Paralepsis
If she wants to work for a crook, that’s her business.

Either you’re with us or against us.

Either/Or
Love it or leave it.

Arrangement I have so much to do today. I have to get my car fixed, finish a paper, take a nap, and pick
my mom up from the airport.

232
 Table 16.2: Examples of Fallacies

So many highly respected musicians will be there: Paul McCartney, Elton John, LMFAO,
Billy Joel…

There are some positive steps you can take to avoid these pitfalls of persuasive speaking and ensure that you are
presenting your message in the most ethical manner. We have already discussed some of these, such as offering
credible evidence for your arguments and showing concern for the audience’s well being. However, you should
also offer a transparent goal for your speech. Even with a hostile audience, where you may wait until later in the
speech to provide the specific purpose statement, you should be forthcoming about your specific purpose. In fact,
be truthful with your audience throughout the speech.

It is appropriate to use fictional scenarios to demonstrate your point, but tell the audience that is what you are
doing. You can accomplish this by introducing fictional examples with the phrase, “hypothetically,” or “imagine,” to
signal that you are making it up. ( (Note: Beebe & Beebe 2003)) Additionally, be sure to offer a mix of logical and
emotional appeals. Blending these strategies insures that you have evidence to back up emotional claims, and
that you are sensitive to the audiences’ emotional reactions to your logical claims. Attending to both aspects will
help you be more ethical and more persuasive.

The most important persuasion tool you have in your entire arsenal is integrity. – Zig Ziglar

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ORGANIZING PERSUASIVE MESSAGES

Once you have selected your topic, know who your audience is, and have settled on an end goal for your
persuasive speech, you can begin drafting your speech. Outlines are organized according to the particular
speech, and the following organizational patterns are used routinely for persuasive speeches.

Monroe’s Motivated Sequence

Monroe’s Motivated Sequence is an organizational pattern that attempts to convince the audience to respond to a
need that is delineated in the speech. ( (Note: Monroe, A. H. (1949). Principles and types of speech. Glenview, IL:
Scott, Foresman and Company.)) Five separate steps characterize the Motivated Sequence organization style:

1. The attention step should get the audience’s attention as well as describe your goals and preview the
speech.

2. The need step should provide a description of the problem as well as the consequences that may result if
the problem goes unresolved. In this step, the speaker should also alert audience members to their role in
mitigating the issue.

3. The satisfaction step is used to outline your solutions to the problems you have previously outlined as well
as deal with any objections that may arise.

233
 4. In the visualization step, audience members are asked to visualize what will happen if your solutions are
implemented and what will happen if they do not come to fruition. Visualizations should be rich with detail.

5. The action appeal step should be used to make a direct appeal for action. In this step, you should
describe precisely how the audience should react to your speech and how they should carry out these
actions. As the final step, you should also offer a concluding comment. See Figure 16.1 to see this method of
arrangement illustrated.

Figure 16.1: Monroe’s Motivated Sequence Sample Outline

I. Attention step

A. When was the last time you saw a dog chained to a tree in a neighbor’s yard, heard about a puppy
mill in your town, or went into a pet store only to find dogs and cats for sale?

B. I work with the Morris County Animal Protection Group, and I would like to share some ways in
which you can help prevent these travesties.

C. First, I will describe some of the major problems in Morris County, and then I will tell you how you
can get involved.

II. Need step: Many animals in Morris County are abused and neglected.

A. There are too many stray animals that are neither spayed nor neutered, resulting in an
overabundance of cats and dogs.

B. These animals often cannot find enough food to survive, and the local shelter cannot accommodate
such high populations.

C. The cost of local spay/neuter programs is too high for our agency to handle.

III. Satisfaction step: Raising $1 million for the Morris County Animal Protection Agency can effectively solve
these problems.

A. We could afford to spay or neuter most stray animals.

B. Obtained animals could be fed and accommodated until a home can be secured for them.

C. Additionally, we could subsidize spay/neuter costs for local citizens.

IV. Visualization step: Imagine what we can do for our animals with this money.

A. What will it be like if we can carry out these actions?

B. What will it be like if we cannot do these things?

V. Action appeal step: Donate to the Morris County Animal Protection Agency.

A. If you want to help protect the many struggling stray animals in Morris County, make a donation to
our organization.

B. Your donation will make a real difference in the lives of our animals.

C. We cannot effect real change for the animals of our county without each and every one of you.

234
Direct Method Pattern
If your goal is to convince your audience to adopt a particular idea, you
might prefer the direct method pattern as a way of organizing your
speech. This pattern consists of a claim and a list of reasons to support
it. Every piece of support in the speech directly supports the central
claim you wish to make. As Jaffe points out, “It’s a good pattern to use
when listeners are apathetic or neutral, either mildly favoring or mildly
opposing your claim.” ( (Note: Jaffe, C. (2004). Public speaking:
Concepts and skills for a diverse society (4th ed.). Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth.)) The outline for a speech on vegetarianism in Figure 16.2
provides three reasons that vegetarianism provides useful health
benefits for people struggling with obesity.
“Roman Rackwitz Presentation” by
Romrack. CC-BY-SA.

Figure 16.2: Direct Method Pattern Sample Outline

Proposition: Vegetarianism offers many positive health benefits for people struggling with obesity.

I. Vegetarianism often reduces the amount of processed food that one eats.

II. Vegetarianism promotes a sense of reflective consumption.

III. Vegetarianism decreases the likelihood that one will contract some diseases, such as cancer and
heart disease.

As you can see from this example, the statement of reasons that follows the proposition directly supports the
central claim of the speech. Each reason offers another bit of evidence that vegetarianism is a good option for
people struggling with obesity.

History creates comprehensibility primarily by arranging facts meaningfully and only in a very limited
sense by establishing strict causal connections. – Johan Huizinga

Causal Pattern
Similar to a problem-solution speech, which was covered in Chapter 8, a causal speech describes a general
cause and a specific effect. In other words, a causal pattern first addresses some cause and then shares what
effects resulted. A causal speech can be particularly effective when the speaker wants to convince their audience
of the relationship between two things. With sound causal reasoning, a speech of this sort can be used to
convince the audience of something they were previously opposed to believing.

As the example in Figure 16.3 illustrates, the basic components of the causal speech are the cause and the
effect. Such an organizational style is useful when a speaker needs to share the results of a new program,
discuss how one act led to another, or discuss the positive/negative outcomes of taking some action. Through this
pattern, the speaker can convince audiences to adopt a new belief about a particular phenomenon.

Figure 16.3: Causal Pattern Sample Outline

Proposition: Macintosh computers make people more creative.

235
 Figure 16.3: Causal Pattern Sample Outline

I. Macintosh computers rely on a simple, intuitive interface and are sold through a marketing
campaign that encourages users to “Think Different.” (cause)

II. The simplicity of Macintosh computers allows people to be more creative since they are not
spending their time figuring out how to use their computer. And these same consumers are socialized
to “think differently” with their Macintosh computers from the moment they consider purchasing one.
(effect)

Refutation Pattern
Sometimes an occasion will arise when your audience is
already opposed to your argument. In this case, a
refutation pattern can be engaged to persuade audience
members that your side of the argument is better or more
accurate. In a refutation speech, the speaker must
anticipate the audience’s opposition, then bring attention to
the tensions between the two sides, and finally refute them
using evidential support. Refutation patterns are frequently
seen in debates, where speakers are fundamentally
opposed to one another’s arguments. Refutation generally
happens through a set of four steps: (1) signaling the
argument to which you are responding, (2) stating your
own argument, (3) providing justification or evidence for
your side of the argument, and (4) summarizing your
response. An advocate of reusing as opposed to recycling
might present the argument in Figure 16.4 to respond to
someone who believes recycling is the best way to
individually work on environmental stewardship. As this “Jeanette Chong-Aruldoss” by Terence Lee. CC-BY.
example illustrates, a refutation speech should clearly
delineate where the audience is perceived to stand on an issue, why their view is in disagreement with the
speaker’s, and why the audience should adopt the speaker’s position. Moreover, the speaker should be sure to
highlight the importance of the debate, which will clue the audience into why they should spend their time listening
to a speaker who clearly disagrees with them. An example of this pattern can be found on the next page in Figure
16.4.

Figure 16.4: Sample Outline Refutation Pattern

(Imagine that the speaker is giving the speech at a recycling convention.)

Proposition: Reusing products is better than recycling them.

I. Although Thomas argued that recycling is the most important individual act of environmental stewardship, I
would like to argue that reusing is an even better way to care for our environment. (signaling and stating)

II. Reusing has several advantages over recycling. (providing evidence)

A. Reusing reduces consumption.

B. Reusing extends the life of a product before it needs to be recycled.

C. It is cheaper to reuse an item than to recycle it.

236
 Figure 16.4: Sample Outline Refutation Pattern

III. Given these advantages, it is more useful for people to reuse items when possible than it is to recycle them.

Neither irony nor sarcasm is argument. – Samuel Butler

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CONCLUSION AND MODULE ACTIVITIES

The primary goal of persuasive speaking is to influence an audience’s beliefs or behaviors so that they can make
necessary or positive change. Persuasive speaking is a vital skill in all areas of life, whether it is a political
candidate convincing voters to elect them, an employee convincing the boss to give them a promotion, or a sales
person convincing a consumer to buy a product, individuals must understand what persuasion is and how it
functions.

When formulating a persuasive speech, remember to determine the

type of question you seek to answer so that you can decide whether to
offer a proposition of fact, a proposition of value, or a proposition of
policy. Weave the topic and the proposition together to create a
compelling argument for your specific audience.

Knowing your audience can help when it comes to choosing the

appropriate strategies for convincing them that you are a credible
speaker. Once you have established your credibility, you can advance
both logical and emotional appeals to move your audience toward the
belief or behavior you hope they will adopt. As you weave these appeals
together, be sure to offer the most ethical arguments by avoiding
fallacies and supporting emotional appeals with relevant evidence.

Once you have compiled the most relevant arguments and emotional
appeals for a given audience, take care to organize your message
effectively. Give thought to your persuasive goals and determine
whether they can be best achieved through the use of Monroe’s
Motivated Sequence, a direct method pattern, a causal pattern, or a “Martin Kingham, CFMEU” by pfctdayelise.
refutation pattern. CC-BY-SA.
The combination of a confident and credible speaker with the right organization of logical and emotional appeals
can go far in swaying an audience.

It’s better to get smart than to get mad. I try not to get so insulted that I will not take advantage of an
opportunity to persuade people to change their minds. – John H. Johnson

237
 Review Activities
1. Early in the chapter the prevalence of persuasion was discussed. Think of an instance in which you
knew you were being persuaded. What were you being persuaded to do? Was the persuader
focused on changing your beliefs, attitudes, values, or actions? How do you know?
2. Imagine you are giving a persuasive speech on ______________ [you fill in the blank]. Draft a
specific purpose statement on this topic for a speech to convince. Next, draft a specific purpose
statement on the same topic for a speech to actuate.
3. Draft a proposition of fact, proposition of value, and proposition of policy for one or more of the
following topics:
◦ Shortening class time
◦ Pro-anorexia images on social networking sites
◦ Airline fees
4. You have been invited to speak to administrators about increasing alumni support for the school.
What steps will you take to build your ethos for this audience? What logical appeals will you make?
How will you appeal to their emotions?
5. Identify the following fallacies (adapted from Labossiere, 1995):
a. If those actions were not illegal, they would not be prohibited by law.
b. Our team had a losing record until we won the last three games. I wore blue socks in the
last three games. Blue socks are lucky, and if I keep wearing them, we can’t lose!
c. The store Joe works at changed the dress code, requiring him to buy all new work clothes.
When he went to the manager to complain, she told him that no one else voiced concern, so
he must be the only one who had that problem.
d. Your roommate has invited his classmate, Annie, over to work on a project. Before Annie
arrives, your roommate explains that she will probably be late because she never helps with
the work and always leaves him to take care of everything.(Answers can be found on the
bottom of page)
6. Imagine you are giving a speech in which you hope to convince audience members to begin
retirement planning while they are still in their twenties. Which of the organizational patterns
described above best fits this topic? Why? Describe its advantages over the other organization styles
for the specific purpose.
Show Answer For #5

Activities
1. Using a recent newspaper, locate an example of a proposition of fact, a proposition of value, and a
proposition of policy, and underline each one. Then, see if you can locate the data, warrant, and
backing for each of these claims. If you cannot locate one or more of the elements, write your own
based on the information provided in the article.
2. Two organizations, Mercy For Animals (MFA) and People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals
(PETA), sponsor billboard advertisements to advocate that people transition to a vegetarian
diet. Examine the billboards from each organization and consider the following:
◦ What logical claims are advanced by each organization’s billboards?
◦ Are there any logical fallacies on the billboards?
◦ What emotional appeals are used on the billboards?
◦ Are any of the emotional appeals unethical? If so, why?
◦ Which is the more ethically persuasive campaign? Why?

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238
 GLOSSARY AND REFERENCES

Glossary

TERM DEFINITION

Argument A proposition supported by one or more reasons or pieces of evidence.

Backing Foundational evidence which supports a claim, such as examples, statistics, or testimony.

Causal
A speech designed to explain a cause-effect relationship between two phenomena.
Pattern

Causal The process of formulating an argument by examining related events to determine which one
Reasoning caused the other.

Claim The proposition you want the audience to accept.

Coercion A process whereby thoughts or behaviors are altered through deceptive or harmful methods.

Data Preliminary evidence on which a claim is based.

Deductive The process of formulating an argument by moving from a general premise to a specific
Reasoning conclusion.

Statistical information that reflects the make-up of a group, often including age, sex, ethnic or
Demographics
cultural background, socioeconomic status, religion, and political affiliation.

Direct Method
A speech designed to present a claim with a list of several supporting pieces of data.
Pattern

Ethos The audience’s perception of a speaker’s credibility and moral character.

Evaluation
A set of standards for judging the merit of a proposition.
Criteria

Errors in reasoning that occur when a speaker fails to use appropriate or applicable evidence
Fallacies
for their argument.

Hostile
An audience that is opposed to the speaker or to the persuasive proposition.
Audience

A connection that is fostered between the speaker and their audience by highlighting shared
Identification
attributes or attitudes.

Inductive The process of formulating an argument by moving from specific instances to a

Reasoning generalization.

Logos The logical means of proving an argument.

239
 Monroe’s
An organizational pattern that attempts to convince the audience to respond to a need that is
Motivated
delineated in the speech through five sequential steps.
Sequence

Neutral
An audience that is neither open nor opposed to the persuasive proposition.
Audience

Pathos The use of emotional appeals to persuade an audience.

Persuasion The art of influencing or reinforcing people’s beliefs, attitudes, values, or actions.

Persuasive
Speeches which aim to convince an audience to think or behave in a particular way.
Speeches

Proposition of
An argument that seeks to establish whether something is true or false.
Fact

Proposition of
An argument that seeks to establish an appropriate course of action.
Policy

Proposition of
An argument that seeks to establish the relative worth of something.
Value

Receptive
An audience that is generally supportive of, or open to, the persuasive proposition.
Audience

A speech designed to anticipate the negative response of an audience, to bring attention to

Refutation
the tensions between the two sides of the argument, and to explain why the audience should
Pattern
change their views.

Speeches to
Persuasive speeches which seek to change or motivate particular behaviors.
Actuate

Speeches to
Persuasive speeches which seek to establish agreement about a particular topic.
Convince

Status Quo The current situation.

Reasoning beginning with a major premise, then moving to a minor premise, before
Syllogisms
establishing a specific claim.

Warrant The (often unstated) connection between data and claim.

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Applebaum, E. & Berhardt, A. (2004, December 18). Employers also benefit from a higher minimum wage.
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Beebe, S.A. & Beebe, S.J. (2003). Public Speaking: An Audience Centered Approach (5th ed.). Boston: Pearson.

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photo credits
p. 1 Judi Chamberlin by Tom Olin http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Judi_Chamberlin_2000_From_Privileges_to_Rights.jpg

p. 2 NASUWT officer speaking by Sam Saunders http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/NASUWT

_officer_speaking_at_Bristol_public_sector_pensions_rally_in_ November_2011.jpg

p. 2 Air Pollution by US Environmental Protection Agency http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/

File:AirPollutionSource.jpg p. 3 California Traffic by Downtowngal http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
1/1b/Interstate _10_looking_east_from_Crenshaw_Boulevard.jpg

p. 4 McLaren F1 by Jagvar http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/MclarenF 1.JPG

p. 4 USPS mailboxes by Erasergirl http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:USPS_mailboxes.jpg

p. 5 Jade Raymond by Gamescore Blog http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jade_Raymond_-

_E3_2007_2.jpg

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p. 5 Audience member at USO show by .S. Air Force Master Sgt. Adam M. Stump http://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Defense.gov_photo_essay_081112-F-6684S-757.jpg

p. 6 Children at play by Nils Fretwurst http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Children_play_in_push_car.jpg

p. 6 Credit cards by Lotus Head http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Credit- cards.jpg

p. 7 Danny Shine by Acapeloahddub http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Danny_Shine_Speaker

%27s_Corner.JPG

p. 8 Dining booth by Wayne Truong http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dining_Booth.jpg

p. 9 Deepwater Horizon fire by US Coast Guard http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/

Deepwater_Horizon_fire_2010-04-21.jpg

p. 9 Nancy Brinker by Nancy Brinker http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nancy_Brinker.jpg

p. 10 Speaker’s Corner speaker by Deborah MacLean http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Speakers-Corner-

Speaker-1987.jpg

p. 12 Roman Rackwitz by Romrack http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Roman_Rackwitz_Pres entation.jpg

p. 13 Jeanette Chong-Aruldoss by Terence Lee http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jeanette_Chong-

Aruldoss_at_a_Reform_Party_rally,_Speakers%27_Corner,_Singapore_-_20110115.jpg

p. 14 Bonnie Franklin by Pattymooney http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/

File:Actress_Bonnie_Franklin_Speaks_at_March_For_Women%27s_Lives_2004.jpg

p. 14 Martin_Kingham by pfctdayelise http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Martin_Kingham,_CF MEU.JPG

Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 16 Glossary and References. Authored by by: Sarah Stone Watt, Ph.D. and Joshua Trey Barnett. Provided by
by: Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA and Indiana University, Bloomington, IN. Located at
at:
http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Project: The Public Speaking Project. License

APPENDIX A: PERSUASIVE SPEECH TOPIC IDEAS

Environmental Topics
• Citizens should try to reuse items before recycling them.
• The U.S. should ban mountaintop removal as a mode of harvesting coal.
• Contemporary climate change is human-caused.
• Governmental funding for clean energy should be increased.
• All municipalities should offer public transportation.
• The U.S. should ratify the Kyoto Protocol.
• Bottled water should undergo the same quality testing as municipal water.
• Preservation is a better environmental sustainability model than is conservation. • Hunting should be
banned on all public lands.

Social Justice Topics

• The right to marry should be extended to gays and lesbians.
• Abortion should be illegal.
• State colleges should be free to attend.
• Martin Luther King, Jr. was the most influential leader of the civil rights movement
• The death penalty should be abolished.
• Convicted rapists should be sentenced to the death penalty.
• Women should receive equal pay for equal work.

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 • Affirmative action does not work and should be ended.
• Individuals and communities affected by environmental injustices should receive compensation.

Campus Life
• Dorm rooms should have individual thermostats.
• Professors’ office hours should be held at reasonable hours, not 7 a.m. on Mondays.
• Free coffee should be provided in all classroom buildings before noon.
• Student fees at universities are too high.
• Dining halls should provide nutritional information for all meals.
• Student government leaders should host regular forums to answer questions from the general student
population.
• Plagiarism should be prosecuted to the fullest extent.

Everyday Life Topics

• The legal drinking age should be lowered to 18.
• Frequent flyers should not be required to remove their shoes in airport security lines.
• Eating five meals a day is better than eating three.
• Smoking should be illegal in all public areas.
• Gmail is the best email service.
• All restaurants should offer vegan and vegetarian options or substitutes.
• Netflix and Hulu are better ways to watch movies and television shows.
• ATM fees should be outlawed.
• Proximity to religious facilities should have no bearing on alcohol sales.

Economic Topics
• Social security benefits should be guaranteed for those who pay in to the program.
• All multi-year jobs should include pension plans.
• The U.S. should spend less on wars and more on education.
• Everyone should be required to pay an equal percentage of taxes.
• A consumption tax is more just than an income tax.
• The minimum wage in the U.S. is too low.
• Multi-million dollar bonuses for corporate executives are unjust because they preclude better wages/
reduced prices for others.

Quirky Topics
• Tacos are the greatest of human inventions.
• Ghosts are real.
• Short haircuts are more comfortable than long hairstyles.
• Bourbon should only be served “on the rocks.”
• Traditional eyeglasses make those who wear them look smarter.
• Eating chicken with a fork should be illegal. (An actual law in Gainesville, Georgia!)
Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 16 Appendix A. Authored byby: Sarah Stone Watt, Ph.D. and Joshua Trey Barnett. Provided by by: Pepperdine University Malibu, CA and Indiana University Bloomington, IN. Located at
at:
http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Project: The Public Speaking Project. License

244
 SUPPORTING YOUR IDEAS

VIDEO: USING WIKIPEDIA FOR ACADEMIC

RESEARCH

This tutorial explains how to use Wikipedia as an exploratory tool and where it can appropriately fit in the research
process.

Created by Michael Baird, Cooperative Library Instruction Project (CLIP).

Watch this video online: https://youtu.be/Cql_yVUYj6A

Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
• Public Speaking. Authored by
by: Christie Fierro and Brent Adrian. Provided by
by: Lumen Learning. Located at
at: http://lumenlearning.com/. Project License: CC BY: Attribution
Project: Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License

CC licensed content, Shared previously

• Using Wikipedia for Academic Research CLIP. Authored by
by: clipinfolit. Located at License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
at: http://youtu.be/Cql_yVUYj6A. License

OBJECTIVES, OUTLINE, AND INTRODUCTION

Chapter 7: Supporting Your Ideas

By Sarah Stone Watt, Ph.D.
Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA

Learning Objectives
• Combine multiple forms of evidence to support your ideas.
• Differentiate between the three types of testimony, and know when to use each one.
• Navigate the library holdings and distinguish between the types of information found in each section.
• Evaluate source credibility and appropriateness for your speech.
• Explain plagiarism and implement strategies to avoid it.
• Apply chapter concepts in review questions and activities.

Chapter Outline
• Introduction

245
 • Personal and Professional Knowledge
◦ Personal Testimony
◦ Interviews
• Library Resources
◦ Books
◦ Periodicals
◦ Full Text Databases
• Internet Resources
◦ Search Engines
◦ Defining Search Terms
◦ Websites
◦ Government Documents
• Evaluating Information
• Citing Sources and Avoiding Plagiarism
◦ Style Sheets
◦ Plagiarism
• Conclusion
• Module Activities
• Glossary
• References

Introduction
I take what I see work. I’m a strict believer in the scientific principle of believing nothing, only taking the
best evidence available at the present time, interpreting it as best you can, and leaving your mind open
to the fact that new evidence will appear tomorrow. – Adam Osborne

In 2010 celebrity chef Jamie Oliver won the Technology

Entertainment Design (TED) Prize for his “One Wish to Change
the World.” In addition to a monetary award, he was given 18
minutes at the prestigious TED Conference in Long Beach, CA
to discuss his wish: “Teach every child about food.” ( (Note:
Oliver, J. (2010, February). Jamie Oliver’s TED Prize wish:
Teach every child about food. TED Ideas Worth Spreading.
Speech retrieved from: http://www.ted.com/talks/jamie_oliver))
This chef from Essex, England, had only a short window of time
to convince an American audience to change their most basic
eating habits. To get them to listen he had to catch their
attention and demonstrate his credibility. He managed to do
both using compelling research. He began by saying, “Sadly, in
the next 18 minutes . . . four Americans that are alive will be
dead from the food that they eat.” ( (Note: Oliver 2010)) He
magnified the problem with a chart showing that many more
Americans die from diet related diseases each year than die
from other diseases, or even from accidents and murder. Along
with the statistics, he offered testimony from people living in the
“most unhealthy state in America.” ( (Note: Oliver 2010)) By
weaving together multiple forms of research over the course of
his brief talk, Oliver crafted a compelling case for a massive “Jamie Oliver” by Karl Grober. CC-BY.
shift in the way that Americans teach their children about food.

Like Oliver, in order to give an effective speech, you will need to offer support for the ideas you present. Finding
support necessitates research. Librarians have found that professors and students tend to have very different
ideas regarding what it means to conduct research. ( (Note: Sjoberg, L.M. & Ahlfeldt, S.L. (2010). Bridging the
gap: Integrating information literacy into communication courses. Communication Teacher, 24(3), pp. 131–135.))
Professors, who regularly conduct scholarly research as part of their occupation, tend to envision a process filled
with late nights in the stacks of a library. ( (Note: Leckie, G.J. (1996). Desperately seeking citations: Uncovering
faculty assumptions about the undergraduate research process. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 22(3), p.
201–208.)) Students, who regularly conduct research on where to eat or what to do as part of their weekend
activities, tend to envision a less formal process that involves consulting the most popular web search results. The

246
reality is that in order to properly support your ideas and craft a compelling speech, you will need a little of each
approach, possibly combined with investigative tools with which you may be less-familiar. The wide variety of
resources available for conducting research can be overwhelming. However, if you have a clear topic, recognize
the purpose of your speech, and understand the audience you will be speaking to, you can limit the number of
sources you will need to consult by focusing on the most relevant information.

Once you know the topic of the speech, you can create the specific
purpose statement. This is a one sentence summary of the goal of
your speech, that may begin with the phrase, “At the end of my
speech, the audience will be able to…” This statement guides your
research as you piece together the supporting evidence to fill out the
remainder of your speech. As you work through the types of support
in this chapter, continually ask yourself, “Does this evidence support
the goal of my speech?” If the source offers information that
contradicts your specific purpose statement, hold on to it so that you
can address the contradiction with evidence for your own idea. If it
does appear to support your specific purpose statement, the next
question you will ask is “Is this evidence appropriate for my “Girder Gridwork” by skycaptaintwo. CC-BY.
audience?” Different types of appeals and evidence are better for
different audiences. The best speeches will combine multiple forms of evidence to make the most convincing
case possible. This chapter will help you research your speech by combining personal and professional
knowledge, library resources, and Internet searches. It will help you to evaluate the sources you find and cite
them to avoid plagiarism.
Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 7 Objectives, Outline, and Introduction. Authored byby: Sarah Stone Watt, Ph.D.. Provided by
by: Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
Project: Public
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Speaking Project. License
• Jamie Oliver cropped. Authored byby: Karl Gabor. Located at License: CC BY: Attribution
at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamie_Oliver#mediaviewer/File:Jamie_Oliver_(cropped).jpg. License
• Girder Gridwork. Authored byby: skycaptaintwo. Located at License: CC BY: Attribution
at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/skycaptaintwo/44554073/. License

PERSONAL AND PROFESSIONAL KNOWLEDGE

Do you know the difference between education and experience? Education is when you read the fine
print; experience is what you get when you don’t. – Pete Seeger

Professional public speakers are generally called upon to address a topic on which they are considered an expert.
You may not feel like an expert in the area of your speech at this time, but you should consider whether you have
any preexisting knowledge of the topic that might assist in crafting your speech. Do not be afraid to draw on your
own experience to enhance the message.

Personal Testimony
Walter Fisher argues that humans are natural storytellers. Through stories people make sense of their
experiences, and they invite others to understand their lived reality as part of a community. ( (Note: Fisher, W. R.
(1984). Narration as a human communication paradigm: The case of public moral argument. Communication
Monographs, 51, pp.1–22.)) One compelling story that you can offer is your personal testimony. Although you are
not a recognized authority on the topic, you can invite the audience to understand your firsthand experience.
Offering your testimony within a speech provides an example of your point, and it enhances your credibility by
demonstrating that you have experience regarding the topic. Additionally, personal testimony can enhance your
speech by conveying your insight and emotion regarding the topic, making your speech more memorable. ( (Note:
Beebe, S.A. & Beebe, S.J. (2003). Public speaking: An audience centered approach. Boston, MA: Allyn and
Bacon.)) ( (Note: Parse, R. R. (2008). Truth for the moment: Personal testimony as evidence. Nursing Science
Quarterly, 21(1), pp. 45–48.)) For example, if you are giving a speech on the importance of hunting to the local
culture, you might explain how the last buck you shot fed your family for an entire season.

247
Since personal testimony refers to your experience, it is easy to assume that you can offer it with little preparation.
However, psychologists have found that as people tell their stories they relive the experience. ( (Note: Gladding,
S.T. & Drake Wallace, M.J. (2010). The potency and power of counseling stories. Journal of Creativity in Mental
Health, 5, pp. 15–24.)) As you relive the experience, your tendency will be to enrich the story with detail and
emotion, which is part of what makes it memorable, but this practice may also make the story too long and
distract from your point. If you plan to use personal testimony in your speech, practice the story to make sure that
it makes the appropriate point in the time you have.

If you do not have personal experience with the topic, you may seek out other forms of lay testimony to support
your point. Lay testimony is any testimony based on witnesses’ opinions or perceptions in a given case. ( (Note:
Federal Rules of Evidence. (2012). Federal Evidence Review. Retrieved from: http://federalevidence.com/rulesof-
evidence#Rule701.)) For example, if you are giving a speech about Occupy Wall Street, but you have not
experienced one of their protests, you may choose to include statements from a protestor or someone who
identifies with the goals of the movement.

Interviews
Lay testimony can offer insight into the past and into
areas where individual sentiments are relevant, but if you
are called upon to make predictions regarding the future
or speak to an issue where you have little relevant
experience, expert testimony may provide more
convincing support. ( (Note: Beebe & Beebe 2003))
Expert testimony comes from a recognized authority who
has conducted extensive research on an issue. Experts
regularly publish their research findings in books and
journals, which we will discuss later in this chapter, but
you may need more information from the expert in order
to substantiate your point. For example, if you were giving
a speech about how to prepare for a natural disaster, you
might interview someone from the Red Cross. They could
tell you what supplies might be necessary for the specific
types of disasters that are likely in your region. Interviews “Interviews” by Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung. CC-BY-SA.
give people the chance to expand on their published
research and offer their informed perspective on the specific point you are trying to make.

My basic approach to interviewing is to ask the basic questions that might even sound naive, or
not intellectual. Sometimes when you ask the simple questions like “Who are you?” or “What do you
do?” you learn the most. – Brian Lamb

If you are seeking an interview with an expert, it is best to arrange a time and place that works for them. Begin the
process with a respectful phone call or email explaining who you are and why you are contacting them. Be
forthcoming regarding the information you are seeking and the timeline in which you are working. Also be flexible
about the format for your interview. If you can meet in person, that is often ideal because it gives you the chance
to get to know the person and to ask follow up questions if necessary. A good alternative to an in person interview
is a video call using a service such as Skype. These services are often free to both callers and allow you to see
and hear the person that you are interviewing. If neither of these options will work, a phone call or email will do.
Keep in mind that while an email may seem convenient to you, it will likely require much more time from the
expert as they have to type every answer, and they may not be as forthcoming with information in that format.

Before the interview, write down your questions. When you talk to someone, it is easy to get caught up in what
they are saying and forget to focus on the information you need. Once you begin the interview work to establish
rapport with the person you are interviewing. You can foster rapport by demonstrating that you respect their
viewpoint, by taking turns in your interactions, by allowing them to finish their thought without interrupting, and by
giving them the freedom to use their preferred forms of expression. ( (Note: Lindolf, T.R. & Taylor, B.C. (2002).
Qualitative communication research methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc.)) As you ask
each question, take note of their response and ask for clarification or to follow up on information you did not
anticipate. If you plan to record the interview, ask for permission in advance. Even if you are given permission to
record, take paper and a writing utensil along to make back-up notes in case your recording device fails. When

248
the interview is complete, thank the person and check to see whether they would welcome further contact to
follow up if necessary.

After the interview, review your notes for insight that substantiates your specific purpose statement. Look for
quotes that bring together the person’s expertise with their reflections on the topic you are addressing. It is likely
that you will gain more knowledge from the interview than you can possibly include in a short speech. Work to
synthesize the main points from the interview into a coherent statement supporting your topic. Remember to be
careful about properly quoting exact phrases that the person used. Even if you paraphrase, properly cite the
interview and credit the expert for all of the ideas they shared with you.
Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 7 Personal and Professional Knowledge. Authored by by: Sarah Stone Watt, Ph.D.. Provided by by: Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
Project: Public
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Speaking Project. License
• Interviews. Authored by
by: Heinrich-Boll-Stiftung. Located at License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
at: https://flic.kr/p/nitArf. License

LIBRARY RESOURCES

The most well established way of finding research to support your ideas is to
use the library. However, many students see the “library and its resources as
imposing and intimidating, and are anxious about how they will manage in
such an environment.” ( (Note: Leckie, G.J. (1996). Desperately seeking
citations: Uncovering faculty assumptions about the undergraduate research
process. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 22(3), p. 201–208.)) Don’t
let any twinge of anxiety keep you from exploring all that the library has to
offer!

When conducting research, one of your best resources is the librarian. It is

their job to know all about the resources available to you, and to help you
succeed in locating the material that is most relevant to your assignment.
Additionally, many libraries have librarians who specialize in particular areas
of research and they will be able to help you find the best resources for your
specific speech topic. Ideally, you should seek some information on your
topic alone before asking for their assistance. Doing some initial research
independently demonstrates to the librarian that you have taken ownership
of the assignment and recognize that the research is ultimately your
responsibility, not theirs. They will be better equipped to help you find new
information if they know where you have already looked and what you have
found. Most libraries contain at least three primary resources for information:
books, periodicals, and full text databases. “Untitled” by imelenchon. morgueFile.

249
Books
Books are an excellent place to gain general knowledge. They contain
comprehensive investigations of a subject in which authors can convey
substantial amounts of information because they are not constrained by a
strict page count. Some books are written by a single author while other
books bring several scholars together in an edited collection. In both
cases, you are likely to get a rich investigation of a single topic. For
example, if you were giving a speech about stereotypes of black women in
America, you might check out Melissa Harris-Perry’s 2011 book Sister
Citizen, because she brings together literature, theory, and political
science, to offer a detailed discussion of the development of four
prominent stereotypes. In the book she has enough space to offer
compelling images, narratives, and social scientific evidence for the impact
those stereotypes have on contemporary society.

A library is not a luxury, but one of the necessities of life. – Henry

Ward Beecher

Most libraries make finding books easy by indexing them in an online

catalog. You should be able to go to the library’s website and simply
search for your topic. The index will provide the titles, authors, and other “Untitled” by KelseyVere. morgueFile.
publication information for each book. It will also provide a call number.
The call number is like an address for the book that indicates where it can be found on the stacks in the library.
Before going to the stacks, take note of the title, author, and call number. The call number is the most important
element, and the title and author will serve as backup for your search if you find that the books are out of order. If
you find a book that is helpful, be sure to check the shelf nearby to see if there are other promising titles on that
topic. If you cannot find the book that you are looking for, consider asking the librarian to help you borrow it from
another library using a process called interlibrary loan.

The length of a book can make it seem overwhelming to someone researching a brief speech. In order to
streamline your research, determine what you are looking for in advance. Are you seeking general background
knowledge or support for a specific idea? Use the table of contents, headings, and index to guide you to the
portion of the book that is likely to have what you are looking for. You do not need to read, or even skim, the
entirety of every book. It is appropriate to skim for key words and phrases that pertain to your topic. Just be sure
that once you find what you are looking for, you read enough of the section around it to understand the context of
the statement and ensure that the book is making the point you think it is. Take note of the point that the book is
making. Careful notes will help you remember the information that you gained from each source when you get
home.

In addition to the traditional stacks of books present in your library, you will also find a reference section. This
section contains books that do not delve deep into any subject, but provide basic summary knowledge on a
variety of topics. The reference section contains books like dictionaries, which help define unfamiliar terms;
encyclopedias, which provide overviews of various subjects; abstracts, which summarize books and articles; and
biographical references, which describe people and their accomplishments. Since these resources do not require
extensive time to process, and they are likely to be used briefly but regularly by many visitors, the library generally
will not allow you to check out reference material. Take great care in drafting notes on the information that you
find, and writing down the page numbers and authors according to the style preferred in your field of study. For
more information on what you will need to record see the “style guides” section of this chapter.

250
Periodicals
Books are comprehensive, but they can take years to get
published. This means that the material in books is often at
least a year old by the time of its publication date. If your
speech depends on more recent information, you should
turn to periodicals. Periodicals include magazines,
newspapers, journals, and other publications printed at
predictable intervals. These publications may appear
weekly, monthly, or quarterly to update the research in a
given field. Each periodical will offer a variety of articles
related to a specific subject area.

When researching, it is important to understand the

difference between general interest periodicals and
scholarly research journals. General interest periodicals
include magazines and newspapers which provide a wide “Learning Commons West is a great place for collaboration”
array of knowledge and keep readers up to date on the by clemsonunivlibrary. CC-BY-NC.
news within a larger cultural context. These publications
are targeted toward the general public and they often use pictures and advertising to attract attention. Examples
of respected general interest publications include The Atlantic, Women’s Health, The New York Times, and
National Geographic. ( (Note: American Society of Magazine Editors. (2011). 2011 National Magazine Awards,
Winners, and Finalists. Retrieved from: http://www.magazine.org/asme/magazine_awards/nma_winners/)) These
publications are intended for profit. The information in them is edited to make sure it will appeal to the audience, is
well written, and consistent with the commercial goals of the publication. General interest periodicals are good for
context and current events information. If you are giving a speech about the importance of military intervention in
Syria, you could use a general interest periodical like the New York Times to discover the most recent information
on the conflict.

A newspaper is a circulating library with high blood pressure. – Arthur Baer

If you are looking for more rigorous research, such as an international relations expert detailing what forms of aid
are best for nations experiencing uprisings, you will need a scholarly research journal. A scholarly research
journal is not for profit. It is designed to publicize the best research in a particular area. These publications are
targeted toward scholars who specialize in a given subject or type of research. Examples of respected scholarly
journals include Journal of the American Medical Association, Harvard Law Review, and Quarterly Journal of
Speech. These journals engage in a process of peer review in which scholars send their articles to the editor and
the editor has other experts in the field examine the article to determine the quality of its research, writing, and fit
with the scholarly goal of the publication.

251
Full-Text Databases
Rather than searching for a print copy of the latest periodical, many people
now find articles on the computer using specialized electronic databases that
contain the full text of periodicals. Most school libraries subscribe to a variety
of databases which compile articles from journals within a particular
specialization, industry, or field. Libraries tend to organize links to these
databases on their website in two ways: (1) by the area of specialization, or
(2) by the name of the database. You can use the list of specializations to
identify databases that will pertain to your topic. For example, if you are
interested in research on The Simpsons, you might go to your library’s
subject list, click on “Communication,” and choose a database such as
Communication and Mass Media Complete. Some topics will be found in
databases with less obvious titles. For example, the abstractly named Lexis-
Nexis database provides access to newspaper articles, legal research, and
government documents. If your initial search of databases in the list of
specializations is not fruitful, ask your professor or librarian for
recommendations concerning the most appropriate database for your topic.

Full-text databases allow you access to the citations, abstracts, and articles
in the journals they index. However, they sometimes limit access to the full
text of articles that were published within a certain date range. If you find a
title that looks promising, but is not available in the database you are
searching, try the search in another database. Databases often give you the “Reading” by Moyan Brenn. CC-BY.
opportunity to search for articles matching your desired time period, author,
publication, or key words. Some databases, such as EBSCO, allow you to specify whether you are looking for
general interest or scholarly publications.

Table 7.1: Follow the Citation Trail

If you are having trouble locating information on your topic, all you need is one relevant scholarly source and
then you can follow the clues to locate more information by searching backward and forward.

← →

To search backward, skim the source’s To search forward, use Google Scholar’s “cited by”
bibliography for earlier publications on your topic. function to find more recent publications on your topic.

Licensing & Attributions

CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 7 Library Resources. Authored by by: Sarah Stone Watt, Ph.D.. Provided byby: Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA. Located at at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
Project: Public Speaking Project.
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
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work. Attribution is not required. You are prohibited from using this work in a stand alone manner.
• GNA9Xzuw. Authored by by: KelseyVere. Provided byby: MorgueFile. Located at License: Other. License Terms
at: http://mrg.bz/mnFMEA. License Terms: You are allowed to copy, distribute, transmit the work and to adapt the work. Attribution
is not required. You are prohibited from using this work in a stand alone manner.
• Learning Commons West is a great place for colloboration.. Authored by by: clemsonunivlibrary. Located at License: CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial
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• Image of man reading newspaper. Authored by by: Moyan Brenn. Located at License: CC BY: Attribution
at: https://flic.kr/p/bKecSa. License

INTERNET RESOURCES

We want Google to be the third half of your brain. – Sergey Brin

252
Search Engines
A search engine can be your most important resource when attempting to locate information on the Internet.
Search engines allow you to type in the topic you are interested in and narrow the possible results. Some of the
most popular search engines include Google, bing, Yahoo!, and Ask. ( (Note: eBizMBA. (2012). Top 15 Most
Popular Search Engines: January 2012. Retrieved from: http://www.ebizmba.com/articles/search-engines)) These
sites provide a box for you to type a topic, phrase, or question, and they use software to scan their index of
existing Internet content to find the sites most relevant to your search.

Each search engine uses different algorithms and techniques to locate and rank information, which may mean
that the same search will yield different results depending on the search engine. Based on the algorithms it is
using, the search engine will sort the results with those it determines to be most relevant appearing first. Since
each site is different, you should use the one that seems most intuitive to you. However, since their ranking
systems will also be different, you cannot assume that the first few sites listed in your chosen search engine are
the most relevant. Always scan the first few pages of search results to find the best resource for your topic.
Skimming the content of the pages returned in your search will also give you an idea of whether you have chosen
the most appropriate search terms. If your search has returned results that are not relevant to your speech, you
may need to adjust your search terms and try a new search.

Pay close attention to the first few sites listed in search results. Some databases allow “sponsored links” to
appear before the rest of the results. If you are giving a speech about the dangers of rental cars, and you search
rental car in Google, links to companies like Hotwire.com, Orbitz.com, or National Rental Car are likely to appear
first in your results. These sites may or may not be relevant to your search, but they have also paid for the top
spot on the list and therefore may not be the most relevant. When search engines display sponsored sites first,
they typically distinguish these from the others by outlining or highlighting them in a different color. For example,
while Google lists advertisements related to your search on the right-hand side of the screen, they sometimes
also put a limited number of sponsored links at the top of your search results list. The only distinction between
these sponsored links and the rest of the list is a subtly shaded box with a small label in the upper right indicating
they are “Ads” (see Figure 7.1).

“Figure 7.1” by Public Speaking Project. CC-BY-NC-ND.

253
Defining Search Terms
In the early stages of research it may be helpful to simply search by topic. For example, if you are interested in
giving a speech about revolutions in the Middle East, you might type that topic into the database and scan the
sites that come up. As you are scanning, watch for other useful terms that arise in relation to the topic and jot
them down for possible use in later searches. Since people may write about the topic in different terms than you
tend to think about it, paying close attention to their language will help you refine your search. Another way to
approach this is to consider synonyms for your search terms before you even begin. Once you have a concrete
topic and have begun to outline the arguments you want to make, you are likely to need more specific terms to
find what you are looking for. In order to help with the search, you may use Boolean operators, words and
symbols that illustrate the relationship between your search terms and help the search engine expand or limit your
results (see Table 7.2 on the next page for examples). Although search engines regularly adjust their Boolean
rules to avoid people rigging the site to show their own pages first, a few basic terms tend to be used by most
search engines. ( (Note: BBC. (2012). What are “Boolean operators?” WebWise: A Beginner’s Guide to Using the
Internet. Retrieved from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/webwise/0/22562913))

Table 7.2: Boolean Operators

The word “OR” is one way to expand your search by looking for a variety of terms that may help you
support your topic. For example, in a speech about higher education, you might be interested in
OR
sources discussing either colleges or universities. In this case using the term “OR” helps expand your
search to include both terms, even when they appear separately.

Using the word “AND” or the “+” symbol between terms limits your search by indicating to the search
engine that you are interested in the relationship between the terms and want to see pages which
offer both terms together. If you are giving a speech about Hillary Rodham Clinton’s work in the
AND/+
Senate, you might search Hilary Rodham Clinton AND Senate. This search would help you find
information pertaining to her senate career rather than sites that focus on her as First Lady or
Secretary of State.

Using the word “NOT” or the “-” symbol can also limit your search by indicating that you are not
interested in a term that may often appear with your desired term. For example, if you are interested
NOT/-
in hyenas, but want to limit out sites focused on their interactions with lions, you might search hyena -
lion to eliminate all of the lion pages from your search.

Quotation marks around a group of words limit the search by indicating you are looking for a specific
phrase. For example, if you are looking for evidence that human behavior contributes to global
“”
warming, you might search “humans contribute to global warming,” which would limit the search far
beyond the simple human + global warming by specifying the point you seek to make.

When you have a well-defined area of research, it is best to start as specific as possible and then broaden your
search as needed. If there is something on exactly what you want to say, you don’t want to miss it wading through
a sea of articles on your general topic area. To make the best use of your search engine take some time to read
the help section on the site and learn how their Boolean operators work. The help section will offer additional tips
to assist you in navigating the nuances of that site and executing the best possible search.

Google
You may be at least somewhat familiar with Google, the name that has become synonymous with “internet
search,” and called “the most used and most popular search engine.” ( (Note: Tajane, T. (2011). Most used
search engines and total market share trend as of March 2011. TechZoom.org. Retrieved from:
http://techzoom.org/most-used-search-engines-and-total-market-share-trend-as-of-march-2011/)) You may
already be adept at searching Google for a wide variety of information, but you may be less familiar with some of
its specialized search engines. Three of these search engines can be particularly helpful to someone seeking to
support their ideas in a speech: Google Scholar, Google Books, and Google Images.

Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying with a purpose. – Zora Neale Hurston

254
Google Scholar
The search engines listed earlier in this chapter will help you explore a diversity of sites to find the information you
are looking for. However, certain topics and certain types of speeches call for more rigorous research. This
research is typically best found in the library, but Google has an added feature that makes finding scholarly
sources easier. On Google Scholar you can find research that has been published in scholarly journal articles,
books, theses, conference proceedings, and court opinions.

Google Scholar is not only helpful for focusing on academic research; it has a host of features that will help to
refine your search to the most helpful articles. You can search generally in Google Scholar and find citations of
useful articles that will help support your ideas, but you may not always find the full text of the article. You can ask
Google Scholar to help you find the full text articles available in your library’s databases by telling it which library
you want to search. To do this, click the “scholar preferences” link next to the search button on
scholar.google.com. Then scroll down to the section titled “library links,” and type the name of your school or
library, then click “find library.” When the search is complete, check the box next to the name of your library so
that Google knows to include it in the search. Once you have included your library, the search results you get will
have links that lead you to the articles available in your library’s databases (see Figure 7.2). Clicking the links will
lead you to your library databases and prompt you to log into the system as you would if you were searching on
the library site itself.

“Figure 7.2” by Public Speaking Project. CC-BY-NC-ND.

Even when you are linked to your library’s databases, there may be articles in your search results that you do not
have electronic access to. In that case, search your library catalog for the title of the journal in which your desired
article appears to see if they carry the journal in hard copy form. If you still cannot find it, copy the citation
information and use your interlibrary loan system to request a copy of the article from another library.

I find I use the Internet more and more. It’s just an invaluable tool. I do most of my research on the Net
now… – Nora Roberts

In addition to enhancing your database searches, Google Scholar can also help you broaden your search in two
strategic ways. First, underneath the citation for each search result, you will see a link to “related articles.” If you
found a particular article helpful, clicking “related articles” is one way to help you find resources that are similar.
Second, as you know, researchers often look through the bibliography of a helpful source to find the articles that
author used. However, when you are dealing with an older article, searching backwards in the bibliography may
lead you to more outdated research. To search for more recent research, look again under the search result for
the link called “cited by.” Clicking the “cited by” link will give you all of the articles that have been published since,
and have referred to, the article that you found. For example, if you are giving a speech on male body image you
might find Paul Rozin and April Fallon’s 1988 article in the Journal of Abnormal Psychology comparing opposite
sex perceptions of weight helpful. However, it would be good to have more recent research. Clicking the “related
articles” and “cited by” links would lead you to similar research published within the past few years.

255
Google Books
Just as Google Scholar can be used to enhance your
research in scholarly periodicals, Google Books can be used
to make your search for, and within, books more efficient.
Some library catalogs offer you the ability to search for all
books on a topic, whether that library has the book or not.
Other libraries confine you to searching their holdings. One
way to enhance your research is to search for books on
Google Books and then use your library site to see if they
currently have the book, or if you will need to order it through
interlibrary loan. The other way that you can use Google
Books is to make your skimming more effective. Earlier in
this chapter you learned that you should strategically skim
books for the information that you need. You can do that with
Google Books by looking up the book, and then using the
search bar on the left side of the screen (see Figure 7.3) to
search for key words within the book. This search engine
can help you identify the pages in a book where your terms
appear and, with many books, give you a sample of that
page to allow you to see whether the terms appear in the
context you are searching for. Keep in mind that Google
Books is a search engine; it is not a replacement for
checking out the book in the library or buying your own copy.
Google Books does not print books in their entirety, and
often will omit pages surrounding a search result, so relying
on the site to allow you to read enough of the book to make “Figure 7.3” by Public Speaking Project. CC-BY-NC-ND.
your argument is risky at best. Instead, use this site to help
you determine which books to obtain, and which parts of those books will be most relevant to your research.

Google Images
Google Images may be useful as you seek visual aids to illustrate your point. You can search Google Images for
photographs, charts, illustrations, clip art and more. For example, if you are giving a speech on the Nineteenth
Amendment, you could add interest by offering a picture of the Silent Sentinel’s picketing the White House.
Alternatively, if you wanted to demonstrate the statistical probability of electing a woman to Congress, you could
use Google Images to locate a chart displaying that information.

Since search engines match the terms you put in, it is

possible that your topic could yield images containing adult
content. To prevent receiving adult content, you can use
the “safe search” settings (located in the option wheel in
the far upper right hand corner of the menu bar) to limit
your exposure to explicit images. The setting has three
options:
1. Strict filtering: filters sexually explicit video and
images from Google Search result pages, as well
as results that might link to explicit content.
2. Moderate filtering: excludes sexually explicit video
and images from Google Search result pages, but
does not filter results that might link to explicit
content. This is the default SafeSearch setting.
3. No filtering: as you’ve probably figured out, turns “Blog OMG!” by Mike Licht. CC-BY.
off SafeSearch filtering completely. ( (Note:
Google. (2012). SafeSearch: filter objectionable content. Google Inside Search. Retrieved from:
https://support.google.com/websearch/answer/510?hl=en))

256
Remember that, as with other outside sources, you will need to offer proper source citations for every image that
you use. Additionally, if you plan to post your speech to the internet or publish it more widely than your class,
consider using only images that appear in the public domain so that you do not risk infringing on an artist’s
copyright privileges.

It is not ignorance but knowledge which is the mother of wonder. – Joseph Wood Krutch

Websites
When you use a more general search engine, such as
Google or bing, you are looking for websites. Websites
may be maintained by individuals, organizations,
companies, or governments. These sites generally consist
of a homepage, that gives an overview of the site and its
purpose. From the homepage there are links to various
types of information on the original site and elsewhere on
the Internet. These sets of links arrange information “in an
unconstrained web- like way,” ( (Note: Berners-Lee, T. &
Fischeti, M. (2000). Weaving the web: The original design
and ultimate destiny of the World Wide Web. New York,
NY.: Harper Collins.)) which opens up the possibility of
making new connections between ideas and research. It
also opens up the possibility of getting lost among all of the
available sources. To keep your research on track, be sure “Trading stocks on a computer” by OTA Photos. CC-BY-SA.
to continue asking yourself if the sources you have found
support your specific purpose statement.

Most websites are created to promote the interests of their owner, so it is very important that you check to see
whose website you are looking at. Generally the author or owner of the site is named near the top of the
homepage, or in the copyright notice at the bottom. Knowing who the site belongs to will help you determine the
quality of the information it offers. If you find the site through a search engine and are not directed to its
homepage, look for a link called “home” or “about” to navigate to the page containing more information about the
site itself. In addition to knowing the owner, it is important to look for the author of the material you are using. For
example, an article on a reputable news site like CNN.com may come from a respected journalist, or it may be the
opinion of a blogger whose post is not necessarily vetted by the company itself. Use the section of the chapter on
evaluating information to determine whether the site you have found is a credible source.

When you find websites that are both useful and credible, be sure to bookmark them in your Web browser so that
you can refer to them again later. Your browser may call these bookmarks “favorites” instead. To bookmark a site,
you can click on the bookmarking link in your browser or, if your browser uses tabs, you can drag the tab into a
toolbar near the top of the window. If you are struggling with the bookmarking process, try the command CTRL+D
on your keyboard or consult the help link for your Web browser.

Don’t leave inferences to be drawn when evidence can be presented. – Richard Wright

Government Documents
Governments regularly publish large quantities of information regarding their citizens, such as census data, health
reports, and crime statistics. They also compile transcripts of legislative proceedings, hearings, and speeches.
Most college and university libraries maintain substantial collections of government documents. Additionally,
these documents are increasingly available online. Government documents can be helpful for finding up-to-date
statistics on an issue that affects the larger population. They can also be helpful in identifying strong viewpoints
concerning government policies. For example, looking at the Congressional testimony regarding nuclear safety
after an earthquake destroyed the Fukushima nuclear power plant in Japan in 2011 could help you make a
compelling case for safety upgrades at U.S. nuclear power facilities.

Now, whenever you read any historical document, you always evaluate it in light of the historical
context. – Josh McDowell

257
One of the most helpful resources for searching
government documents is http://fedworld.ntis.gov/. This
site allows you to search Supreme Court decisions,
government scientific reports, research and development
reports, and other databases filled with cutting edge
research. It also lists all major government agencies and
their websites. Another excellent way to locate government
documents is to use the Monthly Catalog of U.S.
Government Publications. This index is issued every
month and lists all of the documents published by the
federal government, except those that are restricted or
confidential. You can use the index to locate documents
from Congress, the courts, or even the president. The
index arranges reports alphabetically by the name of the
issuing agency. The easiest way to search will be on the “Talking on the Phone / Home Office” by Daniel Foster. CC-
Government Printing Office website at catalog.gpo.gov. If BY-NC-SA.
you would prefer to work with hard copies of the reports,
head to your library and search the subject index to find subjects related to your speech topic. Each subject will
have a list of documents and their entry number. Use the entry numbers to find the title, agency, and call number
of each document listed in the front of the index. ( (Note: Zarefsky, D. (2005). Public Speaking: Strategies for
Success (Special Ed. for The Pennsylvania State University). Boston, MA: Pearson.))
Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 7 Internet Resources. Authored byby: Sarah Stone Watt, Ph.D.. Provided by by: Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA. Located atat: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
Project: Public Speaking Project.
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
License
• Blog OMG!. Authored byby: Mike Licht. Located at License: CC BY: Attribution
at: https://flic.kr/p/58aVnJ. License
• Trading stocks on a computer. Authored by by: OTA Photos. Located at License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
at: https://flic.kr/p/fKu9Y3. License
• Talking on the Phone Home Office. Authored by by: Daniel Foster. Located at License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
at: https://flic.kr/p/o17yj5. License

EVALUATING INFORMATION

The popular online encyclopedia, Wikipedia, is a great resource for general information. It is a good place to start
in order to determine search terms and potentially relevant strains of thought on a given topic. However, it is not
the most credible source to cite in your speech. Since anyone can update the site at any time, information may be
entirely inaccurate. When using Wikipedia, look for source citations and follow the links to original source material.

The large amount of information available in your library and on the Internet can seem overwhelming. Narrow
your support by evaluating the quality and credibility of each source. To determine the quality of a source, look to
see whether the information provided seems comprehensive. To determine whether or not the information is
comprehensive, check to see that it thoroughly covers the issue, considers competing perspectives, and cites the
sources where supporting material came from.

First, check to see that your source not only discusses issues that pertain to your topic, but thoroughly explains
the reasoning behind the claims it offers. Often you will already be familiar with the topic, but you will require the
addition of strong reasoning to properly support your ideas. If your source cannot provide strong reasoning, it is
not the best quality source. Second, determine whether the source considers competing perspectives. Debate
strategists know that evidence can be found for multiple perspectives on any issue. If your source does not also
recognize and consider opposing arguments, it is not the best quality source. Third, check to see that your source
offers supporting data and or if it includes non-credible citations, it is not the best quality source. It is fine to use a
source that is weak in one of these areas if you still find it compelling, but know that you may need to back it up
with additional credible information. If the source is weak in multiple areas, do your best to avoid using it so that it
does not weaken your speech.

In addition to the quality, you should examine source credibility. When evaluating credibility, focus on the sources’
qualifications, the parity of their message with similar sources, and their biases. One of the most important
elements of credibility is qualification. Sometimes qualifications will be linked to a person’s profession. For
example, if you are talking about earthquakes, you might want the expertise of a seismologist who studies

258
earthquake waves and their effects. However, professional expertise is not the only type of credibility. If you want
to discuss the feeling of experiencing a major earthquake, testimony from a survivor may be more credible than
testimony from a scientist who studied the event but did not experience it. When examining credibility, check to
see that the person has the training or experience appropriate to the type of information they offer. Next, check to
see whether the information in your chosen source aligns with information in other sources on the issue. If your
source is the only one that offers a particular perspective, and no other source corroborates that perspective, it is
less likely to be credible.

I used to sleep nude – until the earthquake. – Alyssa Milano

Additionally, check for bias

bias. All sources have bias, meaning they all come from a particular perspective. You must
check to see whether the perspective of the source matches your own, and whether the perspective overwhelms
the ability to offer reliable information on an issue. Also check to see whether the source is affiliated with
organizations that are known to hold a particularly strong opinion concerning the issue they are speaking to.

In your speech, make reference to the quality and credibility of your sources.
Identifying the qualifications for a source, or explaining that their ideas have been
used by many other credible sources, will enhance the strength of your speech.
For example, if you are giving a speech about the benefits of sleep, citing a
renowned sleep expert will strengthen your argument. If you can then explain that
this person’s work has been repeatedly tested and affirmed by later studies, your
argument will appear even stronger. On the other hand, if you simply offer the
name of your source without any explanation of who that person is, or why they
ought to be believed, your argument is suspect. To offer this kind of information
without disrupting the flow of your speech, you might say something like,

Mary Carskadon, Director of the Chronobiology/Sleep Research Laboratory

at Bradley Hospital in Rhode Island, and Professor at the Brown University
School of Medicine, explains that there are several advantages to increased
amounts of sleep….Her work is supported by other researchers, like Dr. Kyla “Untitled” by Dmitry Ryzhkov.
Wahlstrom at the University of Minnesota whose study demonstrated that CC-BY-NC-SA.
delaying school start times increased student sleep and their performance. (
(Note: National Sleep Foundation. (2011). School start time and sleep. Retrieved from:
http://sleepfoundation.org/sleep-news/school-start-time-and-sleep))

This sample citation bolsters credibility by offering qualifications, and identifies multiple experts who agree on this
issue. You may be tempted to stop once you have found one source that supports your idea, but continuing to
research and comparing the information in each source will help you better support your ideas. It will also prevent
you from overlooking contradictory evidence that you need to be able to address.
Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 7 Evaluating Information. Authored by
by: Sarah Stone Watt, Ph.D.. Provided byby: Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
Project: Public Speaking Project.
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
License
• DSC_1199. Authored byby: Dmitry Ryzhkov. Located at License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
at: https://flic.kr/p/oRLAW5. License

CITING SOURCES AND AVOIDING PLAGIARISM

Style Guides
Once you have gathered the appropriate sources to support your ideas, you will need to integrate citations for
those sources into your speech using a style guide such as those published by the Modern Language Association
(MLA), American Psychological Association (APA), or The Chicago Manual of Style (CMS). These style guides
help you determine the format of your citations, both within the speech and in the bibliography. Your professor will
likely assign a particular style guide for you to use. However, if you are not told to use a particular style, choose
the one most appropriate to your area of study. MLA style is typically used by people in the humanities, APA is

259
typically used by social scientists, and CMS can be used in either type of writing, but is most popular with
historians. ( (Note: Miller-Cochran, S.K. & Rodrigo, R.L. (2011). The Wadsworth guide to research. Boston, MA:
Wadsworth.)) These style guides will help you record the places where you found support for your argument so
that you can avoid plagiarism.

Facts are stubborn things; and whatever may be our wishes, our inclinations, or the dictates of our
passions, they cannot alter the state of facts and evidence. – John Adams

Plagiarism
Plagiarism is the act of presenting someone else’s work or ideas as your own. Sometimes this is intentional,
meaning people choose to copy from another source and make their audience think that the idea was original.
Students in speech classes sometimes buy speeches from the internet, or repeat a speech written by a friend
who took the class in a previous semester. These actions are cheating because the students did not do the work
themselves, yet they took credit for it. Most instances of blatant cheating, such as these, are quickly caught by
instructors who maintain files of work turned in previously, or who are adept at searching the Internet for content
that does not appear original to the student. Consequences for this type of plagiarism are severe, and may range
from failure of the course to expulsion from the school.

More often, plagiarism occurs by mistake when people are not aware of how to properly summarize and cite the
sources from which they took information. This happens when someone incorporates words or ideas from a
source and fails to properly cite the source. Even if you have handed your professor a written outline of the
speech with source citations, you must also offer oral attribution for ideas that are not your own (see Table 7.3 for
examples of ways to cite sources while you are speaking).

Table 7.3: Verbal Source Citations ( (Note: Jobs, S. (2005, 14 June). “You’ve gotta find what you love,” Jobs
says. Stanford Report.. Retrieved from: http://news.stanford.edu/news/2005/june15/jobs-061505.html
http://news.stanford.edu/news/2005/june15/jobs-061505.html))) (
(Note: Pollan, M. (2009). In defense of food: An eater’s manifesto. New York, NY: Penguin Books.Books.))) ( (Note:
Clinton, H. (2012, February 4). [Address]. Clinton’s remarks at the Friends of Syrian People meeting, February
2012. [Transcript]. Retrieved from: http://www.cfr.org/syria/clintons-remarks-friends-syrian-people-meeting-
february-2012/p27482
february-2012/p27482))) ( (Note: Obama, B. (2009, September 8). [Address]. Prepared remarks of President
Barack Obama: Back to school event, Arlington, Virginia. Retrieved from: https://www.whitehouse.gov/
MediaResources/PreparedSchoolRemarks/
MediaResources/PreparedSchoolRemarks/)))

Proper Written Source Citation Proper Oral Attribution

In his 2005 commencement address at Stanford

“Your time is limited, so don’t waste it living
University Steve Jobs said,“Your time is limited, so
someone else’s life” (Jobs, 2005).
don’t waste it living some else’s life.”

Michael Pollan offers three basic guidelines for healthy

“Eat food. Not too much. Mostly plants” (Pollan,
eating in his book, In Defense of Food. He advises
2009, p.1).
readers to “Eat food. Not too much. Mostly plants.”

In her February 24 speech to the Friends of Syria

“The Assad regime’s escalating violence in Syria is
People meeting, U.S. Secretary of State, Hillary
an affront to the international community, a threat to
Clinton, warned that Assad was increasing violence
regional security, and a grave violation of human
against the Syrian people and violating human rights.
rights. . . . This group should take concrete action
She called for international action to help the Syrian
along three lines: provide emergency humanitarian
people through humanitarian assistance, political
relief, ratchet up pressure on the regime, and
pressure, and support for a future democratic
prepare for a democratic transition” (Clinton, 2012).
government.

In his 2009 “Back to School” speech President Obama

“Maybe you could be a mayor or a Senator or a
encouraged students to participate in school activities
Supreme Court Justice, but you might not know that
like student government and debate in order to try out
until you join student government or the debate
the skills necessary for a leadership position in the
team” (Obama, 2009).
government.

260
Omitting the oral attribution from the speech leads the audience, who is not holding a written version, to believe
that the words are your own. Be sure to offer citations and oral attributions for all material that you have taken
from someone else, including paraphrases or summaries of their ideas. When in doubt, remember to “always
provide oral citations for direct quotations, paraphrased material, or especially striking language, letting listeners
know who said the words, where, and when.” ( (Note: Osborn, M. & Osborn, S. (2007). Public speaking (custom
edition for Pepperdine University). Boston, MA: Pearson.)) Whether plagiarism is intentional or not, it is unethical
and someone committing plagiarism will often be sanctioned based on their institution’s code of conduct.
Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 7 Citing Sources and Avoiding Plagiarism. Authored by
by: Sarah Stone Watt, Ph.D.. Provided by
by: Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
Project: Public
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Speaking Project. License

CONCLUSION AND MODULE ACTIVITIES

Remember that in order to convince an audience and

appear credible, you will need to offer support for each of
your ideas. Gathering testimony from experienced and
expert individuals will lend excitement and credibility to
your speech. Combining testimony with resources from the
library, such as books, periodicals, and reference material,
will help you back up your ideas. Examining credible
Internet resources can also enhance your speech by
yielding the most up-to-date evidence for the points you
hope to make. With so much information available it is
possible to support almost any idea. However, you will
need to take care to ensure that you offer the highest
quality and most credible support. Do this by gathering a
variety of sources and comparing the information to make
sure the support is consistent across sources, and that you
have accounted for any possible contradictory information.
As you integrate the sources into your speech, remember
to ask: “Does this evidence support my specific purpose
statement?” and “Is this evidence appropriate for my
audience?” Also, don’t forget to offer written and oral “Tracy Price-Thompson” by Angela Elbern. Public domain.
attribution for each idea. Using the various resources
available you will likely find more evidence than you can possibly incorporate into one speech. These questions
will assist you as you refine your support and craft the most compelling speech possible.

Accuracy is the twin brother of honesty; inaccuracy, of dishonesty. – Nathaniel Hawthorne

Review Questions
1. For each of the claims below, identify the most compelling form of evidence that the speaker might
offer. List as many as you can think of.
◦ Photo-retouching alters our perspective on beauty.
◦ The Internet is an effective protest tool.
◦ Body scanners in airports are detrimental to our health.
2. You are giving a speech about the importance of legislation banning text messaging while driving.
You want to offer diverse support for your argument that the legislation is necessary. What research
tools would you use to find the following forms of evidence?
◦ A personal narrative concerning the effects of texting while driving.

261
 ◦ An academic study concerning the effects of texting while driving.
◦ Existing legislation regarding cell phone use in automobiles.
◦ A visual aid for your speech.
3. Checking the quality of your evidence is an important step in refining support for your argument.
What are three elements that you should look for when determining source quality? Why is each
element necessary?
4. You are giving a speech about bed bugs. You point out that bed bugs are a common pest that can
be found almost anywhere. You have found a variety of sources for your speech including a bed bug
registry website where people can report seeing bed bugs in hotels, an encyclopedia entry on bed
bugs, a blog containing pictures and personal testimony about an experience with bed bugs, a
scientific study on the conditions under which bed bugs thrive, and a psychological study concerning
the way that people are conditioned to respond to the sight of bugs in their bed. Which of these is the
most credible source to support your point? Why?
5. The following is an excerpt from John F. Kennedy’s 1963 Civil Rights Address. Read the excerpt,
and offer your own paraphrase of his ideas without incorporating any direct quotations from the text:
◦ I hope that every American, regardless of where he lives, will stop and examine his
conscience about this and other related incidents. This Nation was founded by men of many
nations and backgrounds. It was founded on the principle that all men are created equal,
and that the rights of every man are diminished when the rights of one man are threatened
(Kennedy, 1963).
6. Imagine you are giving a speech on ______________ [fill in the blank]. Write a potential specific
purpose statement. Then identify three types of research that you would integrate in order to offer
balanced and compelling support for your statement.

Activities
1. Get to know your library. Use your library website to determine the name of the librarian who works
with your major, or in the area of your speech topic. This activity is not designed for you to get the
librarian to do your work for you, but rather for you to get to know the librarian better and make them
a partner in your research process. Make an appointment with that person and interview them
concerning the best way to conduct research for your speech. Take a summary of the assignment,
your specific purpose statement, and at least one source that you have already found for your
speech. Be sure to ask the following questions:
◦ What types of sources would you advise me to focus on in my search for supporting
materials?
◦ What search terms are likely to yield results that are relevant to my specific purpose
statement?
◦ Can you offer any tips that will make searching this particular library easier?
2. Using the topics below, or your own speech topic, practice developing productive search terms.
Begin by brainstorming synonyms for the topic. Then, consider other concepts that are closely
related to the topic. Using those terms, conduct a preliminary search in the search engine of your
choice. Skim the content on the 3-5 most promising results and highlight common terms and phrases
that appear on each page. Those common terms and phrases should help you narrow your searches
as you move forward with your research.
◦ National Security
◦ Alternative Energy
◦ Economic Stability
◦ Media Piracy
◦ Privacy
◦ Local Events
3. Using one of the topics listed in the previous activity, conduct a search on the topic using identical
search terms in Google Images, Google Scholar, and Google Books. For each search, identify the
source that you think would best support a speech on the topic. Cite each source using a consistent
style guide (MLA, APA, or Chicago), and offer your evaluation of the sources’ relevance, quality, and
credibility.

262
 4. Watch Stephen Colbert’s report concerning Wikipedia or search “wikiality” if the link does not work
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=20PlHx_JjEo). Using research that you have found on your
speech topic, update the Wikipedia page for your topic. Be careful not to replicate the errors that
Colbert discusses. Offer only accurate information, and cite the source where support for your entry
can be found.

Licensing & Attributions

CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 7 Conclusion and Module Activities. Authored by
by: Sarah Stone Watt, Ph.D.. Provided by
by: Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
Project: Public Speaking
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Project. License

Public domain content

• Tracy Price-Thompson cropped. Authored by
by: Angela Elbern. Located at License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tracy_Price-Thompson_(cropped).jpg. License

GLOSSARY AND REFERENCES

Glossary

TERM DEFINITION

Bias The predisposition toward a particular viewpoint.

Boolean Words and symbols that illustrate the relationship between search terms and help the
Operators search engine expand or limit results.

Expert Testimony that comes from a recognized authority who has conducted extensive research
Testimony on an issue.

Interlibrary
The process of borrowing materials through one library that belong to another library.
Loan

Lay Testimony Any testimony based on witnesses’ opinions or perceptions in a given case.

Parity Similarity of information across sources.

Personal An individual’s story concerning his or her lived experience, which can be used to illustrate
Testimony the existence of a particular event or phenomenon.

A cordial relationship between two or more people in which both parties convey respect and
Rapport
understanding for one another.

Software which uses algorithms to scan an index of existing Internet content for particular
Search Engine
terms, and then ranks the results based on their relevance.

Source
Signs that a person is offering trustworthy information.
Credibility

Specific
A sentence summarizing the main idea, or claim, which the speech will support. It should
Purpose
be stated clearly toward the beginning of the speech.
Statement

263
 An established set of standards for formatting written documents and citing sources for
Style Guide
information within the document.

References
American Society of Magazine Editors. (2011). 2011 National Magazine Awards, Winners, and Finalists.
Retrieved from: http://www.magazine.org/asme/magazine_awards/nma_winners/

BBC. (2012). What are “Boolean operators?” WebWise: A Beginner’s Guide to Using the Internet. Retrieved from:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/webwise/guides/boolean-operators

Beebe, S.A. & Beebe, S.J. (2003). Public speaking: An audience centered approach. Boston, MA: Allyn and
Bacon.

Berners-Lee, T. & Fischeti, M. (2000). Weaving the web: The original design and ultimate destiny of the World
Wide Web. New York, NY.: Harper Collins.

Clinton, H. (2012, February 4). [Address]. Clinton’s remarks at the Friends of Syrian People meeting, February
2012. [Transcript]. Retrieved from: http://www.cfr.org/syria/clintons-remarks-friends-syrian-people-meeting-
february-2012/p27482

eBizMBA. (2012). Top 15 Most Popular Search Engines: January 2012. Retrieved from: http://www.ebizmba.com/
articles/search-engines

Federal Rules of Evidence. (2012). Federal Evidence Review. Retrieved from: http://federalevidence.com/rules-
of-evidence#Rule701.

Fisher, W. R. (1984). Narration as a human communication paradigm: The case of public moral argument.
Communication Monographs, 51, pp.1-22.

Gladding, S.T. & Drake Wallace, M.J. (2010). The potency and power of counseling stories. Journal of Creativity
in Mental Health, 5, pp. 15-24.

Google. (2012). SafeSearch: filter objectionable content. Google Inside Search. Retrieved from:
http://support.google.com/websearch/bin/answer.py?hl=en&answer=510

Harris-Perry, M.V. (2011). Sister Citizen: Shame, Stereotypes, and Black Women in America. New Haven, CT:
Yale University Press.

Jobs, S. (2005, 14 June). “You’ve gotta find what you love,” Jobs says. Stanford Report. Retrieved from:
http://news.stanford.edu/news/2005/june15/jobs-061505.html

Kennedy, J.F. (1963, 11 June). Civil Rights Address. Retrieved from: http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/
jfkcivilrights.htm

Leckie, G.J. (1996). Desperately seeking citations: Uncovering faculty assumptions about the undergraduate
research process. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 22(3), p. 201-208.

Lindolf, T.R. & Taylor, B.C. (2002). Qualitative communirdcation research methods (3 ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications Inc.

Miller-Cochran, S.K. & Rodrigo, R.L. (2011). The Wadsworth guide to research. Boston, MA: Wadsworth.

National Sleep Foundation. (2011). School start time and sleep. Retrieved from: http://www.sleepfoundation.org/
article/sleep-topics/school-start-time-and-sleep

Obama, B. (2009, September 8). [Address]. Prepared remarks of President Barack Obama: Back to school event,
Arlington, Virginia. Retrieved from: http://www.whitehouse.gov/MediaResources/PreparedSchoolRemarks

264
Oliver, J. (2010, February). Jamie Oliver’s TED Prize wish: Teach every child about food. TED Ideas Worth
Spreading. Speech retrieved from: http://www.ted.com/talks/jamie_oliver.html

Osborn, M. & Osborn, S. (2007). Public speaking (custom edition for Pepperdine University). Boston, MA:
Pearson.

Parse, R. R. (2008). Truth for the moment: Personal testimony as evidence. Nursing Science Quarterly, 21(1), pp.
45-48.

Pollan, M. (2009). In defense of food: An eater’s manifesto. New York, NY: Penguin Books.

Rozin, P. & Fallon, A. (1988). Body image, attitudes to weight, and misperceptions of figure preferences of the
opposite sex: A comparison of men and women in two generations. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97(3), pp.
342-345.

Sjoberg, L.M. & Ahlfeldt, S.L. (2010). Bridging the gap: Integrating information literacy into communication
courses. Communication Teacher, 24(3), pp. 131-135.

Tajane, T. (2011). Most used search engines and total market share trend as of March 2011. TechZoom.org.
Retrieved from: http://techzoom.org/most-used-search-engines-and-total-market-share-trend-as-of-march-2011/

Zarefsky, D. (2005). Public Speaking: Strategies for Success (Special Ed. for The Pennsylvania State University).
Boston, MA: Pearson.

photo credits
p. 1 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: Richard_Rouse_III_- _Game_Developers_Conference_2010_-
_Day_5.jpg By Game Developers Conference 2010

p. 12 Tracey Price-Thompson http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: Tracy_Price-Thompson_%C2%B7_DF-SD-

07-44583.JPEG By Angela Elbern
Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 7 Glossary and References. Authored by
by: Sarah Stone Watt, Ph.D.. Provided by
by: Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
Project: Public Speaking Project.
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
License

USING STATISTICS

Statistics can be a powerful persuasive tool in public speaking if the speaker appropriately explains their use and
significance.

Understanding Statistics
Using statistics in public speaking can be a powerful tool. It provides a quantitative, objective, and persuasive
platform on which to base an argument, prove a claim, or support an idea. Before a set of statistics can be used,
however, it must be made understandable by people who are not familiar with statistics. The key to the
persuasive use of statistics is extracting meaning and patterns from raw data in a way that is logical and
demonstrable to an audience. There are many ways to interpret statistics and data sets, not all of them valid.

Guidelines for Helping Your Audience Understand Statistics

• Use reputable sources for the statistics you present in your speech such as government websites,
academic institutions and reputable research organizations and policy/research think tanks.

265
 • Use a large enough sample size in your statistics to make sure that the statistics you are using are
accurate (for example, if a survey only asked four people, then it is likely not representative of the
population’s viewpoint).
• Use statistics that are easily understood. Many people understand what an average is but not many
people will know more complex ideas such as variation and standard deviation.
• When presenting graphs, make sure that the key points are highlighted and the graphs are not
misleading as far as the values presented.
• Statistics is a topic that many people prefer to avoid, so when presenting statistical idea or even using
numbers in your speech be sure to thoroughly explain what the numbers mean and use visual aids to
help you explain.

Common Uses of Statistics in a Speech

Some common uses of statistics in a speech format may include:
• Results from a survey and discussion of key findings such as the mean, median, and mode of that
survey.
• Comparisons of data and benchmarking results—also using averages and comparative statistics.
• Presenting findings from research, including determining which variables are statistically significant and
meaningful to the results of the research. This will likely use more complicated statistics.

Common Misunderstandings of Statistics

A common misunderstanding when using statistics is “correlation does not mean causation.” This means that just
because two variables are related, they do not necessarily mean that one variable causes the other variable to
occur. For example, consider a data set that indicates that there is a relationship between ice cream purchases
over seasons versus drowning deaths over seasons. The incorrect conclusion would be to say that the increase in
ice cream consumption leads to more drowning deaths, or vice versa. Therefore, when using statistics in public
speaking, a speaker should always be sure that they are presenting accurate information when discussing two
variables that may be related. Statistics can be used persuasively in all manners of arguments and public
speaking scenarios—the key is understanding and interpreting the given data and molding that interpretation
towards a convincing statement.

Communicating Statistics
Graphs, tables, and maps can be used to communicate the numbers, but then the numbers
need to be put into context to make the message stick.

Introduction
Credibility makes our messages believable, and a believable message is more likely to be remembered than one
that is not. But gaining credibility is not so easy. As Chip and Dan Heath note in Made to Stick:

If we’re trying to persuade a skeptical audience to believe a new message, the reality is that we’re fighting an
uphill battle against a lifetime of personal learning and social relationships.

So how can we add credibility to our words? One way is to rely on statistics.

Putting Statistics into Context for Our Audiences

We are so used to resorting to statistics that we tend to bombard our audiences with too many mind-numbing
numbers. As the Heaths state:

Statistics are rarely meaningful in and of themselves. Statistics will, and should, almost always be used to
illustrate a relationship. It’s more important for people to remember the relationship than the number.

266
We need to put statistics into context for our audiences. In the book, the Heaths give several good examples of
others who have done this. For example, they introduce us to Geoff Ainscow, one of the leaders of the Beyond
War movement in the 1980s.

Ainscow gave talks trying to raise awareness of the dangers of nuclear weapons. He wanted to show that the US
and the USSR possessed weapons capable of destroying the earth several times over. But simply quoting figures
of nuclear weapons stockpiles was not a way to make the message stick. So, after setting the scene, Ainscow
would take a BB pellet and drop it into a steel bucket where it would make a loud noise. The pellet represented
the bomb that was dropped on Hiroshima. Ainscow would then describe the devastation at Hiroshima. Next, he
would take 10 pellets and drop them in the bucket where they made 10 times as much noise. They represented
the nuclear firepower on a single nuclear submarine. Finally, he poured 5,000 pellets into the bucket, one for each
nuclear warhead in the world. When the noise finally subsided, his audience sat in dead silence.

That is how you put statistics into context.

Using Tables, Graphs and Maps to Communicate Statistical Findings

The story of communicating your statistics does not end with putting them into context. Actually, it would be better
to say that it does not begin with putting the numbers into context. In reality, the story you are telling through your
evidence will probably start with the display of a table, graph, or map.

A simple table, graph, or map can explain a great deal, and so this type of direct evidence should be used where
appropriate. However, if a particular part of your analysis represented by a table, graph, or map does not add to
or support your argument, it should be left out.

While representing statistical information in tables, graphs, or maps can be highly effective, it is important to
ensure that the information is not presented in a manner that can mislead the reader. The key to presenting
effective tables, graphs, or maps is to ensure they are easy to understand and clearly linked to the message.
Ensure that you provide all the necessary information required to understand what the data is showing. The table,
graph, or map should be able to stand alone.

Tables, graphs, and maps should:

• relate directly to the argument;
• support statements made in the text;
• summarize relevant sections of the data analysis; and
• be clearly labelled.

Table Checklist
• Use a descriptive title for each table.
• Label every column.
• Provide a source if appropriate.
• Minimize memory load by removing unnecessary data and minimizing decimal places.
• Use clustering and patterns to highlight important relationships.
• Use white space to effect.
• Order data meaningfully (e.g., rank highest to lowest).
• Use a consistent format for each table.

Also, do not present too much data in tables. Large expanses of figures can be daunting for an audience, and can
obscure your message.

Graph Checklist
• Title
Title: Use a clear, descriptive title.
• Type of graph
graph: Choose the appropriate graph for your message, avoid using 3D graphs as they can
obscure information.
• Axes
Axes: Decide which variable goes on which axis, and what scale is most appropriate.

267
 • Legend
Legend: If there is more than one data series displayed, always include a legend, preferably within the
area of the graph.
• Labels
Labels: All relevant labels should be included.
• Color/shading
Color/shading: Colors can help differentiate; however, know what is appropriate for the medium you’re
using.
• Data source
source: Provide the source of data you’ve used for the graph.
• Three-Quarters Rules
Rules: For readability, it’s generally a good rule of thumb to make the y-axis three-
quarters the size of the x-axis.

Key Points
• Understanding statistics requires creating a persuasive narrative that explains the data and an
adequate explanation of why a statistic is being used, what it means and its source.
• The persuasive use of statistics is one of the most powerful tools in any rational argument, especially
in public presentations.
• There are many ways to interpret statistics, however a public speaker should be mindful that they are
presenting a statistic in an accurate way and not misleading the audience through a
misrepresentation of a statistic.
• Statistics will, and should, almost always be used to illustrate a relationship.
• Refrain from bombarding your audience with too many mind-numbing numbers.
• Before all else, the two pillars of communicating statistics are accuracy and clarity.

Terms
statistics
A systematic collection of data on measurements or observations, often related to demographic information
such as population counts, incomes, population counts at different ages, etc.
mode
The value that appears the most often in a data set.
mean
For a data set, the arithmetic mean is equal to the sum of the values divided by the number of values.
median
described as the numerical value separating the higher half of a sample, a population, or a probability
distribution, from the lower half.
statistics
A systematic collection of data on measurements or observations, often related to demographic information
such as population counts, incomes, population counts at different ages, etc.
accuracy
Exact conformity to truth, or to a rule or model; degree of conformity of a measure to a true or standard value.

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268
 USING TESTIMONY

Expert versus Peer Testimony

There are three types of testimonials that fall into the range of expert to peer testimony;
knowing your audience leads to the best choice.

Introduction
A testimony is a statement or endorsement given by someone who has a logical connection to the topic and who
is a credible source.

Testimony can be used to either clarify or prove a point, and is often used by referring to the research of experts.
For example, you could quote a study conducted by an independent auditing organization that endorses your
organization’s ability to financially support current workforce levels.

There are three major types of testimonies, ranging from expert to peer testimony. They are:
• Expert authorities
• Celebrities and other inspirational figures
• Antiauthorities

Expert Authorities
First, we can cite expert authorities. According to Chip and Dan Heath in their bookMade to Stick, an expert is
“the kind of person whose wall is covered with framed credentials: Oliver Sacks for neuroscience, Alan
Greenspan for economics [well, maybe not such a great example any longer], or Stephen Hawking for physics.”

If an expert supports our position, it usually adds credibility. If we are giving a presentation on a medical issue and
can find support for our position in prestigious medical reviews such as The New England Journal of Medicine or
The Lancet, it would probably be a good idea to cite those authorities.

Celebrities and Other Inspirational Figures

Second, we can refer to celebrities and other inspirational figures. Take the example of Oprah Winfrey
recommending a book. Her recommendations influence the book-buying habits of thousands of people. Why?
Because “if Oprah likes a book, it makes us more interested in that book. We trust the recommendations of
people whom we want to be like,” note the Heaths.

But what if there are no ”experts” or “celebrities” to be found? Well, hold on a minute. They might be closer than
you think. Do you have positive feedback from satisfied customers? Is there someone on your team (including
you) with certain educational background or work experience that is relevant? If so, they (or you) might be able to
provide the expertise that you seek, even if they are not widely known.

Peer (Antiauthority)
Third, we can rely on what the Heaths refer to as “antiauthorities.” This is also known as peer testimony, because
it comes from a source that is neither expert nor celebrity, but similar status to the audience.

They cite the example of Pam Laffin, a mother of two who died at the age of 31 from emphysema-related lung
failure caused by years of smoking. She appeared in several anti-tobacco commercials sponsored by the

269
Massachusetts Department of Public Health. The commercials were difficult to watch but highly effective; Pam
Laffin told a compelling story in a way that more famous people could not.

What to Consider Before Using Testimony

Before using testimony, ask:
• Is the material quoted accurately?
• Is the source biased, or perceived as biased?
• Is the source competent in the field being consulted?
• Is the information current?

In the end, your choice as to which type of testimony you use will depend on your audience.

Smokers, for example. know all of the hazards of smoking and still continue to smoke. Give them a presentation
on the dangers of smoking using expert testimony and you’ll probably be met with a response like, “Yeah, but it
won’t happen to me.” Use an antiauthority like Pam Laffin, however, and the response will be totally different.

Here is a young woman who probably also thought that it wouldn’t happen to her, speaking “from her grave.”
Smokers can relate to her. She isn’t just a numerical figure. This type of testimony is quite effective when you’re
trying to tell people the dangers of doing something.

So get to know your audience, put yourself in their place, and choose the type or combination of evidence that will
make your message stick.

How to Incorporate Expert Testimony

Expert testimony can be incorporated after introducing a point of your argument.

Introduction
Once you have found experts to support your ideas, you may wonder how to incorporate their testimony into your
speech. The following will give you an idea of how to incorporate expert testimony in order to support your
argument and improve your speech.

What the Body of Your Speech Should Include

The body of your speech should help you elaborate and develop your main objectives clearly by using main
points, subpoints, and support for your sub points. To ensure that your speech clearly communicates with your
audience, try to limit both your main points and subpoints to three or four points each;this applies to your
supporting points, as well. Expert testimony is considered supporting point; it is used to support the main and
subpoints of your speech.

When a claim or point is made during a speech, the audience initially may be reluctant to concede or agree to the
validity of the point. Often this is because the audience does not initially accept the speaker as a trustworthy
authority. By incorporating expert testimony, the speaker is able to bolster their own authority to speak on the
topic.

Therefore, expert testimony is commonly introduced after a claim is made. For example, if a speech makes the
claim, “Manufacturing jobs have been in decline since the 1970s,” it should be followed up with expert testimony
to support that claim. This testimony could take a variety of forms, such as government employment statistics or a
historian who has written on a particular sector of the manufacturing industry. No matter the particular form of
expert testimony, it is incorporated following a claim to defend and support that claim, thus bolstering the authority
of the speaker.

270
Example of Incorporating Expert Testimony
Search for and watch a TED talk by Barry Schwartz, a Professor of Social Theory and Social Action at
Swarthmore College and author of numerous books in the field of psychology and economics. Notice how
Schwartz references expert testimony in the course of his speech to justify his point to the audience.

Schwartz begins by showing the job description of a hospital janitor, noting that the tasks do not require
interaction with other people. However, Schwartz introduces the expert testimony of actual hospital janitors as a
way to complicate the apparent solo nature of janitorial work. Schwartz personalizes the experts with proper
names, “Mike,” “Sharleene,” and “Luke,” and uses their testimony to demonstrate that despite the job description,
janitors take social interaction to be an important part of their job.

In this instance, Schwartz incorporates the expert testimony of actual janitors as a both a foil and a support. The
testimony shows that in fact janitorial work does include interaction with other people, thus foiling the initial
presentation of janitorial work as solitary. In addition, Schwartz uses the testimony of these experts to show that
they embody the characteristics of wisdom that Schwartz will describe in the remainder of the speech.

Key Points
• Testimonials can be obtained from expert authorities, celebrities and other inspirational figures, and
antiauthorities.
• An expert is is the kind of person whose wall is covered with framed credentials.
• People trust the recommendations of people whom they want to be like.
• Antiauthorities are sources of peer testimony whose source of knowledge is firsthand experience.
• Expert testimony should be incorporated to support, defend, or explain the main point or subpoint of
a speech.
• Limiting your main points, subpoints, and support points to three or four points each improves the
ability for your speech to communicate with the audience.
• Noticing how professionals use the testimony of experts can provide creative examples for how to
incorporate expert testimony into a speech.

Terms
peer
Somebody who is, or something that is, at a level equal (to that of something else).
antiauthority
A non-authority source.
expert
A person with extensive knowledge or ability in a given subject.
TED
Technology Entertainment Design, a series of global conferences.

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271
 USING EXAMPLES

Types of Examples: Brief, Extended, & Hypothetical

Brief, extended, and hypothetical examples can be used to help an audience better understand
and relate to key points of a presentation.
There are many types of examples that a presenter can use to help an audience better understand a topic and
the key points of a presentation. These include specific situations, problems, or stories designed to help illustrate
a principle, method, or phenomenon. They are useful because they can make an abstract concept more concrete
for an audience by providing a specific case. There are three main types of examples: brief, extended, and
hypothetical.

Brief Examples
Brief examples are used to further illustrate a point that may not be immediately obvious to all audience members
but is not so complex that is requires a more lengthy example. Brief examples can be used by the presenter as an
aside or on its own. A presenter may use a brief example in a presentation on politics in explaining the Electoral
College. Since many people are familiar with how the Electoral College works, the presenter may just mention
that the Electoral College is based on population and a brief example of how it is used to determine an election. In
this situation it would not be necessary for a presented to go into a lengthy explanation of the process of the
Electoral College since many people are familiar with the process.

Extended Examples
Extended examples are used when a presenter is discussing a more complicated topic that they think their
audience may be unfamiliar with. In an extended example a speaker may want to use a chart, graph, or other
visual aid to help the audience understand the example. An instance in which an extended example could be
used includes a presentation in which a speaker is explaining how the “time value of money” principle works in
finance. Since this is a concept that people unfamiliar with finance may not immediately understand, a speaker
will want to use an equation and other visual aids to further help the audience understand this principle. An
extended example will likely take more time to explain than a brief example and will be about a more complex
topic.

Hypothetical Examples
A hypothetical example is a fictional example that can be used when a speaker is explaining a complicated topic
that makes the most sense when it is put into more realistic or relatable terms. For instance, if a presenter is
discussing statistical probability, instead of explaining probability in terms of equations, it may make more sense
for the presenter to make up a hypothetical example. This could be a story about a girl, Annie, picking 10 pieces
of candy from a bag of 50 pieces of candy in which half are blue and half are red and then determining Annie’s
probability of pulling out 10 total pieces of red candy. A hypothetical example helps the audience to better
visualize a topic and relate to the point of the presentation more effectively.

Communicating Examples
Examples help the audience understand the key points; they should be to the point and
complement the topic.

272
Communicating Examples
Examples are essential to a presentation that is backed up with evidence, and it helps the audience effectively
understand the message being presented. An example is a specific situation, problem, or story designed to help
illustrate a principle, method or phenomenon. Examples are useful because they can help make an abstract idea
more concrete for an audience by providing a specific case. Examples are most effective when they are used as a
complement to a key point in the presentation and focus on the important topics of the presentation.

Using Examples to Complement Key Points

One method of effectively communicating examples is by using an example to clarify and complement a main
point of a presentation. If an orator is holding a seminar about how to encourage productivity in the workplace, an
example may be used that focuses on how an employee received an incentive to work harder, such as a bonus,
and this improved the employee’s productivity. An example like this would act as a complement and help the
audience better understand how to use incentives to improve performance in the workplace.

Using Examples that are Concise and to the Point

Examples are essential to help an audience better understand a topic. However, a speaker should be careful to
not overuse examples as too many examples may confuse the audience and distract them from focusing on the
key points that the speaker is making.

Examples should also be concise and not drawn out so the speaker does not lose the audience’s attention.
Concise examples should have a big impact on audience engagement and understanding in a small amount of
time.

Key Points
• Examples include specific situations, problems or stories designed to help illustrate a principle,
method, or phenomenon.
• Brief examples are used to further illustrate a point that may not be immediately obvious to all
audience members but is not so complex that is requires a more lengthy example.
• Extended examples are used when a presenter is discussing a more complicated topic that they
think their audience may be unfamiliar with.
• A hypothetical example is a fictional example that can be used when a speaker is explaining a
complicated topic that makes the most sense when it is put into more realistic or relatable terms.
• Examples are essential to a presentation that is backed up with evidence, and it helps the audience
effectively understand the message being presented. An example is a specific situation, problem, or
story designed to help illustrate a principle, method, or phenomenon.
• One method of effectively communicating examples is by using an example to clarify and
complement a main point of a presentation.
• A speaker should be careful to not overuse examples as too many examples may confuse the
audience and distract them from focusing on the key points that the speaker is making.

Terms
hypothetical
A fictional situation or proposition used to explain a complicated subject.
abstract
Difficult to understand; abstruse.

273
 phenomenon
A fact or event considered very unusual, curious, or astonishing by those who witness it.

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GATHERING EXPERTISE IN YOUR SUBJECT AREA

Wikipedia
Encyclopedias represent what is known on a subject. Whereas one does not cite encyclopedias in college-
level work, you should reach an understanding of what is commonly known on your subject. Encyclopedias
in general, and Wikipedia specifically, will do this. If you find useful information that is cited in an article, go to
that original article and read it. Then you can cite that article. Don’t cite Wikipedia – learn from it.
See http://www.wikipedia.org/

Google News
Search Google News for the latest news articles about your subject. See http://news.google.com/

Google Alerts
Use Google Alerts to receive news articles in your email. See https://www.google.com/alerts

US Government Resources
Search federal and state government websites. Add your state to the search to get more specific to your intended
audience. See: http://www.usa.gov/

Data.gov
“The home of the U.S. Government’s open data.”

According to the Website: “Here you will find data, tools, and resources to conduct research, develop web and
mobile applications, design data visualizations, and more.” See: https://www.data.gov/
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274
 USING LANGUAGE WELL

OBJECTIVES, OUTLINE, AND INTRODUCTION

Chapter 10: Using Language Well

By: E. Michele Ramsey, Ph.D.
Penn State Berks, Reading, PA

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Understand the power of language to define our world and our relationship to the world
• Choose language that positively impacts the ability to inform and persuade
• Choose language to create a clear and vivid message
• Use language that is ethical and accurate
• Use language to enhance his or her speaker credibility

Chapter Outline
• Introduction
◦ The Power of Language
◦ Communication vs. Language
◦ Language Creates Social Reality
◦ The Differences Language Choices Can Make
• Constructing Clear and Vivid Messages
◦ Use Simple Language
◦ Use Concrete and Precise Language
• Using Stylized Language
◦ Metaphors and Similes
◦ Alliteration
◦ Antithesis
◦ Parallel Structure and Language
◦ Personalized Language
• The Importance of Ethical and Accurate Language
◦ Language and Ethics
◦ Sexist and Heterosexist Language
• Avoiding Language Pitfalls
◦ Profanity
◦ Exaggeration
◦ Powerless Language
◦ Incorrect Grammar

275
 ◦ Other Language Choices to Consider
▪ Cliches
▪ Language that is Central to Popular Culture
• Conclusion
• Review Questions and Activities
• Glossary
• References

Your purpose is to make your audience see what you saw, hear what you heard, feel what you felt.
Relevant detail, couched in concrete, colorful language, is the best way to recreate the incident as it
happened and to picture it for the audience. – Dale Carnegie

The Power of Language

Imagine for a moment that you were asked to list
everything that you know about the country of Italy in spite
of the fact that you have never actually visited the country.
What would you write? You would have to think about all
that you were told about Italy throughout your life, and you
would probably list first the bits of information that have
been repeated to you by various people and in a variety of
contexts. So, for example, you might recall that in
geography class you learned particular things about Italy.
You might also recall the various movies you’ve seen that
were either supposedly set in Italy or dealt with some
element of what has been deemed by the film as “Italian
culture.” Those movies could include The Godfather, The
Italian Job, or The DaVinci Code. You might think about
stories your Italian grandmother told you about her
childhood spent in Rome or remember images you have
seen in history books about World War II. In other words,
throughout your life you have learned a lot of different
things that you now assume to be true about this country
called “Italy” and you’ve learned all of these things about
Italy through language, whether it be through verbal “Venice” by MorBCN. CC-BY-NC-SA.
storytelling or through your interpretation of images in a
book or on a screen. Now, consider for a moment the possibility that everything you’ve heard about Italy has been
incorrect. Since you have not ever actually been to the country and had first-hand experience with its geography
and culture, for example, how would you know if what you’ve been told is true or not?

Language is one of the most influential and powerful aspects of our daily lives and yet very few people pay
attention to it in their interpersonal and public communication. The power of language cannot be
overemphasized— language constructs, reflects, and maintains our social realities, or what we believe to be
“true” with regard to the world around us. The point of the example above is that what we “know is true” about a
person, place, thing, idea, or any other aspect of our daily lives very much depends on what experiences we have
had (or not), what information we have (or have not) come across, and what words people have used (or not
used) when communicating about our world.

Language is a process of free creation; its laws and principles are fixed, but the manner in which the
principles of generation are used is free and infinitely varied. Even the interpretation and use of words
involves a process of free creation. – Noam Chomsky

Language can also have an impact on how we feel about this reality. How we define words and how we feel about
those words is highly subjective. In fact, cognitive psychologist Lera Boroditsky showed a key to a group of
Spanish-speakers and to a group of German-speakers. The researchers then asked the participants to describe
the key they had been shown. Because the Spanish word for “key” is gendered as feminine, Spanish speakers
defined the key using words such as lovely, tiny, and magic. The German word for “key” is gendered masculine,
however, and German speakers defined the key using adjectives like hard, jagged, and awkward. ( (Note:
Boroditsky cited in Thomas, L., Wareing, S. Singh, I., Pecci, J. S., Thornborrow, J. & Jones, J. (2003). Language,

276
society, and power: An introduction, 2nd Ed. New York: Routledge. pp. 26–27.)) This study suggests that the
words we use to define something can have an impact on how we perceive what those words represent.

Because language is such a powerful, yet unexamined,

part of our lives, this chapter focuses on how language
functions and how competent speakers harness the power
of language. Consider the case of the Reverend Dr. Martin
Luther King, Jr. Indeed, many speakers before him made
the very same persuasive arguments regarding the lack of
civil rights for Black Americans, yet we regularly point to
the Reverend Dr. King as a preeminent speaker for the
civil rights movement because he was a master of
language— he employed the power of language to move
his audiences in ways they had not been moved before,
and we remember him for his eloquence.

Communication vs. Language

To understand the power of language, we need to “Martin Luther King Jr” by Dick DeMarsico. Public domain.
differentiate between communication and language.
Communication occurs when we try to transfer what is in our minds to the minds of our audience. Whether
speaking to inform, persuade, or entertain, the main goal of a speaker is to effectively communicate her or his
thoughts to audience members. Most chapters in this text help you determine how best to communicate
information through considerations such as organizational structure, audience analysis, delivery, and the like.
Language, on the other hand, is the means by which we communicate—a system of symbols we use to form
messages. We learn language as a child in order to read, write, and speak. Once we have mastered enough
language we can communicate with relative ease, yet growing up we rarely learn much about language choices
and what they mean for our communication. We regularly hear people say, “If we just communicated more or for
longer periods of time we’d better understand each other.” What these types of statements reflect is our lack of
understanding of the differences between communication and language. Therefore, many of us believe that when
problems arise we should strive to have more communication between the parties. But what we need is better
communication by focusing on language choice.

Language Creates Social Reality

Our social realities are constructed through language; and therefore, people with different experiences in, and
understandings of, the world can define the same things in very different ways. Language is culturally
transmitted—we learn how to define our world first from our families and then our later definitions of the world are
influenced by friends and institutions such as the media, education, and religion. If we grow up in a sexist culture,
we are likely to hold sexist attitudes.
Similarly, if we grow up in a culture that defines the environment as our first priority in making any decisions, we’re
likely to grow with environmentally friendly attitudes. Language, then, is not neutral. As a culture, as groups of
people, and as individuals, we decide what words we’re going to use to define one thing or another.

Culture is the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one category of
people from another. – Geert Hofstede

For public speakers, these facts are important for three primary reasons. First, the careful use of language can
make the difference between you giving a remarkable speech and one that is utterly forgettable. Second, you
must remember that audience members may not share the same language for the definition of the very same
ideas, realities, or even specific items. Finally, the language that you use in public (and even private)
communication says something about you—about how you define and therefore perceive the world. If you are not
careful with your language you may unintentionally communicate something negative about yourself simply
because of a careless use of language. You should think very carefully about your audience’s and your own
language when you prepare to speak publicly. You can master all of the other elements in this textbook, but
without an effective use of language those other mastered skills will not mean much to your audience. The
suggestions in this chapter will help you communicate as effectively as possible using appropriate and

277
expressive. You’ll also learn about language to avoid so that your language leaves the audience with a positive
impression of you.

The Differences Language Choices can Make

When I discuss the importance of language choice with my students, I generally begin with two different
paragraphs based on a section from Reverend Jesse Jackson’s “Rainbow Coalition” speech. The first paragraph I
read them is a section of Reverend Jackson’s speech that I have rewritten. The second paragraph is the actual
text from Reverend Jackson’s speech. Let’s start with my version first:

America should dream. Choose people over building bombs. Destroy the weapons and don’t hurt the people.
Think about a new system of values. Think about lawyers more interested in the law than promotions.
Consider doctors more interested in helping people get better than in making money. Imagine preachers and
priests who will preach and not just solicit money.

This paragraph is clear and simple. It gets the point across to the audience. But compare my version of his
paragraph to Reverend Jackson’s actual words:

Young America dream. Choose the human race over the nuclear race. Bury the weapons and don’t burn the
people. Dream of a new value system. Dream of lawyers more concerned about justice than a judgeship.
Dream of doctors more concerned about public health than personal wealth. Dream of preachers and priests
who will prophecy and not just profiteer.

The significant difference between these two versions of the paragraph can be explained simply as the difference
between carefully choosing one group of words over another group of words. My version of the speech is fine, but
it is utterly forgettable. Reverend Jackson’s exact wording, however, is stunning. The audience probably
remembered his speech and the chills that went down their spines when they heard it long after it was over. This
example, I hope, exemplifies the difference language choice can make. Using language in a way that makes you
and your speech memorable, however, takes work. Few people come by this talent naturally, so give yourself
plenty of time to rework your first draft to fine tune and perfect your language choice. Using some of the strategies
discussed below will help you in this process.
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CONSTRUCTING CLEAR AND VIVID MESSAGES

Use Simple Language

When asked to write a speech or a paper, many of us pull out the thesaurus (or call it up on our computer) when
we want to replace a common word with one that we believe is more elevated or intellectual. There are certainly
times when using a thesaurus is a good thing, but if you’re pulling that big book out to turn a simple idea into one
that sounds more complex, put it back on the shelf. Good speakers use simple language for two primary reasons.

First, audiences can sense a fake. When you turn in your term paper with words that aren’t typically used by
people in everyday conversation and those words are simply replacing the common words we all use, your
instructor knows what you’ve done. Part of having strong credibility as a speaker is convincing your audience of
your sincerity, both in terms of your ideas and your character. When you elevate your language simply for the
sake of using big words when small words will do, audiences may perceive you as insincere, and that perception

278
might also transfer onto your message. In addition, the audience’s attention can drift to questions about your
character and veracity, making it less likely that they are paying attention to your message.

Second, using a long word when a short one will do inhibits your ability to communicate clearly. Your goal as a
speaker should be to be as clear as you possibly can. Using language that makes it more difficult for your
audience to understand your message can negatively impact your ability to get a clear message across to your
audience. If your audience can’t understand your vocabulary, they can’t understand your message.

A good example of a speaker whose communication was

obstructed by language use is Former Secretary of State
Alexander Haig. Some examples of his problematic
language choice include: “careful caution,”
“epistemologically wise,” “exacerbating restraint,” “saddle
myself with a statistical fence,” and “definitizing an
answer.” ( (Note: Time.com (1981, February 23).
“Haigledygook and secretaryspeak.” Retrieved from
http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/
0,9171,949069,00.html)) Chances are good that after
reading these phrases over and over you still don’t
understand him. You can imagine how much harder it
would be to understand Haig’s message as it was
delivered orally—spoken in an instant and then gone! “Al Haig speaks to press 1981” by Ronald Reagan
Haig’s language clouds rather than clarifies ideas, but it is Presidential Library. Public domain.
easy to make sure your message gets across to the
audience by avoiding big words that are not necessary.

If you’re paying attention to the language strategies discussed in this chapter, you’ll find that you won’t need to
pull out that thesaurus to impress your audience—your command of language will make that positive impression
for you. In addition, when you use language that your audience expects to hear and is used to hearing you may
find that the audience perceives you as more sincere than someone who uses elevated language and sounds
pretentious. Remember: It is rarely the case that you should use a long word when a short one will do.

Most of the fundamental ideas of science are essentially simple, and may, as a rule, be expressed in a
language comprehensible to everyone. – Albert Einstein

Use Concrete and Precise Language

How many times a week do you say something to someone only to have them misunderstand? You believe that
you were very clear and the person you were talking to thought that she understood you perfectly, and yet you
both ended up with a problem we often deem “miscommunication.” You said you’d “call later” and your friend got
angry because you didn’t. By “later” you probably meant one time frame while your friend defined that time frame
very differently. Often in these cases both people are right. You were perfectly clear and your friend
did understand you perfectly—so how did the miscommunication happen?

279
 “German Shepherd” by Magnus Bråth. CC-BY.

“Chopper Bothy 04” by John Hudson. CC-BY-NC-ND.

One of the primary reasons we miscommunicate is because language is an abstract phenomenon. Meanings
exist in people’s understandings, not the words we use. Therefore, if you’re telling a story about “a dog” you could
be talking about a German Shepherd while the person you’re talking with is envisioning a Chihuahua. If you do
not use concrete language, you risk at least sending a weaker or different message than you intended. When
speaking, you want to use the concrete term “German shepherd” over the more abstract term “dog.”

When you are writing your speech, look for words that you might need to define more clearly. Instead of talking
about “bad weather,” tell the audience that it was raining or that hail the size of golf balls was coming down. “Bad
weather” means different things to different people. In discussing the aftermath of a natural disaster, rather than
saying “a lot of people were affected” say, “25,000 citizens, 1 in every 5, were affected by this disaster.” “A lot”
means different things to different people. Most words mean different things to different people, so use concrete
language over abstract words to better your chances of communicating your message as intended.

You also want to make sure that you’re precise. Someone might call a sweater “green” while someone else calls it
“teal.” Even though those are just differences in perception not purposeful or mindless communication meant to
be inaccurate, not being clear about exactly which color you’re talking about can lead to confusion. It is best to
remember to be as precise as possible when choosing words. Don’t say something was “big”—tell us its weight or
height, and to be sure you’re communicating clearly compare that weigh or height to something we understand.
So, instead of saying “The piles of garbage I saw in the local dump were really big” say “The piles of garbage I
saw in the local dump weighed about 10,000 pounds, which is equivalent to the weight of the average female
elephant.” The more precise you are the less likely it is that your audience will misinterpret your message.

Our business is infested with idiots who try to impress by using pretentious jargon. – David Ogilvy

Another way to avoid language that obstructs communication is to avoid the use of jargon
jargon. Jargon is the
“specialized language of a group or profession.” ( (Note: Hamilton, G. (2008). Public speaking for college and
career, 8th Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.)) It is appropriate to use jargon when you know that your audience
understands the terms you are using. For example, if you are a computer science major and you are presenting to
a group of similarly trained computer science majors, using jargon will help establish your credibility with that
audience. Using terms even as basic as “RAM” and “binary code” with a general audience, however, will likely not
go over well—you risk confusing the audience rather than informing or persuading them. Even people who can
use computers may not know how they work or the technical terms associated with them. So you must be careful
to only use jargon when you know your audience will understand it. If you must use jargon while speaking to a
general audience, be sure to define your terms and err on the side of over-clarification.

Slang is a language that rolls up its sleeves, spits on its hands and goes to work. – Carl Sandburg

280
Finally, another way to avoid confusion is to avoid using slang when it is not
appropriate. Slang is language that some people might understand but that
is not considered acceptable in formal or polite conversation. Slang may be
a poor choice for a speaker because some members of your audience may
not be familiar with the slang term(s) you use. Slang is often based in a very
specific audience, defined by age, region, subculture and the like. If you are
speaking to an audience that you know will understand and respond
positively, you may choose to include that language in your speech.
Otherwise, do not use slang, or you may confuse and frustrate audience
members and cause them to lose interest in your speech. In addition,
because slang is often not considered appropriate in formal and polite
conversation, using it in your speech may communicate negative ideas
about you to audience members. Don’t let a mindless use of slang
negatively impact your audience’s perception of you and your message.

“Goth” by Rama. CC-BY-SA.

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No Known Copyright

USING STYLIZED LANGUAGE

Stylized language is language that communicates your meaning clearly, vividly and with flair. Stylized language
doesn’t just make you sound better; it also helps make your speeches more memorable. Speakers who are
thoughtful about using language strategies in their speeches are more memorable as speakers and therefore so
too are their messages more unforgettable as well.

Metaphors and Similes

One strategy that promotes vivid language is the use of metaphors. Metaphors are comparisons made by
speaking of one thing in terms of another. Similes are similar to metaphors in how they function; however, similes
make comparisons by using the word “like” or “as,” whereas metaphors do not. The power of a metaphor is in its
ability to create an image that is linked to emotion in the mind of the audience. It is one thing to talk about racial
injustice, it is quite another for the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. to note that people have been “…battered
by storms of persecution and staggered by the winds of police brutality.” Throughout his “I Have a Dream” speech
the Reverend Dr. King uses the metaphor of the checking account to make his point.

He notes that the crowd has come to the March on Washington to “cash a check” and claims that America has
“defaulted on this promissory note” by giving “the Negro people a bad check, a check that has come back
“insufficient funds.” By using checking and bank account terms that most people are familiar with, the Reverend
Dr. King is able to more clearly communicate what he believes has occurred. In addition, the use of this metaphor
acts as a sort of “shortcut.” He gets his point across very quickly by comparing the problems of civil rights to the
problems of a checking account.

281
In the same speech the Reverend Dr. King also makes use of similes, which also compare two things but do so
using “like” or “as.” In discussing his goals for the Civil Rights movement in his “I Have a Dream” speech, the
Reverend Dr. exclaims: “No, no we are not satisfied and we will not be satisfied until justice rolls down likewaters
and righteousness like a mighty stream.” Similes also help make your message clearer by using ideas that are
more concrete for your audience. For example, to give the audience an idea of what a winter day looked like you
could note that the “snow looked as solid as pearls.” To communicate sweltering heat you could say that “the tar
on the road looked like satin.” A simile most of us are familiar with is the notion of the United States being “like a
melting pot” with regard to its diversity. We also often note that a friend or colleague that stays out of conflicts
between friends is “like Switzerland.” In each of these instances similes have been used to more clearly and
vividly communicate a message.

Metaphors have a way of holding the most truth in the least space. – Orson Scott Card

Alliteration
Remember challenging yourself or a friend to repeat a tongue twister “five times fast?” Perhaps it was “Sally sold
seashells by the seashore” or “Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.” Tongue twisters are difficult to say
to say but very easy to remember. Why? Alliteration. Alliteration is the repetition of the initial sounds of words.
Alliteration is a useful tool for helping people remember your message, and it’s as simple as taking a few minutes
to see if there are ways to reword your speech so that you can add some alliteration— this is a great time to use
that thesaurus we talked about putting away early in this chapter. Look for alternative words to use that allow for
alliteration in your speech. You might consider doing this especially when it comes to the points that you would
like your audience to remember most.

The soul selects her own society. – Emily Dickinson

Antithesis
Antithesis allows you to use contrasting statements in order to make a rhetorical point. Perhaps the most famous
example of antithesis comes from the Inaugural Address of President John F. Kennedy when he stated, “And so,
my fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.” Going
back to Reverend Jackson’s “Rainbow Coalition” speech he notes, “I challenge them to put hope in their brains
and not dope in their veins.” In each of these cases, the speakers have juxtaposed two competing ideas in one
statement to make an argument in order to draw the listener’s attention.

You’re easy on the eyes — hard on the heart. – Terri Clark

Parallel Structure and Language

Antithesis is often worded using parallel structure or language. Parallel structure is the balance of two or more
similar phrases or clauses, and parallel wording is the balance of two or more similar words. The Reverend Dr.
King’s “I Have a Dream” speech exemplifies both strategies in action. Indeed, the section where he repeats “I
Have a Dream” over and over again is an example of the use of both parallel structure and language. The use of
parallel structure and language helps your audience remember without beating them over the head with
repetition. If worded and delivered carefully, you can communicate a main point over and over again, as did the
Reverend Dr. King, and it doesn’t seem as though you are simply repeating the same phrase over and over. You
are often doing just that, of course, but because you are careful with your wording (it should be powerful and
creative, not pedantic) and your delivery (the correct use of pause, volumes, and other elements of delivery), the
audience often perceives the repetition as dramatic and memorable. The use of parallel language and structure
can also help you when you are speaking persuasively. Through the use of these strategies you can create a
speech that takes your audience through a series of ideas or arguments that seem to “naturally” build to your
conclusion.

282
Personalized Language
We’re all very busy people. Perhaps you’ve got work, studying, classes, a job, and extracurricular activities to
juggle. Because we are all so busy, one problem that speakers often face is trying to get their audience interested
in their topic or motivated to care about their argument. A way to help solve this problem is through the use of
language that personalizes your topic. Rather than saying, “One might argue” say “You might argue.” Rather than
saying “This could impact the country in ways we have not yet imagined,” say “This could impact your life in ways
that you have not imagined.” By using language that directly connects your topic or argument to the audience you
better your chances of getting your audience to listen and to be persuaded that your subject matter is serious and
important to them. Using words like “us,” “you,” and “we” can be a subtle means of getting your audience to pay
attention to your speech. Most people are most interested in things that they believe impact their lives
directly—make those connections clear for your audience by using personal language.

“next10, Day1, 11.05.2010” by NEXT Berlin. CC-BY.

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THE IMPORTANCE OF ETHICAL AND ACCURATE

LANGUAGE

Language and Ethics

As was noted at the beginning of this chapter, language is culturally transmitted—we learn our language from
those around us. For most of us this means that we may first learn language from our parents, but as we grow
older, other family members, friends, educators and even the media impact our vocabularies and our choices
regarding what language we use. Think about a world without language. Quite simply, we’d have no way of
participating in our world without it. People constantly produce language to categorize and organize the world.

Think back to our discussion of how language influences your social reality. In my work as a mentor, I tutored a
girl in elementary school who had a very difficult time saying the word “lake.” I used the word “lake” as part of a

283
homework exercise. What I had not realized was that she had never seen a lake, either in person or in a picture,
or, if she had seen a lake no one had pointed to that body of water and called it a “lake.” The concept of a “lake”
was simply not in her reality. No “lakes” existed in her world. This is a key example of how the language that we
learn and that we choose to use says something about our social reality.

“Emerald Bay” by Michael. CC-BY.

Consider the above example another way. Let’s say that my young friend had seen a lake and knew how to say
the word and what the word referred to, but that she had only been privy to people who used the word negatively.
If throughout her life “lakes” were discussed as “bad things” to be avoided, she would have a very different
perspective on lakes than most people. Switching this example around a little helps illustrate the fact that
language is not neutral. Language carries ideas, and while there is often more than one choice in terms of which
word to use, often the words from which you are choosing are not equal in terms of the reality that they
communicate.

Think about the difference between calling a specific place “the projects” versus calling that same place “public
housing.” Both phrases refer to a particular geographical space, but calling a neighborhood “the projects” as
opposed to “public housing” communicates something very different, and more negative, about this neighborhood.
Often students use the words that they hear more commonly used, so referring to “the projects” as opposed to
“public housing” usually indicates that they have not thought enough about their word choices or thought about
the impact of those choices.

By and large, language is a tool for concealing the truth. – George Carlin

As this example points out, we have a variety of words from which to choose when constructing a message.
Successful speakers recognize that in addition to choosing words that help with clarity and vividness, it is
important to think about the connotations associated with one word or the other. When speakers are not careful in
terms of word choice in this sense, it is possible to lose credibility with the audience and to create the perception
that you are someone that perhaps you are not. If you use “the projects” instead of “public housing,” audience
members may view you as someone who has negative perceptions of people who live in public housing when you
do not feel that way at all. Clearly, not being careful about language choices can be a costly mistake.

But what do these examples have to do with ethics? For our purposes here, there are two ways to think about
communication and ethics. First, ethical communication is that which does not unfairly label one thing or another
based on personal bias. So, in addition to choosing “public housing” over “the projects,” an ethical speaker will
choose terms that steer clear from intentional bias. For example, pro-life speakers would refrain from calling “pro-
choice” people “pro-abortion” since the basic principle of the “pro- choice” position is that it is up to the person, not
society, to choose whether or not an abortion is acceptable. That is a very different position than being “pro-

284
abortion.” Indeed, many pro- choice citizens would not choose abortion if faced with an unplanned pregnancy;
therefore calling them “pro- abortion” does not reflect the reality of the situation; rather, it is the purposeful and
unethical use of one term over the other for emotional impact. Similarly, if a pro-choice person is addressing a
crowd where religious organizations are protesting against the legality of abortion, it would not be ethical for the
pro-choice speaker to refer to the “anti- abortion” protestors as “religious fanatics.” Simply because someone is
protesting abortion on religious grounds does not make that person a “religious fanatic,” and as in the first
example, choosing the latter phrase is another purposeful and unethical use of one term over another for
emotional impact.

Language exerts hidden power, like the moon on the tides. – Rita Mae Brown

A second way to link communication and ethics is to remember that ethical speakers attempt to communicate
reality to the best of their ability. Granted, as was noted above, each person’s social reality is different, depending
on background, influences, and cultural institutions, for example. But regardless of whether you think that a “lake”
is a good or bad thing, lakes still exist in reality. Regardless of whether or not you think rocks are useful or not,
rocks still exist. So ethical communication also means trying to define or explain your subject in terms that are as
closely tied to an objective reality as is possible—it is your best attempt to communicate accurately about your
topic. Sexist and heterosexist language are two types of language to be avoided by ethical speakers because
each type of language does communicate inaccuracies to the audience.

Sexist and Heterosexist Language

One of the primary means by which speakers regularly communicate inaccurate information is through the use of
sexist language. In spite of the fact that the Modern Language Association deemed sexist language as
grammatically incorrect back in the 1970s, many people and institutions (including most colleges and universities)
still regularly use sexist language in their communication.

An argument I regularly hear from students is that language has “always been sexist.” This is, in fact, not true. As
Dale Spender notes in her book, Man Made Language, until 1746 when John Kirkby formulated his “Eighty Eight
Grammatical Rules,” the words “they” and “their” were used in sentences for sex-indeterminable sentences. (
(Note: Spender, D. (1990). Man Made Language. New York: Pandora.)) Kirkby’s rule number twenty-one stated
that the male sex was more comprehensive than the female and thus argued that “he” was the grammatically
correct way to note men and women in writing where mixed sexed or sex-indeterminable situations are referred
to. ( (Note: Spender 1990)) Women were not given equal access to education at this time and thus the male
grammarians who filled the halls of the academy and had no incentive to disagree with Mr. Kirkby, accepted his
eighty-eight rules in full.

Interestingly though, the general population was not as easily convinced. Perhaps because they were not used to
identifying women as men in language or perhaps because it did not make rational sense to do so, the general
public ignored rule number twenty-one. Incensed by the continued misuse of “they,” male grammarians were
influential in the passing of the 1850 Act of Parliament which legally asserted that “he” stood for “she.” ( (Note:
Spender 1990)) Yes, you read correctly. Parliament passed legislation in an effort to promote the use of sexist
language. And it worked! Eventually the rule was adhered to by the public and thus we have the regular and
rarely challenged use of sexist language. But this use of language was not “natural” or even “normal” for many
millennia.

Pretending that we haven’t learned about the work of Dale Spender, let’s assume that language has “always been
sexist.” Even if language was always sexist, that does not make the use of sexist language right. We wouldn’t
make a similar argument about racist language, so that argument isn’t any stronger with regard to language that
is sexist. It simply isn’t acceptable today to use sexist language; and by learning to avoid these common
mistakes, you can avoid using language that is grammatically incorrect, unethical, and problematic. See Table
10.1 for examples of sexist and non-sexist language.

Table 10.1: Comparison of Sexist and Gender-Neutral Terms

Sexist Terms Gender-Neutral Terms

Actress Actor

285
 Table 10.1: Comparison of Sexist and Gender-Neutral Terms

Sexist Terms Gender-Neutral Terms

Ballerina Ballet Dancer

Businessman Business Person

Chairman Chairperson

Fireman Firefighter

Fisherman Fisher

Mailman/Postman Mail/Letter Carrier

Male Nurse Nurse

Policeman Police Officer

Stewardess Flight Attendant

Waitress Server

He (to mean men and women) He or She, He/She, They

Examples:
Example:
If a student wants to do well, he or she must study.
If a student wants to do well, he must study.
If students want to do well, they must study.

Is your remarkably sexist drivel intentional, or just some horrible mistake? – Yeardley Smith

First, you should avoid the use of what is called the generic “he” or “man,” which is the use of terms such as
“mankind” instead of “humankind” or “humanity,” or the use of “man” or “he” to refer to all people. A common
response from students with regard to the use of “generic he” is that the word is intended to represent men and
women, therefore when it’s used it is not used to be sexist. If it were really the case that people truly recognized in
their minds that the term “man” includes women, then we would talk about situations in which “man has difficulty
giving birth” ( (Note: Spender 1990 p. 156)) or the “impact of menstruation on man’s biology.” Of course, we do
not say those things because they simply wouldn’t make sense to us. Perhaps you can now see why the people
of the 1700s and 1800s had trouble switching from non-sexist to sexist language—it defied their own common
sense just as discussing how “man gets pregnant” defies yours.

286
Second, you should avoid using man-linked terms terms, which are terms such
as “fireman” or “policemen.” It is appropriate to use these terms when
you know that the people you are speaking about are men only, but if
you do not know for sure or if you’re talking about groups generally, you
should avoid using these types of terms and replace them with
“firefighters” and “police officers.” Colleges and universities should
replace “freshman” with “first-year students” and so should you. Other,
non job-oriented words also suffer from this same problem. People often
note that tables need to be “manned” rather than “staffed” and that items
are “man-made” instead of “human made” or “handmade.”

A final common use of sexist language occurs when people

use spotlighting when discussing the occupations of men and women.
How often have you heard (or used) a phrase such as “he’s a male
nurse” or “that female lawyer?” When we spotlight in these ways, we are
pointing out that a person is deviating from the “norm” and implying that
someone’s sex is relevant to a particular job. According to Peccei, in the
English language there is a very strong tendency to “place the adjective
expressing the most ‘defining’ characteristic closest to the noun.” ( (Note:
Peccei, J. (2003). Language and age. In L. Thomas et. al., Language,
society, and power, 2nd Ed. New York: Routledge)) Thus, as Turner
points out, a phrase like the “old intelligent woman” violates our sense of “Italian Soldier Olympic Games Turin 2006”
“correct,” not because there’s anything wrong with the word order by Italian Army. CC-BY.
grammatically, but because it contradicts our customary way of thinking
that values youth over age. ( (Note: Peccei 2003)) If you talk about a “male nurse” or a “female cop,” you risk
communicating to the audience that you believe the most salient aspect of a particular job is the sex of the person
that normally does it, and some audience members may not appreciate that assumption on your part.

The use of sexist language is not just grammatically incorrect; its use is also linked to ethics because it
communicates a reality that does not exist—it is not accurate. Man-linked language communicates male
superiority and that there are more men than women because women are regularly erased linguistically in speech
and writing. Man-linked terms and spotlighting communicate that some job activities are appropriate for men but
not women and vice versa by putting focus on the sex of a person as linked to their job or activity. Finally, the use
of the generic “he” or “man” communicates that men are the norm and women deviate from that norm. If all
humans are called “man,” what does that say about women? Sexist language can also limit what young males
and females believe that they can accomplish in their lives. Ethical speakers should therefore avoid using
language that communicates these sexist practices.

Speakers who choose to continue to use sexist language are not only speaking in a manner that is grammatically
incorrect, they are also risking communicating negative ideas about themselves to audience members. Often the
use of sexist language is because of a careless error, so be careful about language choice so that you don’t
accidentally communicate something about yourself that you didn’t intend or that isn’t true. Remember that if one
person in your audience is offended by some aspect of your language use, they may share their opinions with
others in the room. If that one person is a leader of the larger group or is someone whose opinions people care
about, offending that one audience member may cause you to “lose” many other audience members as well.

287
Heterosexist language is language that assumes the
heterosexual orientation of a person or group of people. Be
careful when speaking not to use words or phrases that
assume the sexual orientation of your audience members.
Do not make the mistake of pointing to someone in your
audience as an example and discussing that person with
the assumption that she is heterosexual by saying
something like, “Let’s say this woman here is having
trouble with her husband.” When thinking of examples to
use, consider using names that could ring true for
heterosexuals and homosexuals alike. Instead of talking
about Pat and Martha, discuss an issue involving Pat and
Chris. Not only will you avoid language that assumes
everyone’s partner is of the opposite sex, you will also
better your chances of persuading using your example. If
the use of sex- specific names doesn’t ring true with
members of your audience that are homosexual, it is “Married Gay Couple John and Jamie” by John. CC-BY-SA.
possible that they are not as likely to continue to listen to
your example with the same level of interest. They are more likely to follow your example if they aren’t confronted
immediately with names that assume a heterosexual relationship. There are, of course, ethical considerations as
well. Because it is likely that your entire audience is not heterosexual (and certainly they do not all hold
heterosexist attitudes), using heterosexist language is another way that speakers may alienate audience
members. In reality the world is not completely heterosexual and even in the unlikely case that you’re speaking in
a room of consisting completely of heterosexuals, many people have friends or relatives that are homosexual, so
the use of heterosexist language to construct the world as if this were not the case runs counter to ethical
communication.
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• Italian Soldier Olympic Games Turin 2006. Provided by by: Italian Army. Located at License: CC BY: Attribution
at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Italian_Soldier_Olypmic_Games_Turin_2006.jpg. License
• Married Gay Couple John and Jamie. Authored by by: John. Located at License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Married_Gay_Couple_John_and_Jamie.jpg. License

AVOIDING LANGUAGE PITFALLS

There are other aspects of language you should consider when thinking about how language choices impact the
audience’s perception of you.

Profanity
It seems obvious, but this fact bears repeating—you should refrain from using profanity in your speeches. One of
the primary rules of all aspects of public speaking (audience analysis, delivery, topic selection, etc.) is that you
should never ignore audience expectations. Audiences do not expect speakers to use profane language, and in
most cases, doing so will hurt your credibility with the audience. It is true that certain audiences will not mind an
occasional profane word used for effect, but unless you are speaking to a group of people with whom you are
very familiar, it is difficult to know for sure whether the majority of the audience will respond positively or
negatively to such language use. If you even offend one person in an audience and that person happens to be an
opinion leader for other audience members, the negative impact of your language on that one person could end
up having a much larger influence on the audience’s perception of you.

I wanted to cut down on the profanity, because I think I’m funnier without sayin’ a lot of cuss words. –
Chris Tucker

288
Exaggeration
Speakers should also be careful about exaggeration. Hyperbole is the use of moderate exaggeration for effect
and is an acceptable and useful language strategy. What is not acceptable, however, is the use of exaggeration
to an extent that you risk losing credibility. For example, while it is acceptable to note that “it snows in South
Texas as often as pigs fly,” it would not be acceptable to state that “It never snows in South Texas.” In the first
case, you are using hyperbole as a form of exaggeration meant to creatively communicate an idea. In the second
case, your use of exaggeration is stating something that is not true. It is unwise to use words such as “never” and
“always” when speaking. It may be the case that speakers make this mistake accidentally because they are not
careful with regard to word choice. We so easily throw words like “always” and “never” around in everyday
conversation that this tendency transfers onto our public speeches when we are not thinking carefully about word
choice.

There are two problems with the careless use of exaggeration. First, when you use words like “always” and
“never,” it is not likely that the statement you are making is true—as very few things always or never happen.
Therefore, audiences might mistake your careless use of language for an attempt to purposefully misrepresent
the truth. Second, when you suggest that something “always” or “never” happens, you are explicitly challenging
your audience members to offer up evidence that contradicts your statement. Such a challenge may serve to
impact your credibility negatively with the audience, as an audience member can make you look careless and/or
silly by pointing out that your “always” or “never” statement is incorrect.

Exaggeration is a blood relation to falsehood and nearly as blamable. – Hosea Ballou

Powerless Language
Finally, think about using powerful language when speaking.
Because women are more likely than men to be socialized to
take the feelings of others into account, women tend to use less
powerful language than men. ( (Note: Gamble, T. K. & Gamble,
M. W. (2003). The gender communication connection. New York:
Houghton-Mifflin.)) Both men and women, however, can use
language that communicates a lack of power. In some cases
speakers use powerless language that communicates
uncertainty
uncertainty. For example, a speaker might say “It seems to me
that things are getting worse,” or “In my estimation, things are
getting worse.” These phrases communicate a lack of certainty in
your statements. It is likely that in the case of these speeches,
the speaker is arguing that some problem is getting worse,
therefore more powerful language would be acceptable. Simply
state that “Things are getting worse” and don’t weaken your
statement with phrases that communicate uncertainty.

Speakers should also beware of hedges

hedges, tag questions
questions, and
qualifiers
qualifiers. Examples of hedges would include, “I thought we
should,” “I sort of think,” or “Maybe we should.” Use more “Malalai Joya speaking in Finland” by AfghanKabul.
powerful statements such as “We should” or “I believe.” In CC-BY.
addition, speakers should avoid the use of tag questions, which
are quick questions at the end of a statement that also communicate uncertainty. People who use tag questions
might end a statement with “Don’t you think?” or “Don’t you agree?” rather than flatly stating what they believe
because it can appear to audiences that you are seeking validation for your statements. Qualifiers such as
“around” or “about” make your sentences less definitive, so generally avoid using them.

Interestingly, however, there are cases when using less powerful language may be useful. While a full discussion
of these instances is out of the purview of this chapter, good speakers will recognize when they should use more
or less powerful language. I tell my students that there are some cases when negotiation between two or more
parties is the key and that in these instances using language that communicates complete certainty might impede
fruitful negotiation because other parties may incorrectly perceive you as inflexible. On the other hand, in some
cases you must “win” an argument or “beat” another speaker in order to even get to the negotiation table, and in

289
those cases, the use of more powerful language may be warranted. It bears repeating that better speakers know
how to use language in response to specific contexts in order to be successful, hence thinking about what
contexts require more or less powerful language is always a good idea.

There may be times when we are powerless to prevent injustice, but there must never be a time when
we fail to protest. – Elie Wiesel

Incorrect Grammar
While the use of sexist or heterosexist language may imply some negative qualities about you to your audience,
the use of incorrect grammar in your speech will explicitly communicate negative attributes about you quite
clearly. There are four primary means by which incorrect grammar tends to make its way into speeches, including
basic error
error, mispronunciations
mispronunciations, regionalisms
regionalisms, and colloquialisms
colloquialisms.

Basic errors occur when people make simple mistakes in grammar because of carelessness or a lack of
knowledge. If you are unsure about the grammatical structure of a sentence, ask someone.

Although spoken English doesn’t obey the rules of written language, a person who doesn’t know the
rules thoroughly is at a great disadvantage. – Marilyn vos Savant

Practicing your speech in front of others can help you

catch mistakes. Grammatical errors can also happen when
speakers aren’t familiar enough with their speech. If you do
not know your topic well and have not given yourself an
adequate amount of time for practice, you may fumble
some during your speech and use incorrect grammar that
you normally wouldn’t use. One of the most regular
critiques made of President George W. Bush is that he
regularly makes grammatical errors in public. In one case
President Bush stated, “Rarely is the question asked: Is
our children learning?” In another instance he stated, “I
have a different vision of leadership. A leadership is
someone who brings people together.” ( (Note: About.com
(2011). Bushisms—U.S. President proves how difficult
English really is! Retrieved from. http://esl.about.com/ “Bush delivers his second Inaugural address” by Paul
library/weekly/aa032301a.htm)) When President Bush Morse. Public domain.
makes these mistakes, many people take note and it gives
his detractors ammunition to critique his ability to lead. Unlike President Bush, you do not have a team of public
relations specialists ready to explain away your grammatical error so you should take great care to make sure that
you’re prepared to speak.

Apparently Arnold was inspired by President Bush, who proved you can be a successful politician in
this country even if English is your second language. – Conan O’Brien

In addition, you must be sure that you are pronouncing words correctly. In one instance I had a student who
began discussing the philosopher Plato, except she pronounced his name “Platt-o” instead of “Play-toe.” I could
see students glancing at each other and rolling their eyes in response to this mistake. Indeed, it was even difficult
for me to pay attention after the mistake because it was such a blatant error. Making pronunciation mistakes,
especially when you’re pronouncing words that the general public deems ordinary, can seriously impede your
credibility. It was likely difficult for students to take this speaker’s remaining comments seriously after she’d made
such a big mistake. If you’re unsure about how to pronounce a word, check with someone else or with the
dictionary to make sure you’re pronouncing it correctly. In fact, many online dictionaries such as Merriam-
Webster.com and Dictionary.com now include a function that allows you to hear how the word is pronounced. And
if it’s a word you’re not used to saying, such as a technical or medical term, practice saying it out loud 10-20 times
a day until you’re comfortable with the word. Remember that our mouths are machines and that our tongues,
teeth, cheeks, lips, etc. all work together to pronounce sounds. When faced with a word that our mouths are not
yet “trained” to say, it is more likely that we’ll mispronounce the word or stutter some on it during a speech. But if
you practice saying the word out loud several times a day leading up to your speech, you’re less likely to make a
mistake and your confidence will be boosted instead of hurt in the midst of your speech.

290
 Remember: Y’all is singular. All y’all is plural. All y’all’s is plural possessive. – Kinky Friedman

Some grammar problems occur because people use regionalisms when speaking, which may pose problems for
people in the audience not familiar with the terms being used. Regionalisms are customary words or phrases
used in different geographic regions. For example, growing up in Texas I used “y’all,” while my students in
Pennsylvania might use “youins” or “yins” to mean a group of people. In the South, many people use the phrase
“Coke” to mean any soft drink (probably because Coco-Cola is headquartered in Atlanta), while in the Northeast a
“Coke” might be called a “tonic” and in other regions it might be called a “pop” or “soda pop.” You must be careful
when using regional terms because your audience may not interpret your message correctly if they are not
familiar with the regionalism you’re using. Try to find terms that are broader in their use, perhaps using “you all” or
“soft drink” instead of the regional terms you may be used to using in everyday conversations.

“Federal Standard Regions” by Belg4mit. Public domain.

Another grammar issue often linked to region is the use of colloquialisms. Colloquialisms are words or phrases
used in informal speech but not typically used in formal speech. Using the word “crick” instead of “creek” is one
example of a colloquialism, and in some areas “I’m getting ready to cook dinner” would be said, “I’m fixin’ to make
dinner.” Colloquialisms can also be phrases that stem from particular regions. In some regions nice clothes are
often referred to as your “Sunday best,” and in some areas, when people are preparing to vacuum, they note that
they are getting ready to “red up the place” (make it ready for visitors).

Like regionalisms, an audience understanding your use of colloquialisms depends on their familiarity with the
language tendencies of a certain geographic area, so steering clear of their use can help you make sure that your
message is understood by your audience. Another problem that regionalisms and colloquialisms have in common
is that some audience members may consider their use a sign of lesser intellect because they are not considered
proper grammar, so you also risk leaving a bad impression of yourself with audience members if you make these
language choices for a formal presentation.

I personally think we developed language because of our deep need to complain. – Lily Tomlin

Other Language Choices to Consider

Clichés are phrases or expressions that, because of overuse, have lost their rhetorical power. Examples include
sayings such as “The early bird gets the worm” or “Making a mountain out of a molehill.” Phrases such as these
were once powerful ways of communicating an idea, but because of overuse these phrases just don’t have the
impact that they once had. Using clichés in your speeches runs the risk of having two negative attributions being
placed on you by audience members. First, audience members may feel that your use of a cliché communicates
that you didn’t take the speech seriously and/or were lazy in constructing it. Second, your audience members may
perceive you as someone who is not terribly creative. Clichés area easy ways to communicate your message, but
you might pay for that ease with negative feelings about you as a speaker from your audience. Try to avoid using
clichés so that audiences are more likely to perceive you positively as a speaker.

Another consideration for speakers is whether or not to use language central to the popular culture of a time
period. Whether we’re talking about “groovy, man” from the 1970s or “like totally awesome” from the 1980s, or
“word to your mutha” from the 1990s, the language central to the popular culture of any time period is generally
something to be avoided in formal public speaking. Like slang or profanity, language stemming from popular

291
culture can be limited in its appeal. Some audiences may not understand it, some audiences may negatively
evaluate you for using language that is too informal, and other audiences will have negative preconceived notions
about “the kind of people” that use such language (e.g., “hippies” in the 1970s), and they will most likely transfer
those negative evaluations onto you.
Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 10 Avoiding Language Pitfalls. Authored by
by: E. Michele Ramsey, Ph.D.. Provided byby: Penn State Berks, Reading, PA. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
Project: The Public Speaking
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Project. License
• Malalai Joya speaking in Finland. Authored by
by: AfghanKabul. Located at License: CC BY: Attribution
at: https://flic.kr/p/4avCsj. License

Public domain content

• USFederalRegions. Authored byby: Belg4mit. Located at License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
at: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:USFederalRegions.svg. License
• Bush delivers his second inaugural address. Authored byby: Paul Morse. Located at License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bush_delivers_his_second_Inaugural_address.jpg. License

CONCLUSION, REVIEW QUESTIONS, AND

ACTIVITIES

This chapter has discussed a number

of important aspects of language that
good speakers should always
consider. It is important for speakers to
remember the power of language and
to harness that power effectively, yet
ethically. We’ve discussed the
relationship between the language we
use and the way we see the world, the
importance of using language that is
clear, vivid, stylized, ethical and that
reflects well on you as the speaker.

The difference between choosing one

word over another can be as
significant as an audience member
remembering your presentation or
forgetting it and/or an audience turning
against you and your ideas. Taking a
few extra moments to add some
“Dilgo Khyentse Yangsi Rinpoche answers a young person’s question…” by
alliteration or to check for language
Wonderlane. CC-BY.
that might offend others is time very
well spent. The next time you have to
write or speak about an issue, remember the importance of language and its impact on our lives— carefully
consider what language will you use and how will those language choices make a difference in how your
audiences defines and understands your topic.

If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to his head. If you talk to him in his
language, that goes to his heart. ~ Nelson Mandela

Review Questions
1. Explain the difference between communication and language.
2. Explain the relationship between language and the way that humans perceive their worlds.
3. Why should you use simple language in your speech?

292
 4. The use of concrete and precise language in your speeches helps prevent what sorts of problems?
5. Give an example of a metaphor and explain how that metaphor functions to communicate a specific
idea more clearly.
6. What is alliteration?
7. Why is personalized language important?
8. What are some examples of types of sexist language and what is the impact of those examples?
9. What are two problems associated with using exaggerated language in your speeches?
10. Explain the types of powerless language most commonly used.
11. Why shouldn’t you use clichés in your speech?
12. Why is correct grammar important to good speech making?

Activities
1. Speakers should avoid the use of sexist language. Consider the sexist words and phrases listed
below and think of as many replacement words as you can.
◦ Bachelor’s Degree
◦ Bogeyman
◦ Brotherhood
◦ Businessman
◦ Chairman
◦ Forefather
◦ Layman
◦ Mailman
◦ Manmade
◦ Repairman
◦ Salesman
◦ Female Doctor
2. Using speeches from mlkonline.net or jfklibrary.org, choose any speech from the Reverend Dr.
Martin Luther King, Jr., President John F. Kennedy, or Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy and
isolate one paragraph that you believe exemplifies a careful and effective use of language. Rewrite
that paragraph as I did for my classes, using more common and less careful word choices. Compare
the paragraphs to each other once you’re done, noticing the difference your changes in language
make.
3. Speakers should always remember that it’s rarely helpful to use a long word when a short word will
do and that clichés should be avoided in speeches. Look at these common clichés, reworded using
language that obstructs rather than clarifies, and see if you can figure out which clichés have been
rewritten.
◦ A piece of pre-decimal currency conserved is coinage grossed.
◦ The timely avian often acquires the extended soft-bodied invertebrate.
◦ A utensil often used for writing is more prodigious than a certain long-edged weapon.
◦ Let slumbering members of the canine variety remain in slumber
◦ An animal of the avian variety resting on one’s palm is more valuable than double that
amount in one’s appendage 
most often used for tactile feedback.

Licensing & Attributions

CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 10 Conclusion, Review Questions, and Activities. Authored by by: E. Michele Ramsey, Ph.D.. Provided by
by: Penn State Berks, Reading, PA. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
Project: The
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Public Speaking Project. License
• Dilgo Khyentse Yangsi Rinpoche answers a young person's question, monk and author Matthieu Ricard listening, Children's and Young People's Audience and Blessing, First Nations Longhouse, UBC, Vancouver BC, Lotus
Speech Canada. Authored by by: Wonderlane. Located at License: CC BY: Attribution
at: https://flic.kr/p/8uoSqU. License

293
 GLOSSARY AND REFERENCES

Glossary

TERM DEFINITION

Alliteration The repetition of the initial sounds of words.

Antithesis Rhetorical strategy that uses contrasting statements in order to make a rhetorical point.

Cliche
Clichéś Phrases or expressions that, because of overuse, have lost their rhetorical power.

Colloquialisms Words or phrases used in informal speech but not typically used in formal speech.

Communication Attempts to reproduce what is in our minds in the minds of our audience.

Generic “he” or Language that uses words such as “he” or “mankind” to refer to the male and female
“man” population.

Powerless phrases such as “I thought we should,” “I sort of think,” or “Maybe we should”

Hedges
that communicate uncertainty.

Heterosexist
Language that assumes the heterosexual orientation of a person or group of people.
Language

Hyperbole The use of moderate exaggeration for effect.

Jargon The specialized language of a group or profession.

Language The means by which we communicate—a system of symbols we use to form messages.

Man-linked Terms such as “fireman” or “policemen” that incorrectly identify a job as linked only to a
Terms male.

Metaphors Comparisons made by speaking of one thing in terms of another.

Qualifiers Powerless words such as “around” or “about” that make your sentences less definitive.

Regionalisms Customary words or phrases used in different geographic regions.

Sexist Language that unnecessarily identifies sex or linguistically erases females through the use
Language of man- linked terms and/or the use of “he” or “man” as generics.

Comparisons made by speaking of one thing in terms of another using the word “like” or “as”
Similes
to make the comparison.

Type of language that most people understand but that is not considered acceptable in
Slang
formal or polite conversation.

294
 Language such as “male nurse” that suggests a person is deviating from the “normal”
Spotlighting person who would do a particular job and implies that someone’s sex is relevant to a
particular job.

Powerless language exemplified by ending statements with questions such as “Don’t you
Tag Questions
think?” or “Don’t you agree?”

References
About.com (2011). Bushisms—U.S. President proves how difficult English really is! Retrieved from.
http://esl.about.com/library/weekly/aa032301a.htm

Gamble, T. K. & Gamble, M. W. (2003). The gender communication connection. New York: Houghton-Mifflin.

Time.com (1981, February 23). “Haigledygook and secretaryspeak.” Retrieved from http://www.time.com/time/
magazine/article/0,9171,949069,00.html

Hamilton, G. (2008). Public speaking for college and career, 8th Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Jackson, J. (1984). 1984 Speech at the Democratic National Convention. San Francisco, CA: July 18. Found at
http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/jessejackson1984dnc.htm

King, M. L., Jr. (1963, August 28). I Have a Dream [Speech]. Washington, D.C. Retrieved from
http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/mlkihaveadream.htm

Peccei, J. (2003). Language and age. In L. Thomas et. al.,Language, society, and power, 2nd Ed. New York:
Routledge.

Spender, D. (1990). Man Made Language. New York: Pandora.

Thomas, L., Wareing, S. Singh, I., Pecci, J. S., Thornborrow, J. & Jones, J. (2003). Language, society, and
power: An introduction, 2nd Ed. New York: Routledge.

photo credits
p. 1 Rail Forum by Michigan Municipal League
http://www.flickr.com/photos/michigancommunities/5041931910/

p. 2 Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. by Dick DeMarcisco

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS_6.jpg

p. 3 Secretary of State Alexander Haig by University of Texas

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Al_Haig_speaks_to_press_1981.jpg

p. 4. LAMB Teal Wrap Sweater

http://www.bluefly.com/

p. 5 Goth people by Rama

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Goth_f222791.jpg

p. 6 Audience at Next conference by NEXT Berlin

http://www.flickr.com/photos/nextconference/4633552536/

p. 7 “Feminazi” coined by Rush Limbaugh, see

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/feminazi

p. 8 Italian Soldier by the Italian Army

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Italian_Soldier_Olypmic_Games_Turin_2006.jpg

295
p. 9 Married gay couple by John
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Married_Gay_Couple_John_and_Jamie.jpg

p. 10 Malalai Joya by AfghanKabul

http://www.flickr.com/photos/19712640@N05/2076699646/

p. 12 Dilgo Khyentse Yangsi Rinpoche by Wonderlane

http://www.flickr.com/photos/wonderlane/4915821372/
Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Chapter 10 Glossary and References. Authored by
by: E. Michele Ramsey, Ph.D.. Provided by
by: Penn State Berks, Reading, PA. Located at
at: http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html. Project
Project: The Public Speaking
License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Project. License

296
 ETHICS IN PUBLIC SPEAKING

CITATION TOOLS

About the Use of Biblio-Makers

Do not trust biblio-makers! These citation robots are only as good as their programming, development, and data
inputs. Seldom do they get an APA citation completely correct. This module will assist you in learning to cite
sources using APA citation style. It is, however, difficult to avoid biblio-makers as they pop-up along with
databases, library guides, proper citation searches, and some instructional materials.

A working bibliography can be created using biblio-makers, and the results can later be corrected using an
accurate APA 6th edition handbook or similar resources. The more popular biblio-makers are:
• Citation Machine
• EasyBib
• Cite This For Me
• Citefast
• BibMe
• Bibomatic
• KnightCite
• Landmarks Citation Machine
• OttoBit
• Researchomatic
• Zotero

Some students may have a “style sheet” provided to them by an instructor in high school or college. These style
sheets are frequently good enough to use for that instructor, but seldom meet the specifications required for APA.
Learning to do APA citation properly is a skill that you can use throughout your college career.

APA Resources
• Owl Purdue APA Guide
• Basics of APA Flash tutorial
• How to cite art (APA Blog)
• Identifying a scholarly source (from Olympic College)
• Citing an edition of a book (APA Blog)
• Using “et al.” (APA Blog)
• Citing a Kindle text (APA Blog)
• Citing a TED talk (APA Blog)
• Citing a YouTube video (APA Blog)
• Citing a website (APA Blog)
• Citing a song (APA Blog)

297
 Crediting Creative Commons Photographs
When you use CC Licensed works, including images from Flickr and others, it is important to attribute the
work correctly where you use it, and then to make a citation for it in your References page.
When it appears in your presentation, include the creator’s name and the license for the work. On the
References page use this sample citation:
Author name. (Author role). (date). Title of work [Medium of work], Retrieved date of retrieval from: tiny URL.
License.

USE Tiny URL.com (http://tinyurl.com/) to input the URL for any URLs that are over one line of characters.
Just visit tinyurl.com and follow the directions to get a shorter URL.

Here is a sample of a CC Licensed work cited correctly including the attribution in the image and the citation
for the reference page.
Weller, D. (Photographer). (2011). Baby monkey [Photograph]. Retrieved from http://tinyurl.com/ngcnjxj. CC-
BY-SA-NC.

Intellectual Property Index

Did you know that anything you create is copyrighted? According to the US Copyright Law, any creative work
fixed in time and space is protected from use, adaptation, and distribution by an entity or person who doesn’t own
it. In this section you will learn a little bit about your intellectual property rights.

This is not intended to be legal advice. Your instructors are not lawyers. This is intended to be an overview of the
concept of intellectual property as it affects you.

Readings
• What is Intellectual Property
• What is Copyright by US Copyright Office
• Uncertainty, Copyright, and Courage by ASCAP president Paul Williams

Tutorials and Films

• Copyrights and Making Films by Turner Clay (This is a two minute film that can impact what you choose
to film in your own works.)

Watch this video online: https://youtu.be/CuMUKxCSv0I

Open Licensing
As discussed in the intellectual property section, under Title 17 of the US Code
any creative expression that is fixed in time or space is a protected work. This
means no one, aside from the person or entity who owns the copyright, can
distribute the material without special permission. Some people want others to
use their work freely, while still retaining some control over their work.
In this section you will learn about open licensing, or instances where the
copyright law is loosened by copyright holders so that works can be shared and
adapted. In this section you will also learn how to find images, songs, video, and
other openly licensed works for use in your own videos. Don’t forget to cite/

298
attribute the works correctly. Use the section on APA citations to find out how to
do that.

Readings

• Creative Commons: What is Creative Commons?

• Wired Magazine: Creative Commons 101
• The History of Creative Commons (Wired Magazine)
• Some Rights Reserved (Wired Magazine)
• Copyright Perspectives Remix Media (Penn State)
• Free Media Sources from Penn State
• Fifteen Fantastic Sources For Free Art and Images (MOOC News and Reviews)

Tutorials
Creative Commons: Skip the Intermediaries
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299
 OBJECTIVES, OUTLINE, AND INTRODUCTION

Chapter 3: Ethics in Public Speaking

By Alyssa Millner, Ph.D., King College, Knoxville, TN
& Rachel D. Price, M.A., University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY

“Woman speaking about ending war” by Kelly Finnamore. CC-BY.

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Define ethics and explain why ethics are important in public speaking.
• Differentiate between morality and ethical dilemma.
• Identify the three types of plagiarism and understand how to avoid them.
• Explain how to cite sources in written and oral speech materials.
• Develop responsible language use by avoiding hate language and using inclusive language.
• Use a speech platform to promote diversity, raise social awareness, and understand free speech.
• Employ ethical listening by readying both mind and body to avoid distractions.
• Develop patterns of ethical feedback through praise and constructive criticism.
• Apply ethical communication skills to public speaking situations.
• Apply module concepts in final questions and activities.

Chapter Outline
• Introduction

300
 • Defining Ethics
◦ Ethics and Ethical Standards
• Ethical Speaking
◦ Be honest and avoid plagiarism
◦ Cite sources properly
◦ Set responsible speech goals
• Ethical Listening
◦ Develop ethical listening skills
◦ Provide ethical feedback
• Conclusion
• Review Questions and Activities
• Glossary
• References

Maggie is helping her older sister plan for her wedding. She loves event planning and decides to give an
informative speech to her classmates on “Selecting a Florist.” She knows all the other women in class will
adore the topic and her visual aids (an assortment of flowers and a rose for everyone to take home). As
Maggie begins the speech, she creates a listener relevance link that relates mostly to the women in the
class. In fact, most of the speech is directed at female listeners.

As she moves through the main points of her speech,

Maggie realizes that she is running out of time and
only has 1 minute left or the instructor will penalize
her. During her third main point, she skips over some
citations but shares the statistics of saving money on
a trustworthy florist. The listeners don’t notice that
Maggie neglected to provide oral source citations, so
she feels confident of the “expertise” she has derived.
After Maggie finishes her final main point, she
concludes and reminds the ladies to find her later if
they have any questions about prices of quality of
florists in the area.

When preparing for this speech, Maggie attempted an

audience analysis. However, she failed to adequately “Wedding Bouquet” by Ling Manh Nguyen Tran. CC-BY.
involve all audience members by choosing a traditionally
female topic and tailoring the language to females in the class. A second unethical decision made by Maggie was
to omit oral citations, thereby failing to give credit to those who deserved it. Maggie’s practices in her speech are
just a few ways in which unethical public speaking can occur. The evolution of ethics is central to public speaking
because it is through communication that our ideas about right and wrong or good and bad are formed.

Ethics is knowing the difference between what you have a right to do and what is right to do. – Potter
Stewart

Issues related to honesty, integrity, and morality are present in our everyday lives. We recognize the need for
ethical communication when leaders make deceitful statements. For instance, we all remember President
Clinton’s famous quote: “I did not have sexual relations with that woman.” We recognize a crafty speaker when
we hear one. Ethics, however, aren’t just important for presidents and other public figures. Ethical concerns arise
in a variety of public speaking contexts, as this chapter portrays.

The National Communication Association (NCA) suggests that communicators should be committed to following
principles of ethical communication. The NCA Credo of Ethical Communication claims that “ethical communication
is fundamental to responsible thinking, decision making, and the development of relationships and communities
within and across contexts, cultures, channels, and media.” ( (Note: National Communication Association. (1999).
NCA credo for ethical communication. Retrieved from http://www.natcom.org/uploaded%20Files/About_NCA/
Leadership_and_Governance/Public_Policy_Platform/PDF-
PolicyPlatformNCA_Credo_for_Ethical_Communication.pdf)) Ethical communication also yields positive
outcomes, such as truthfulness, respect, and accuracy of information. You can see that ethics is a very important
part of the communication process. Likewise, it is an important part of the public speaking process.

301
Unethical communication can lead to poor decision-making or a lack of respect for self and others, and threaten
the well-being of individuals and society. Early scholars of ethical communication, most notably Nielsen ( (Note:
Nielsen, T. R. (1966). Ethics of speech communication. Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs Merrill.)) and Johannesen ( (Note:
Johannesen, R. L. (1967). Ethics and persuasion: Selected readings. New York: Random House.)) began to
incorporate a discussion of ethics in all aspects of communication. These forerunners began exploring ethics in
the area of public speaking. Communication experts agree that ethical communication is an important
responsibility of the speaker.
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DEFINING ETHICS

But I want to say one thing to the American people. I want you to listen to me. I’m going to say this
again: I did not have sexual relations with that woman
woman, Miss Lewinsky. I never told anybody to lie, not a
single time; never. These allegations are false. And I need to go back to work for the American people.
Thank you. – President Bill Clinton, 1998

Some of the early leaders in philosophy—Aristotle, Socrates, and Plato—spoke extensively about morality and
ethical principles. Aristotle is frequently cited as a central figure in the development of ethics as we discuss them
today in the communication discipline. Aristotle claimed that a person who had ethos, or credibility, was not only
able to convey good sense and good will, but also good morals. Great philosophers have debated the merits of
living well, doing good, and even communicating skillfully. Smitter describes early Greeks and Romans as
teachers of public speaking; these philosophers argued that public communication is “a means of civic
engagement” and ethics are “a matter of virtue.” Ethics and ethical communication are not only an important part
of our lives and our decision-making but also are crucial to the public speaking process. In 2011, when
Representative Anthony Weiner faced accusations of sending sexually explicit photographs to a woman, he
vehemently denied any wrongdoing and claimed that he had been set up. Shortly after, his denial turned to an
admission and apology. This scandal called into question the ethics of Rep. Weiner, yet it was also his lack of
ethical communication that exacerbated the situation.

Moral excellence comes about as a result of habit. We become just by doing just acts, temperate by
doing temperate acts, brave by doing brave acts. – Aristotle

Ethics and Ethical Standards

Morality is the process of discerning between right and wrong. Ethics involves making decisions about right and
wrong within a dilemma. For example, you might claim that stealing is morally wrong. But is stealing morally
wrong when a mother steals a loaf of bread to feed her four starving children? It’s this scenario that requires an
understanding of ethics. In a moral dilemma, we apply ethics to make choices about what is good or bad, right or
wrong. Sometimes, ethical dilemmas are simple. Other times, they require complex choices, such as the decision
to report your immediate boss for misrepresenting expenses or the decision to move your grandmother into a
retirement community. These scenarios are more complex than simple choices between right and wrong. Instead,
these examples are ethical dilemmas because two “right” choices are pitted against one another. It’s good to
report an unethical supervisor, but it’s also good to keep your job. It’s good that your grandmother feels
independent, but it’s also positive for her to receive extra assistance as her health deteriorates.

As public speakers, we make ethical choices when preparing and delivering a speech. We can easily be faced
with a moral dilemma over what information to provide or how to accurately represent that information. Knowing
the speaking setting, the audience, and our knowledge of the topic, we are able to confront ethical dilemmas with
a strong moral compass. This process is made easier by our ethical standards. Ethical standards, or moral
principles, are the set of rules we abide by that make us “good” people and help us choose right from wrong. The

302
virtuous standards to which we adhere influence our ethical understanding. For instance, followers of Buddha
believe that communication should be careful—good communication should exhibit restraint, responsibility, and
kindness. ( (Note: Merrill, J. C. (2009). Tenzin Gyatso, the Dalai Lama: Universal compassion. In C. Christians &
J. Merrill (Eds.), Ethical communication (pp. 11–)17). Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press.)

If you want others to be happy, practice compassion. If you want to be happy, practice compassion.
– Dalai Lama

This stance informs one’s ethical standards. In fact, Merrill (2009) explains that the
holy Dalai Lama, the Buddhist spiritual leader, believes compassion is even more
essential than truth. Therefore, it is justifiable to be untruthful when the deception is
part of the process of caring for another. This example illustrates how one’s belief
system influences his or her ethical standards. These ethical standards are the
guidelines we use to interpret rightness and wrongness in life, in relationships, and in
public speaking. Wallace claims that “ethical standards of communication should
place emphasis upon the means used to secure the end, rather than upon achieving
the end itself.” ( (Note: Wallace, K. (1955). An ethical basis of communication.
Speech Teacher, 4, 1–9.)) This argument suggests that speakers must consider
moral standards through every step of the speech process.

“Questions of right and wrong arise whenever people communicate.” ( (Note:

National Communication Association. (1999). NCA credo for ethical communication.
Retrieved from http://www.natcom.org/uploadedFiles/About_NCA/
Leadership_and_Governance/Public_Policy_Platform/PDF-
PolicyPlatformNCA_Credo_for_Ethical_Communication.pdf)) Once we have “Emerald Buddha” by
identified our ethical standards, we can apply these to make sure that we are WPPilot. CC-BY-SA.
communicating ethically. Ethical communication is an exchange of responsible and
trustworthy messages determined by our moral principles. Ethical communication can be enacted in written, oral,
and non-verbal communication. In public speaking, we use ethical standards to determine what and how to
exchange messages with our audience. As you read further in this chapter, you will begin to understand the
guidelines for how ethical communication should occur in the public speaking process.
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ETHICAL SPEAKING

In January, 2012, an Australian politician, Anthony Albanese, presented a speech to the National Press
Club. Several people criticized this speech, saying that he stole lines from Michael Douglas’s character (the
U.S. President) in the movie The American President. Several specific lines from Albanese’s speech did
seem to mirror Douglas’s monologue, with only the names changed. The Liberal Party federal director, Brian
Loughnane, claimed that this shows Albanese is “unoriginal and devoid of ideas.” Others stated that he
should be embarrassed and should apologize to the Parliament. ( (Note: ABC News. (2012, January 25).
Albanese accused of plagiarising Hollywood speech. Retrieved from http://www.abc.net.au/news/
2012-01-25/albanese-accused-ofplagiarising-speech/3793486))

What do you think about Albanese’s speech? Was this a simple mishap? A funny prank? Something more
serious? What do you think this says about Albanese’s character? His reputation as a politician? Assessing your
attitudes and values toward this situation is the same as considering how ethics play a role in public speaking.

Ethical public speaking is not a one-time event. It does not just occur when you stand to give a 5-minute
presentation to your classmates or co-workers. Ethical public speaking is a process. This process begins when
you begin brainstorming the topic of your speech. Every time you plan to speak to an audience—whether it is at a
formal speaking event or an impromptu pitch at your workplace—you have ethical responsibilities to fulfill. The

303
two most important aspects in ethical communication include your ability to remain honest while avoiding
plagiarism and to set and meet responsible speech goals.

Integrity is telling myself the truth. And honesty is telling the truth to other people. – Spencer Johnson

Be Honest and Avoid P

Plagiarism
lagiarism
Credible public speakers are open and honest with their audiences. Honesty includes telling your audience why
you’re speaking (thesis statement) and what you’ll address throughout your speech (preview). For instance, one
example of dishonest speech is when a vacation destination offers “complimentary tours and sessions” which are
really opportunities for a sales person to pitch a timeshare to unsuspecting tourists. In addition to being clear
about the speech goal, honest speakers are clear with audience members when providing supporting information.

One example of dishonest public communication occurs in the music industry where many cases of illegal melody
lifting exist. For example, a famous Beach Boys song titled Surfin’ USA is actually a note-for-note rendition of a
1958 Chuck Berry song. Though it may be common, the practice of not properly crediting an author for his or her
work is unethical. Other examples of deceitful communication include political speeches that intentionally mislead
the public. For instance, a former White House press aide, Scott McClellan, claims that President Bush misled the
American people about reasons for the Iraqi war. McClellan claims that the President had manipulated sources in
order to gain support for the war. Such claims can be damaging to one’s reputation. Thus, responsible public
speakers must actively avoid plagiarism and remain committed to honesty and integrity at all costs.

Mimi & Eunice, “Thief” by Nina Paley. CC-BY-SA.

Identify Your Sources

The first step of ethical speech preparation is to take notes as you research your speech topic. Careful notes will
help you remember where you learned your information. Recalling your sources is important because it enables
speaker honesty. Passing off another’s work as your own or neglecting to cite the source for your information is
considered plagiarism
plagiarism. This unethical act can result in several consequences, ranging from a loss in credibility to
academic expulsion or job loss. Even with these potential consequences, plagiarism is unfortunately common. In
a national survey, 87 percent of students claimed that their peers plagiarized from the Internet at least some of
the time. ( (Note: Cruikshank, B. (2004). Plagiarism: It’s Alive! Texas Library Journal, 80(4), 132–136.)) This
statistic does not take into account whether or not the plagiarism was intentional, occurring when the writer or
speaker knowingly presented information as his or her own; or unintentional, occurring when careless citing leads
to information being uncredited or miscredited. However, it is important to note that being unaware of how to
credit sources should not be an excuse for unintentional plagiarism. In other words, speakers are held
accountable for intentional and unintentional plagiarism. The remainder of this section discusses how to ensure
proper credit is given when preparing and presenting a speech.

A liar should have a good memory. – Quintilian

There are three distinct types of plagiarism—global, patchwork, and incremental plagiarism. ( (Note: Lucas, S. E.
(2001). The art of public speaking (7th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.)) Global plagiarism
plagiarism, the most obvious form of

304
plagiarism, transpires when a speaker presents a speech that is not his or her own work. For example, if a
student finds a speech on the Internet or borrows a former speech from a roommate and recites that speech
verbatim, global plagiarism has occurred. Global plagiarism is the most obvious type of theft. However, other
forms of plagiarism are less obvious but still represent dishonest public speaking.

If you tell the truth, you don’t have to remember anything. – Mark Twain

Sometimes a student neglects to cite a source simply because she or he

forgot where the idea was first learned. Shi explains that many students
struggle with plagiarism because they’ve reviewed multiple texts and changed
wording so that ideas eventually feel like their own. Students engage in
“‘patchwriting’ by copying from a source text and then deleting or changing a
few words and altering the sentence structures.” ( (Note: Shi, L. (2010).
Textual appropriation and citing behaviors of university undergraduates.
Applied Linguistics, 31(1), 1–24.)) Patchwork plagiarism is plagiarism that
occurs when one “patches” together bits and pieces from one or more
sources and represents the end result as his or her own. Michael O’Neill also
coined the term “paraplaging” ( (Note: O’Neill, M. T. (1980). Plagiarism:
Writing Responsibly. Business Communication Quarterly, 43, 34–36.)) to
explain how an author simply uses partial text of sources with partial original
writing. An example of patchwork plagiarism is if you create a speech by “Rainbow Dahlia quilt” by Holice E.
pasting together parts of another speech or author’s work. Read the following Turnbow. CC-BY-SA.
hypothetical scenario to get a better understanding of subtle plagiarism.

Three months ago, Carley was talking to her coworkers about expanding their company’s client base. Carley
reported some of the ideas she’d been pondering with Stephen and Juan. The three employees shared
ideas and provided constructive criticism in order to perfect each notion, and then mentioned they’d revisit
the conversation over lunch sometime soon. A week later, Carley shared one of her ideas during the
company’s Monday morning staff meeting. Carley came up with the idea, but Stephen and Juan helped her
think through some of the logistics of bringing in more clients. Her peers’ input was key to making Carley’s
client-building idea work. When Carley pitched her idea at the company staff meeting, she didn’t mention
Stephen or Juan. She shared her idea with senior management and then waited for feedback.

Did Carley behave unethically? Some would say: “No!” since she shared her own idea. Did Carley speak
honestly? Perhaps not because she didn’t account for how her idea took shape—with the help of Stephen and
Juan. This scenario is an example of how complicated honesty becomes when speaking to an audience.

The third type of plagiarism is incremental plagiarism, or when most of the speech is the speaker’s original work,
but quotes or other information have been used without being cited. Incremental plagiarism can occur if, for
example, you provide a statistic to support your claim, but do not provide the source for that statistic. Another
example would be if a student included a direct quote from former president Ronald Reagan without letting the
audience know that those were Reagan’s exact words. Understanding the different types of plagiarism is the first
step in ensuring that you prepare an honest speech.

Table 3.1: Purdue OWL APA Guide for Citing Sources ( (Note: Stolley, K., & Brizee, A. (2011, August 24).
Avoiding plagiarism. Retrieved from https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/589/01/
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/589/01/)))

Cite Don’t Cite

Words or ideas presented in a magazine, book,

Writing your own lived experiences, your own
newspaper, song, TV program, movie, Web page,
observations and insights, your own thoughts, and
computer program, letter, advertisement, or any
your own conclusions about a subject.
other medium.

Information you gain through interviewing or

When you are writing up your own results obtained
conversing with another person, face to face, over
through lab or field experiments.
the phone, or in writing.

305
 Table 3.1: Purdue OWL APA Guide for Citing Sources ( (Note: Stolley, K., & Brizee, A. (2011, August 24).
Avoiding plagiarism. Retrieved from https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/589/01/
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/589/01/)))

Cite Don’t Cite

When you use your own artwork, digital photographs,

When you copy the exact words or a unique phrase.
video, audio, etc.

When you are using common knowledge—things like

When you reprint any diagrams, illustrations, charts, folklore, common sense observations, myths, urban
pictures, or other visual materials. legends, and historical events (but not historical
documents).

When you reuse or repost any electronically

When you are using generally accepted facts, e.g.
available media, including images, audio, video, or
pollution is bad for the environment.
other media.

Decide When to Cite

When speaking publicly you must orally cite all information that isn’t general knowledge. For example, if your
speech claims that the sun is a star, you do not have to cite that information since it’s general knowledge. If your
speech claims that the sun’s temperature is 15.6 million Kelvin, ( (Note: Nine Planets. (2011). The Sun. Retrieved
from http://nineplanets.org/sol.html)) then you should cite that source aloud. Ethical speakers are not required to
cite commonly known information (e.g., skin is the largest human organ; Barack Obama was elected President of
the U.S. in 2008). However, any information that isn’t general knowledge must be orally cited during a speech.
The same is true in the text of a speech outline: cite all non-general information.

The OWL, an online writing lab at Purdue University, provides an excellent guide for when you need to cite
information (see Table 3.1). Understanding when to include source material is the first step in being able to
ethically cite sources. The next step in this process is to determine how to appropriately cite sources orally and in
written materials.

Cite Sources Properly

You’ve learned the importance of citing sources. Now that you know why written and oral citations are important
to the ethical process of public speaking, let’s focus on how to cite supporting speech material. Studies show that
oftentimes students do not cite a source because they’re unsure of how or when to cite a reference. Shi’s study
describes some typical responses for why students did not cite sources, such as “I couldn’t remember where I
learned the information,” or “I had already cited that author and didn’t want the audience to think all of my
information was from some outside source.” Though these rationales are understandable, they are not ethical.

Understand Paraphrasing and D

Direct
irect Quotations
Next, it is important to understand the process for paraphrasing and directly quoting sources in order to support
your speech claims. First, what is the difference between paraphrasing and directly quoting a source? If you
research and learn information from a source—the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), for
instance— and then share that information in your own words; you don’t use quotation marks; but you do credit
the CDC as your source. This is known as a paraphrase
paraphrase—a sentence or string of sentences that shares learned
information in your own words. A direct quote is any sentence or string of sentences that conveys an author’s idea
word-for-word. According to the APA (American Psychological Association), when writing speech content, you
must include quotation marks around an author’s work when you use his or her keywords, phrases, or sentences.
This would be relevant for a speech outline, a handout, or a visual aid. It is also important to specify a direct quote
when you are orally citing during your speech. This indicates to the audience that you are using the original
author’s exact words. While it is acceptable to use the phrases “begin quote” and “end quote” to indicate this to
your audience, such phrases can be distracting to the audience. One way to clearly and concisely indicate a

306
direct quote is to take a purposeful pause right before and after the quoted material. This differentiates between
your words and the source material’s words. See Table 3.2 for examples of how to paraphrase and directly quote
an author, both in written speech materials and for an oral citation.

Table 3.2: Written and Oral Source Citations ( (Note: Rohr, R. (2011). Falling upward: A spirituality for the
two halves of life. San Francisco, CA: JosseyBass.
JosseyBass.))) ( (Note: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
(2012). Are you at high risk for serious illness from flu? Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/Features/
FluHighRisk/
FluHighRisk/)))

Written Citations Oral Citations

Your best defense against influenza—and its

You cannot do a nonstop flight to the
possible complications—is to receive an annual
Original second half of life by reading lots of
vaccination. In fact, CDC recommends that
Text books about it, including this one. Grace
everyone 6 months and older get an annual flu
must and will edge you forward.
vaccination.

Paraphrase
It is through the practice of showing
for Written The CDC (2008) suggests that people get a
grace that we grow and develop as
Speech vaccination at least once a year to avoid the flu.
individuals (Rohr, 2011).
Materials

Direct
There is something you can do to avoid the flu. The
Quote for
According to Rohr (2011), “Grace must CDC states that, “Your best defense against
Written
and will edge you forward” (p. 2). influenza—and its possible complications—is to
Speech
receive an annual vaccination” (para. 6).
Materials

In Rohr’s 2011 book, Falling upward: A

According to the Centers for Disease Control and
Oral spirituality for the halves of life, he
Prevention website (2008), people should get a
Citation for discussed how we show grace to others
preventative vaccination at least once a year to
Paraphrase which allows us to grow and develop as
avoid the flu.
individuals.

On their website, the Centers for Disease Control

Oral Rohr (2011), in his book Falling upward:
and Prevention (2008) states that, [pause] “your
Citation for A spirituality for the two halves of life,
best defense against influenza—and its possible
Direct stated that [pause] “Grace must and will
complications—is to receive an annual vaccination”
Quote edge you forward” [pause].
[pause].

Develop Accurate Citations

Ethical speakers share source information with the audience. On written materials, such as handouts or speech
outlines, citations are handled much like they would be in any essay. In addition to written citations, oral citations
provide source information to audience members who may not see your written speech. In all citations, enough
information should be given so that the audience can easily find the source.

You may choose to briefly describe the author before citing him or her to lend credibility to your supporting
information. Writing style guidebooks, such as APA or MLA (Modern Language Association), teach that a source’s
credentials are not necessary in the text of your paper. We can interpret that the same is true for providing oral
citations in a speech–the author’s occupation, the source website, or the journal name are not required but may
be helpful verbal cues to explain the legitimacy of your chosen source. You should provide enough information so
that an audience member can locate the source. For instance, it might be useful to describe the doctor as a
leading pediatrician–after which you would state the doctor’s last name, year of publication, and the quote or
paraphrase. To orally paraphrase a Langer quote (see example poster in Figure 3.1), you might say to your
audience:

307
 I really agree with Langer (1989), who wrote in her book Mindfulness, that our world is constructed from the
categories we build in our mind. I find that I interpret the world based on my initial understanding of things
and have to mindfully force myself to question the categories and biases I’ve formally created in my head.

Figure 3.1: Sample Poster with Key Quote ( (Note: Langer, E. J. (1989). Mindfulness. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo
Press.))
[Poster Title] “We experience the world by creating categories and making distinctions among them” (Langer,
1989, p. 11).

[Main Point 1 Content] [Main Point 2 Content]

Image

Note, the Langer paraphrase provides the author’s last name, year of publication, and the title of the book should
an audience member want to find the orally cited source.

Ethical speakers provide written, oral, and visual citations. Visual aids, discussed in Chapter 13, include posters,
objects, models, PowerPoints, and handouts. Visual aids are used to enhance your speech message. Visual aids,
just like speech content, must be displayed ethically for the audience. In other words, if you use a poster to
display a famous quote, then you should cite the author on your poster (see Figure 3.1). Similarly, you should cite
sources on your PowerPoint throughout the presentation. It is not sufficient to include a “Sources” or “References”
slide at the end of your PowerPoint because that does not accurately link each author to his or her work. Instead,
ethical presenters provide an author reference on the slide in which the cited content is shown (see Figure 3.2).

Speakers should also carefully select and correctly cite images displayed in their visual aid. Images should be
relevant to the keywords used on your PowerPoint slide. In other words, captions are not necessary because the
image can stand alone; images you display should obviously correlate with your speech content (a caption is
typically used because the picture needs explanation). In other words, the presence of a caption typically means
your image does not directly correspond with the verbal speech material. Images should support, not distract,
from the verbal or visual message. Hence, there is no need for blinking, rotating, or otherwise distracting visual
aids. ( (Note: Danoff-Burg, J. (2002). PowerPoint writing guide. Retrieved from http://eices.columbia.edu/
education-training/see-u/dr/ppt_writing.html)) Images should be simple and relevant. All pictures should be cited,
unless the presenter uses a personal, clipart, or purchased stock image. To cite an image, simply include the
credit (or web link) to that picture; note, however, the font size of the link should be reduced so that it is visible to
the audience without distracting from the content in your visual aid. Seeing an image link should not be distracting
to audience members.

It’s also important to understand how copyright law might affect what and how you
include information in your speech and on your visual aid. The fair use provision allows
for copyrighted information to be shared if it is used for educational benefits, news
reporting, research, and in other situations. Nolo explains, “In its most general sense, a
fair use is any copying of copyrighted material done for a limited and ‘transformative’
purpose, such as to comment upon, criticize, or parody a copyrighted work. Such uses
can be done without permission from the copyright owner.” ( (Note: Nolo. (2010). What
is fair use? Copyright and fair use, Stanford University Libraries. Retrieved from
http://fairuse.stanford.edu/Copyright_and_Fair_Use_Overview/chapter9/9-a.html)) In
order to determine if the use of content falls under the fair use provision, there are four
factors to consider:
1. How will this be used?
“Question copyright” by
2. What is to be used?
Ttog~commonswiki. CC-
3. How much will be used?
BY-SA.
4. What effect does this have? ( (Note: Harper, G. K. (2007). Copyright Crash
Course. Retrieved from http://copyright.lib.utexas.edu/copypol2.html))

You can find more about these four factors at the U.S. Copyright website.

Ethical citing includes crediting authors in the text of your written speech materials, acknowledging authors aloud
during your speech, and citing images and sources on your visual aid. However, ethics in public speaking
encompass more than crediting source material. It’s also necessary to strive for responsible speech goals.

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 Ethics and equity and the principles of justice do not change with the calendar. – David Herbert
Lawrence

Set Responsible Speech Goals

Jensen coined the term “rightsabilities” to explain how a communicator must balance tensions between speaker
rights and responsibility to others. Ensuring that you have responsible speech goals is one way to achieve ethical
communication in public speaking. There are several speech goals that support this mission. This section will
focus on five goals: 1) promote diversity, 2) use inclusive language, 3) avoid hate speech, 4) raise social
awareness, and 5) employ respectful free speech.

Promote Diversity
One important responsibility speakers have is
fostering diversity, or an appreciation for differences
among individuals and groups. Diversity in public
speaking is important when considering both your
audience and your speech content. Promoting diversity
allows audience members who may be different from the
speaker to feel included and can present a perspective
to which audience members had not previously been
exposed. Speakers may choose a speech topic that
introduces a multicultural issue to the audience or can
promote diversity by choosing language and visual aids “U.S. Air Force” by Tech. Sgt. Keith Brown. Public domain.
that relate to and support listeners of different
backgrounds. Because of the diversity present in our lives, it is necessary to consider how speakers can promote
diversity.

One simple way of promoting diversity is to use both sexes in your hypothetical examples and to include co-
cultural groups when creating a hypothetical situation. For example, you can use names that represent both
sexes and that also stem from different cultural backgrounds. In the story about Carley and her co-workers, her
co-workers were deliberately given male names so that both sexes were represented. Ethical speakers also
encourage diversity in races, socioeconomic status, and other demographics. These choices promote diversity. In
addition, ethical speakers can strive to break stereotypes. For instance, if you’re telling a hypothetical story about
a top surgeon in the nation, why not make the specialized surgeon a female from a rural area? Or make the
hypothetical secretary a man named Frank? You could also include a picture in your visual aid of the female
surgeon or the male secretary at work. Ethical speakers should not assume that a nurse is female or that a
firefighter is male. Sexist language can alienate your audience from your discussion. ( (Note: Driscoll, D. L., &
Brizee, A. (2010, July 13). Stereotypes and biased language. Retrieved from https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/
resource/608/05))

Another way that sexist language occurs in speeches is when certain statements or ideas are directed at a
particular sex. For example, the “Selecting a Florist” speech described at the beginning of this chapter may be
considered sexist by many audience members. Another example is the following statement, which implies only
males might be interested in learning how to fix a car: “I think that fixing a car is one of the most important things
you can learn how to do. Am I right, guys?” Promoting diversity is related to using inclusive language, discussed
in the following sections.

Excellence is the best deterrent to racism or sexism. – Oprah Winfrey

Use Inclusive Language

Avoiding sexist language is one way to use inclusive language. Another important way for speakers to develop
responsible language is to use inclusionary pronouns and phrases. For example, novice speakers might tell their
audience: “One way for you to get involved in the city’s Clean Community Program is to pick up trash on your
street once a month.” Instead, an effective public speaker could exclaim: “One way for all of us to get involved in

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our local communities is by picking up trash on a regular basis.” This latter statement is an example of
“we” language
language—pronouns and phrases that unite the speaker to the audience. “We” language (instead of “I” or
“You” language) is a simple way to build a connection between the speaker, speech content, and audience. This
is especially important during a persuasive speech as “we” language establishes trust, rapport, and goodwill
between the speaker and the audience. Take, for example, the following listener relevance statements in a
persuasive speech about volunteering:

“You” language: You may say that you’re too busy to volunteer, but I don’t agree. I’m here to tell you that
you should be volunteering in your community.

“We” language: As college students, we all get busy in our daily lives and sometimes helpful acts such as
volunteering aren’t priorities in our schedules. Let’s explore how we can be more active volunteers in our
community.

In this exchange, the “you” language sets the speaker apart from the audience and could make listeners
defensive about their time and lack of volunteering. On the other hand, the “we” language connects the speaker to
the audience and lets the audience know that the speaker understands and has some ideas for how to fix the
problem. This promotes a feeling of inclusiveness, one of the responsible speech goals.

Avoid Hate Speech

Another key aspect of ethical speaking is to develop an awareness of spoken words and the power of words. The
NCA Credo of Ethical Communication highlights the importance of this awareness: “We condemn communication
that degrades individuals and humanity through distortion, intimidation, coercion, and violence, and through the
expression of intolerance and hatred.” ( (Note: National Communication Association. (1999). NCA credo for
ethical communication. Retrieved from http://www.natcom.org/uploadedFiles/About_NCA/
Leadership_and_Governance/Public_Policy_Platform/PDF-
PolicyPlatformNCA_Credo_for_Ethical_Communication.pdf)) Words can be powerful—both in helping you
achieve your speech goal and in affecting your audience in significant ways. It is essential that public speakers
refrain from hate or sexist language. Hate speech, according to Verderber, Sellnow, and Verderber, “is the use of
words and phrases not only to demean another person or group but also to express hatred and prejudice.” (
(Note: Verderber, R. F., Sellnow, D. D., & Verderber, K. S. (2012). The challenge of effective speaking (15th ed.).
Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.)) Hate language isolates a particular person or group in a derogatory
manner. Michael Richards, famous for the role of Cosmo Kramer on Seinfeld, came under fire for his hate speech
during a comedy routine in 2006. Richards used several racial epithets and directed his hate language towards
African-Americans and Mexicans. ( (Note: Farhi, P. (2006, November 21). ‘Seinfeld’ comic Richards apologizes
for racial rant. The Washington Post. Retrieved from http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/
2006/)) Richards apologized for his outbursts, but the damage to his reputation and career was irrevocable.
Likewise, using hate speech in any public speaking situation can alienate your audience and take away your
credibility, leading to more serious implications for your grade, your job, or other serious outcomes. It is your
responsibility as the speaker to be aware of sensitive material and be able to navigate language choices to avoid
offending your audience.

No matter what people tell you, words and ideas can change the world. – Robin Williams

Raise Social Awareness

Speakers should consider it their ethical responsibility to educate listeners by introducing ideas of racial, gender,
or cultural diversity, but also by raising social awareness
awareness, or the recognition of important issues that affect
societies. Raising social awareness is a task for ethical speakers because educating peers on important causes
empowers others to make a positive change in the world. Many times when you present a speech, you have the
opportunity to raise awareness about growing social issues. For example, if you’re asked to present an
informative speech to your classmates, you could tell them about your school’s athletic traditionor you could
discuss Peace One Day—a campaign that promotes a single day of worldwide cease-fire, allowing crucial food
and medicine supplies to be shipped into warzone areas. ( (Note: Peace One Day. (n.d.). Introduction. Retrieved
from http://www.peaceoneday.org/en/about/Introduction)) If your assignment is to present a persuasive speech,
you could look at the assignment as an opportunity to convince your classmates to (a) stop texting while they
drive, (b) participate in a program that supports US troops by writing personal letters to deployed soldiers or (c)

310
buy a pair of TOMS (tomsshoes.com) and find other ways to provide basic needs to impoverished families around
the world. Of course, those are just a few ideas for how an informative or persuasive speech can be used to raise
awareness about current social issues. It is your responsibility, as a person and speaker, to share information that
provides knowledge or activates your audience toward the common good. ( (Note: Mill, J.S. (1987). Utilitarianism.
In A. Ryan (Ed.), Utilitarianism and other essays (pp. 272–)338). New York: Penguin Classics.)

One way to be successful in attaining your speech goal

while also remaining ethical is to consider your audience’s
moral base. Moon identifies a principle that allows the
speaker to justify his or her perspective by finding common
moral ground with the audience. ( (Note: Moon, J. D.
(1993). Theory, citizenship, and democracy. In G. E.
Marcus & R. L. Hanson, Reconsidering the democratic
public (pp. 211–)222). University Park, PA: The
Pennsylvania State University Press.) This illustrates to the
audience that you have goodwill but allows you to still use
your moral base as a guide for responsible speech use.
For example, even though you are a vegetarian and
believe that killing animals for food is murder, you know
that the majority of your audience does not feel the same
way. Rather than focusing on this argument, you decide to “Raising John T. Williams Memorial Totem Pole” by Joe
use Moon’s principle and focus on animal cruelty. By Mabel. CC-BY-SA.
highlighting the inhumane ways that animals are raised for
food, you appeal to the audience’s moral frame that abusing animals is wrong—something that you and your
audience can both agree upon.

If we lose love and self-respect for each other, this is how we finally die. – Maya Angelou

Employ Respectful Free Speech

We live in a nation that values freedom of speech. Of course, due to the First Amendment, you have the right and
ability to voice your opinions and values to an audience. However, that freedom of speech must be balanced with
your responsibility as a speaker to respect your audience. Offending or degrading the values of your audience
members will not inform or persuade them. For example, let’s say you want to give a persuasive speech on why
abortion is morally wrong. It’s your right to voice that opinion. Nevertheless, it’s important that you build your case
without offending your audience members— since you don’t know everyone’s history or stance on the subject.
Showing disturbing pictures on your visual aid may not “make your point” in the way you intended. Instead, these
pictures may send audience members into an emotional tailspin (making it difficult for them to hear your
persuasive points because of their own psychological noise). Freedom of speech is a beautiful American value,
but ethical speakers must learn to balance their speech freedom with their obligation to respect each audience
member.

Fortunately for serious minds, a bias recognized is a bias sterilized. – Benjamin Haydon

Licensing & Attributions

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Project: Public Speaking
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311
 ETHICAL LISTENING

Just as you hope others are attentive to your speech, it is important to know how to listen ethically—in effort to
show respect to other speakers.

Jordan stood to give his presentation to the class. He knew he was knowledgeable about his chosen topic,
the Chicago Bears football team, and had practiced for days, but public speaking always gave him anxiety.
He asked for a show of hands during his attention getter, and only a few people acknowledged him. Jordan’s
anxiety worsened as he continued his speech. He noticed that many of his classmates were texting on their
phones. Two girls on the right side were passing a note back and forth. When Jordan received his peer
critique forms, most of his classmates simply said, “Good job” without giving any explanation. One of his
classmates wrote, “Bears SUCK!”

As we can see from the example above, communicating is not a one-way street. Jordan’s peers were not being
ethical listeners. All individuals involved in the communication process have ethical responsibilities. An ethical
communicator tries to “understand and respect other communicators before evaluating and responding to their
messages.” ( (Note: National Communication Association. (1999). NCA credo for ethical communication.
Retrieved from http://www.natcom.org/uploadedFiles/About_NCA/Leadership_and_Governance/
Public_Policy_Platform/PDF-PolicyPlatformNCA_Credo_for_Ethical_Communication.pdf)) As you will learn in
Chapter 4, listening is an important part of the public speaking process. Thus, this chapter will also outline the
ethics of ethical listening. This section explains how to improve your listening skills and how to provide ethical
feedback. Hearing happens physiologically, but listening is an art. The importance of ethical listening will be
discussed first.

Develop Ethical Listening Skills

The act of hearing is what our body does physically; our ear takes in sound waves. However, when we interpret
(or make sense of) those sound waves, that’s called listening
listening. Think about the last time you gave a speech. How
did the audience members act? Do you remember the people that seemed most attentive? Those audience
members were displaying traits of ethical listening. An ethical listener is one who actively interprets shared
material and analyzes the content and speaker’s effectiveness. Good listeners try to display respect for the
speaker. Communicating respect for the speaker occurs when the listener: a) prepares to listen and b) listens with
his or her whole body.

One way you can prepare yourself to listen is to get rid of

distractions. ( (Note: Sellnow, D. D. (2009). Confident public
speaking: COM 181 at University of Kentucky. Mason, OH:
Cengage Learning.)) If you’ve selected a seat near the
radiator and find it hard to hear over the noise, you may want
to move before the speaker begins. If you had a fight with
your friend before work that morning, you may want to take a
moment to collect your thoughts and put the argument out of
your mind—so that you can prevent internal distraction
during the staff meeting presentation. As a professional, you
are aware of the types of things and behaviors that distract
you from the speaker; it is your obligation to manage these
distractions before the speaker begins.

In order to ethically listen, it’s also imperative to listen with

more than just your ears—your critical mind should also be
at work. According to Sellnow, ( (Note: Sellnow 2009)) two
other things you can do to prepare are to avoid prejudging
the speaker and refrain from jumping to conclusions while “Bored Students” by cybrarian77. CC-BY-NC.
the speaker is talking. Effective listening can only occur

312
when we’re actually attending to the message. Conversely, listening is interrupted when we’re pre-judging the
speaker, stereotyping the speaker, or making mental counterarguments to the speaker’s claims. You have the
right to disagree with a speaker’s content, but wait until the speaker is finished and has presented his or her
whole argument to draw such a conclusion.

Ethical listening doesn’t just take place inside the body. In order to show your attentiveness, it is necessary to
consider how your body is listening. A listening posture enhances your ability to receive information and make
sense of a message. ( (Note: Jaffe, C. (2010). Public speaking: Concepts and skills for a diverse society (6th Ed.).
Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.)) An attentive listening posture includes sitting up and remaining
alert, keeping eye contact with the speaker and his or her visual aid, removing distractions from your area, and
taking notes when necessary. Also, if you’re enjoying a particular speaker, it’s helpful to provide positive
nonverbal cues like head-nodding, occasional smiling, and eye-contact. These practices can aid you in
successful, ethical listening. However, know that listening is sometimes only the first step in this process—many
times listeners are asked to provide feedback.

Constructive criticism is about finding something good and positive to soften the blow to the real critique
of what really went on. – Paula Abdul

Provide Ethical Feedback

Ethical speakers and listeners are able to provide quality feedback to others. Ethical feedback is a descriptive and
explanatory response to the speaker. Brownell explains that a response to a speaker should demonstrate that you
have listened and considered the content and delivery of the message. ( (Note: Brownell, J. (2006). Listening:
Attitudes, principles and skills (3rd Ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon)) Responses should respect the position of
the speaker while being honest about your attitudes, values, and beliefs. Praising the speaker’s message or
delivery can help boost his or her confidence and encourage good speaking behaviors. However, ethical
feedback does not always have to be positive in nature. Constructive criticism can point out flaws of the speaker
while also making suggestions. Constructive criticism acknowledges that a speaker is not perfect and can
improve upon the content or delivery of the message. In fact, constructive criticism is helpful in perfecting a
speaker’s content or speaking style. Ethical feedback always explains the listener’s opinion in detail. Figure 3.3
provides examples of unethical and ethical feedback.

Figure 3.3: Unethical and Ethical Feedback

• I really enjoyed your speech.

Unethical
• Your speech lacks supportive information.
Feedback
• You are the worst public speaker ever.

• I really enjoyed your speech because your topic was personally interesting to me.
• Your speech lacked supportive information. You didn’t cite any outside information.
Ethical
Instead, your only source was you.
Feedback
• I believe your speech was ineffective because you were clearly unprepared and
made no eye contact with the audience.

As you can see from the example feedback statements (Figure 3.3), ethical feedback is always explanatory.
Ethical statements explain why you find the speaker effective or ineffective. Another guideline for ethical feedback
is to “phrase your comments as personal perceptions” by using “I” language (Sellnow, 2009, p. 94). Feedback that
employs the “I” pronoun displays personal preference regarding the speech and communicates responsibility for
the comments. Feedback can focus on the speaker’s delivery, content, style, visual aid, or attire. Be sure to
support your claims—by giving a clear explanation of your opinion—when providing feedback to a speaker.
Feedback should also support ethical communication behaviors from speakers by asking for more information
and pointing out relevant information. ( (Note: Jensen, J. V. (1997). Ethical issues in the communication process.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.)) It is clear that providing ethical feedback is an important part of the listening
process and, thus, of the public speaking process.

313
 A man without ethics is a wild beast loosed upon this world. – Albert Camus

Licensing & Attributions

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by: King College and University of Kentucky. Located at
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CONCLUSION, REVIEW QUESTIONS, AND

ACTIVITIES

This chapter addresses ethics in public speaking. As ethics is an important part of our daily lives, it also plays a
significant role in any public speaking situation. This chapter defines ethics and provides guidelines for practicing
ethics in public speaking and listening. An ethical public speaker considers how to be honest and avoid plagiarism
by taking notes during the research process, identifying sources, and deciding when it is appropriate to cite
sources. Ethical public speakers also cite sources properly by understanding how to paraphrase and directly
quote sources. In addition, they know how to cite in written speech materials, during oral presentations, and on
visual aids.

Ethical speakers strive to achieve responsible speech goals by promoting gender, racial, and cultural diversity,
using inclusive language, refraining from using hate speech, raising social awareness about important issues
when possible, and understanding the balance of free speech with responsibility to audience members. Lastly,
this chapter discusses ethical listening. Listening is an important part of the public speaking situation. Ethical
listeners consider their responsibilities when both listening and providing feedback to speakers. Ethical listeners
should prepare to listen by removing distractions, avoiding prejudging the speaker, and listen with the whole body
by giving supportive nonverbal feedback to the speaker. Ethical feedback is explanatory and descriptive. Ethical
feedback can include both praise and constructive criticism. With this improved understanding of how to prepare
and present a speech ethically, you can accomplish the goal of ethical public speaking. Consider ethics as you
learn about the public speaking process in upcoming chapters.

“Shimer College conversation with students 2010” by Shimer College. CC-BY.

314
 Review Questions
1. Where did ethics originate? How are ethics used in public speaking?
2. What is plagiarism? What is the difference between global and patchwork plagiarism?
3. What is the difference between paraphrasing and directly quoting a source?
4. What free speech rights are granted to a speaker?
5. Why is raising social awareness an ethical concern when preparing a speech?
6. What are some ways to use language ethically in presentations?
7. How is listening used in the public speaking setting? What are some guidelines for being an ethical
listener?

Activities
1. Think about your ethical standards. Create a list of sources from which your ethical behaviors have
originated. Who or what has influenced your ethics?
2. Review the NCA Credo of Ethics. How do you interpret this credo? How can you use the principles in
your public speaking?
3. Split into groups of three to five students. As a group, develop 5 example situations of unethical
behavior in public speaking. Once you are finished, switch situations with a different group. Decide
how you can make changes to create ethical public speaking behavior.
4. Think about the following scenarios involving an ethical dilemma. How would you react?
◦ You attend a political debate on campus. The candidate’s speech contains many ideas that
you don’t agree with. How can you be an ethical listener during the speech?
◦ You are preparing to give a speech on a topic and realize that you have lost the citation
information for one of your important sources. You can’t seem to find this source again.
What would you do to ethically prepare for the speech?
◦ When practicing your speech on influential sports figures, you realize that you refer to the
audience, your co-ed classmates, quite often as “you guys.” Is this ethical language use?
What changes would you make?
5. When preparing for your next speech, create an ethics journal. Write down the various ethical
dilemmas as you encounter them. How did you decide what to do in these situations? What was the
outcome?

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Attribution

GLOSSARY AND REFERENCES

Glossary

TERM DEFINITION

315
 Direct Quote A direct quote is any sentence that conveys the primary source’s idea word-for-word.

Diversity Diversity is an appreciation for differences among individuals and groups.

Ethical Ethical feedback is descriptive and explanatory feedback for a speaker. Ethical feedback
Feedback can be positive praise or constructive criticism.

A listener who actively interprets shared material and analyzes the speech content and
Ethical Listener
speaker’s effectiveness.

Ethical Ethical communication is an exchange of responsible and trustworthy messages determined

Communication by our moral principles.

Ethical Rules of acceptable conduct, that when followed, promote values such as trust, good
Standards behavior, fairness and/or kindness.

Ethics Ethics is the process of determining what is good or bad, right or wrong in a moral dilemma.

Global Global plagiarism is plagiarism that occurs when a speaker uses an entire work that is not
Plagiarism his/her own.

Hate language is the use of words or phrases that isolate a particular person or group in a
Hate Language
derogatory manner.

Incremental Incremental plagiarism is plagiarism that occurs when most of the speech is the speaker’s
Plagiarism original work, but quotes or other information have been used without being cited.

Listening Listening is the process of interpreting, or making sense of, sounds.

Morality Morality is the process of discerning between right and wrong.

Paraphrase A paraphrase is any sentence that shares learned information in the speaker’s own words.

Patchwork Patchwork plagiarism is plagiarism that occurs when one patches together bits and pieces
Plagiarism from one or more sources and represents the end result as his or her own.

Plagiarism is when one passes off another’s work as his/her own or neglects to cite a
Plagiarism
source for his/her information.

Social
Social awareness is the recognition of important issues that affect societies.
Awareness

“We” Language includes the use of pronouns and phrases that unite the speaker to the
“We” Language
audience.

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p. 3 Thai Buddha by Lisa Schreiber

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318
 SPEAKING WITH CONFIDENCE

OBJECTIVES, OUTLINE, AND INTRODUCTION

Chapter 11 Speaking with Confidence

By Ronald P. Grapsy, Ph.D.
Kutztown University, Kutztown, PA

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Understand the nature of communicative apprehension (CA), and be in a better position to deal with
your particular “brand” of CA.
• Analyze objectively the formation of your habitual frame of reference.
• Apply cognitive restructuring (CR) techniques to create a more positive frame of reference.
• Understand the importance of customized practice to become conversant in your topic.
• Create a personal preparation routine to minimize your apprehension.

Chapter Outline
• Introduction
• Classifying Communication Apprehension (CA)
◦ Trait-anxiety
◦ State-anxiety
◦ Scrutiny Fear
• Frames of Reference
◦ Habitual Frame of Reference
◦ Personal Frame of Reference
• Cognitive Restructuring (CR)
◦ Sources of Apprehension
◦ Impact of Apprehension
◦ Learning Confidence
• Techniques for Building Confidence
◦ Prepare Well
◦ Visualize Success
◦ Avoid Gimmicks
◦ Breathe and Release
◦ Minimize What You Memorize
◦ Practice Out Loud
◦ Customize Your Practice
• Conclusion

319
 • Chapter Activities and Exercises
• Glossary
• References

Introduction

“I have to do what?”

You receive your syllabus on the first day of history class,

and you see that a significant percentage of your overall
grade for the semester depends upon one, ten-minute oral
presentation in front of the class. The presentation is to be
based on an original research project and is due in eight
weeks.

You are excited to get an email after a very positive job

interview. They ask you to come to a second interview
prepared to answer a number of questions from a panel
made up of senior management. The questions are
contained in an attachment. “Please be ready to stand in
the front of the room to answer,” the email reads; ending
with “See you next week!”

The plans are finalized: You will have dinner to meet your new fiancé’s family on Saturday night—just days
away. But, then you are told that your fiancé’s father, a former Marine and retired police officer, will want to
talk about politics and current events—and that he will likely judge what sort of person you are based on how
well you can defend your ideas.

I get nervous when I don’t get nervous. If I’m nervous, I know I’m going to have a good show.
– Beyonce Knowles

In this chapter, you will learn about dealing with one of the most common fears in our society: the fear of public
speaking
speaking, which is referred to as communication apprehension (CA). If you are one of those folks—take
comfort in the fact that you are not alone! Research indicates that 20% or more of the U.S. population has a high
degree of communicative apprehension ( (Note: (McCroskey, 1976))). CA is an isolating phenomenon; something
that makes one feel alone in the struggle. This is true even as programs designed to help people overcome
it—like this program and this chapter, for instance—are spreading nationwide. CA is a real phenomenon that
represents a well-documented obstacle not only to academic, but also to professional success. CA can impact
many diverse areas; from one’s level of self-esteem (Adler, 1980) and how you are perceived by others (Dwyer &
Cruz, 1998), to success in school, achieving high grade-point averages, and even landing job interview
opportunities (Daly & Leth, 1976). People with higher levels of CA have demonstrated that they will avoid
communicative interaction in personal and professional relationships, social situations, and importantly,
classrooms. Such avoidance can result in miscommunication and misunderstanding, which only becomes
compounded by further avoidance. CA left unaddressed can even lead to a negative disposition toward public
interaction, which leads to a lesser degree of engagement, thus perpetuating the fear and further compounding
the situation (Menzel & Carrell, 1994). The anxiety creates a vicious cycle and becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy.
But it is a cycle that need not continue.

320
By reading this chapter, you will learn about CA; not necessarily how it
develops, as that can be different in every individual, but rather about
how people can deal with it effectively. You will learn how therapies
employed by psychologists to help people deal with phobias can be
translated into effective techniques to deal with CA. You will learn the
differences between trait-anxiety, state-anxiety, and scrutiny fear, and
how understanding the differences between them can help a person
deal with their “personal brand” of CA. You will learn about how people
develop habitual frames of reference that come to define the way they
approach an anticipated experience—and how anyone can employ
cognitive restructuring to help change habits that are
counterproductive to delivering effective presentations. Habits can be
very difficult to break, but the first step is becoming aware and wanting to succeed. Going into any activity with a
positive attitude is one of the basic ways of maximizing performance. CA is not something that can easily be
eliminated—turned “off” as if controlled by an internal toggle switch. But it doesn’t have to remain an obstacle to
success either.

Effective public speaking is not simply about learning what to say, but about developing the confidence to say it.
For many, it all comes down to overcoming those nerves and convincing yourself that you can actually get up
there and speak! Each individual deals with CA most effectively through increased self-awareness and a
willingness to work on reducing its impact. To conquer the nervousness associated with public speaking, one
must identify the factors that lead to this anxiety, and then take specific steps to overcome this apprehension.

As soon as the fear approaches near, attack and destroy it. – Chanakya

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• Chapter 11 Objectives, Outline, and Introduction. Authored byby: Alyssa G. Millner, Ph.D. and Rachel D. Price, Ph.D.. Provided by
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CLASSIFYING COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION

(CA)

CA is not the result of a single cause, and so the phenomenon itself comes in many forms. It is important for each
person to recognize that their particular sort of CA (we’ll call it a “personal brand”) is a phenomenon that has
developed uniquely through each of their lives and experiences. Just as each individual is different, so too is each
case of CA. There are specific distinctions between “stage fright”—a term reserved for the common, virtually
universal nervousness felt by everyone—and CA—which is essentially “stage fright” with a corresponding
emotional trauma attached. Scholars are somewhat divided, however, on whether CA is something inherent in the
individual, or if it is the result of experience. In most people, it is very likely a combination of factors.

Trait-anxiety
Some researchers (McCroskey, et al. 1976) describe CA as trait-anxiety
trait-anxiety, meaning that it is a type of anxiety that
is aligned with an individual’s personality. People who would call themselves “shy” often seek to avoid interaction
with others because they are uncertain of how they will be perceived. Avoiding such judgment is generally not
difficult, and so becomes a pattern of behavior. These folks, according to researchers, are likely view any chance
to express themselves publicly with skepticism and hesitation. This personal tendency is what is known as trait-
anxiety.

321
State-anxiety
Other researchers (Beatty, 1988) describe CA as state-anxiety
state-anxiety, meaning that it is a type of anxiety that is derived
from the external situation which individuals find themselves. While some may fear public speaking due to some
personal trait or broader social anxiety, researchers have found that CA more often stems from the fear
associated with scrutiny and negative evaluation. Some people may have had a negative experience in public at
an early age—they forgot a line in a play, they lost a spelling bee, they did poorly when called on in front of their
class—something that resulted in a bit of public embarrassment. Others may have never actually experienced
that stress themselves, but may have watched friends struggle and thus empathized with them. These sorts of
experiences can often lead to the formation of a state-anxiety in an individual.

Scrutiny fear
Still other researchers (Mattick et al., 1989) discuss CA as what is
called a scrutiny fear
fear; which stems from an activity that does not
necessarily involve interacting with other people, but is simply the
fear of being in a situation where one is being watched or observed,
or one perceives him or herself as being watched, while undertaking
an activity. When asked to categorize their own type of CA, many
people will identify with this phenomenon.
A person with their head in their hands
In order for anybody to effectively deal with CA, the first step is to
consider what may be its primary cause. CA is what is known as a resultant condition
condition; and those who are dealing
with the challenge will recognize different intensities associated with different situations or triggers. This means
that overcoming the condition requires first that you recognize, and then minimize, the cause. Each person is
different, and so each case of CA is personal and unique. Trait-anxiety can be one contributing factor to CA, but is
often part of a much larger condition. It is important to understand that, while the techniques discussed here
would help in improving an individual’s approach to public speaking opportunities, we do not claim that these
techniques would work with more significant personality disorders. However, both the presence of state-anxiety,
and the appearance of scrutiny fear, can be effectively addressed through the application of cognitive
restructuring (CR) and careful, deliberate experience.

How little do they see what is, who frame their hasty judgments upon that which seems. – Robert
Southey

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322
 FRAMES OF REFERENCE

Many popular movies are now based on multiple-book series like the
“Harry Potter” or “Lord of the Rings” movies. If you are a fan of these
book series, you know about the anticipation you felt as the next film
was ready to be released—you get swept away by the memories, you
look forward to seeing the characters again. Before you even enter the
theatre and take your seat, you are in a very positive mood and you
are looking forward to being entertained. Perhaps you are even
familiar with the details of the story you are about to watch on film; and
this only adds to your feelings of anticipation. Because of your
previous experiences, you have developed a frame of reference
toward future events. One’s frame of reference is the context,
viewpoint, or set of presuppositions or evaluative criteria within which a
person’s perception and thinking seem always to occur; and which constrains selectively the course and outcome
of these activities. Once your anticipation is rewarded, this frame of reference becomes how you “approach” the
release of each new film in the series—your frame of reference becomes “habitual.” Evidence for this can be seen
in the consistent success of the serial movies—even if critics’ opinions are harsh, fans will go see the film.

Habitual Frame of Reference

Developing the habitual frame of reference with regard to public speaking usually comes from a combination of
personal experiences and what has been witnessed. Formal public speaking opportunities are most prevalent
within the context of formal education—thus, public presentations are generally student-oriented experiences
which are strongly associated with being evaluated or judged. Because there is such a focus upon the grade that
results from the assignment, there is much less focus upon the integrity of the presentation itself. Studies have
even shown that the possibility of a negative experience can lead to many students to skip assignments or drop a
class—even when that class is required for graduation (Pelias, 1989). Students will often worry more about their
grade rather than what is contained in their presentation. Thus, the act of public speaking takes on the pressure of
taking a final exam with everyone watching. It’s no wonder so many students report that they are stressed out by
public speaking!

Personal Frame of Reference

We can all recall a time when we’ve met a
group of friends for lunch. Try to recall an
instance when the conversation centered
on the latest popular movie—and you
happen to be the person in the group who
saw it the night before. Was it fun? Was it
worth the money? Should we go see it
too? Everyone else around the table would
look at you and wait to hear what you had
to say. And what happened when you were
faced with all these questions? Well,
probably you focused on your favorite
parts; probably you told the story in some
sort of organized manner; probably you
asked your friends whether or not they
wanted you to give away the ending; and
probably you were fine with any of your
friends interrupting while you were talking.
In short, you presented to your audience. But, since the action of public presentation was not undertaken within

323
the stressful context of a “graded assignment,” but rather within the positive context of “lunch with friends,” you did
not feel the same level of CA as with other presentations. The action was essentially the same, but the way you
approached the action was completely different—solely because you perceived of yourself engaging in a fun
activity (lunch with friends), and not a stressful one (public speaking). Think about how many different
experiences have prompted the formation of a habitual frame of reference in you: social events with friends,
holidays with family, the weekly staff meeting at work. Consider whether the way you approach the situation has
anything at all to do with the sort of experience that follows. Is there a correlation between positive mood and
positive outcome? Think of all the motivational aphorisms and advice you’ve heard: “Think Positive!” or “Expect
Success!” all of which are based on the idea that approaching an activity with a positive attitude about your
potential success is the best strategy. We need to build a positive attitude about doing something we are afraid to
do.

I learned that courage was not the absence of fear, but the triumph over it. The brave man is not he
who does not feel afraid, but he who conquers that fear. – Nelson Mandela

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COGNITIVE RESTRUCTURING

Since the major difference between “presenting” to a public audience versus “presenting” to a small group of
close friends involves one’s attitude about the situation. Overcoming CA is as much a matter of changing one’s
attitude as it is developing one’s skills as a speaker. A change in attitude can be fostered through a self-reflective
regimen called cognitive restructuring (CR), which is an internal process through which individuals can
deliberately adjust how they perceive an action or experience (Mattick et al., 1989).

Cognitive Restructuring is a three-step, internal process:

1. Identify objectively what you think
2. Identify any inconsistencies between perception and reality
3. Replace destructive thinking with supportive thinking

These steps are easy to understand, but perhaps may be a bit difficult to execute! The first step is to identify
objectively what you are thinking as you approach a public speaking opportunity. Recall your habitual frame of
reference. The first step in CR is to shine a bright light directly on it. This will be different for each student
undertaking the process.

Sources of Apprehension
After years of interviewing students from my classes, the two concerns most often described are the feeling of
being the center of attention—as if you are under some collective microscope with everybody’s eyes on you; and
the feeling that the audience is just waiting for you to make a mistake or slip up somehow—and that their
disapproval will be swift, immediate, and embarrassing. Let’s discuss how CR might be applied to each of these
widely-held perceptions.

Impact of Apprehension
Probably the most common concern people have is being the “center of attention.” When people describe this
specific scrutiny fear, they use phrases like “everyone just stares at me,” or “I don’t like having all eyes on me.”
Consider for a moment what your experiences have been like when you have been a member of the audience for

324
another speaker. Where did you look while the person spoke? Did you look at the speaker? Direct eye contact
can mean different things in different cultures, but in U.S. culture, eye contact is the primary means for an
audience to demonstrate that they are listening to a speaker. Nobody likes to be ignored, and most members of
an audience would not want to be perceived as ignoring the speaker—that would be rude! Compare: before CR,
the frame of reference reflects the idea that “everyone is staring at me”; after CR, the perception is altered to “the
audience is looking at me to be supportive and polite—after all, I’m the one doing the talking.”

Impact of Cognitive Restructuring

Before Cognitive Restructuring After Cognitive Restructuring

One recognizes that audiences look at who is

One is worried about being under scrutiny.
speaking.

One is worried about being judged harshly. One recognizes that audiences want success.

One is worried about making an embarrassing

One recognizes that audiences will empathize.
mistake.

Another common concern is the fear of being judged harshly

or making an embarrassing mistake. Go back to that memory
of you as a member of the audience, but this time reflect on
what sort of expectations you had at the time. Did you expect
the speaker to be flawless and riveting? Did you have in mind
some super-high level of performance—below which the
speaker would have disappointed you? Probably you did not
(unless you had the chance to watch some prominent
speaker). Think back to any experiences you may have had
watching another speaker struggle—perhaps a classmate
during one of their presentations. Witnessing something like
that can be uncomfortable. Did you feel empathy for the
person struggling? Isn’t it a much more pleasant experience
when the speaker does well? Again, the vast majority of
people empathize with the speaker when it comes to the
quality of the presentation. They are willing to give the speaker
a chance to say what they want to say. Thus: before CR, the
frame of reference reflects the idea that “everyone is judging
me harshly”; and after CR, the perception is altered to “the
audience is willing to listen to what I have to say because it’s a
more pleasant experience for them if the speaker is
successful.”

Learning Confidence
Consider what comes into your mind if you are to deliver a public presentation. Are your thoughts consumed with
many uncertainties. What if I make a mistake? What if they don’t like what I’m talking about? What if? Try your
own version of CR. Put yourself in the role of audience member and ask yourself whether your fears as a speaker
are consistent with your expectations as an audience member. Remember that, just like you, the audience wants
the speaker to succeed. Of course CR, unfortunately, is always easier said than done. It is a process that takes
time, patience, and practice. The most important thing to remember is that you are trying CR as a means of
breaking a habit, and habits are formed over periods of time, never instantaneously. The breaking of a habit,
similarly, cannot be done instantaneously, but gradually, over time and with deliberate effort.

Changing your attitude is only one element in overcoming CA. The other involves improving your skills as a
speaker. The presence of CA in any student brings with it the need to prepare more deliberately and more
diligently. The other chapters in this book deal with the importance of preparation in all areas of public
presentation. Readers should consider how the challenges involved with overcoming CA can impact the
preparation process.

325
 It usually takes me more than three weeks to prepare a good impromptu speech. – Mark Twain

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TECHNIQUES FOR BUILDING CONFIDENCE

Prepare Well
The correlation between preparation and nervousness is consistent. More practice results in less nervousness.
The best, most consistent and direct way to minimize the level of nervousness you feel is through effective
preparation. This is always true. Importantly, the best sort of practice is the kind that prepares you properly.

Michael Jordan was once asked the best way to learn how to
shoot free throws. He said that you cannot learn to shoot
free throws by walking into a gym with a ball, walking up to
the line, and shooting. Instead, he described how the first
step in learning to shoot free throws is to run sprints. Most
importantly, his advice was to run until your body was under
the same stress as it would be in a game when you needed
to make those free throws—because only under those
conditions would your practice become truly productive. Only
then do you pick up the ball and shoot. And when you
managed to catch your breath? All types of preparation and
practice yield some benefits, but there is a significant
difference between practice that is merely helpful and
practice that is sufficient.

There is a difference between “knowing what you are talking

about,” and “knowing what you are going to say.” Thinking
about your presentation can be helpful, but that sort of
preparation will not give you a sense of what you are actually
going to say. Athletes know that the best practices will re-
create game conditions and test their abilities to perform in
real-life scenarios. Studying a playbook? This is helpful, but
not sufficient. Going over a speech in your mind? Again, it is
helpful, but not sufficient.

Many students do not practice effectively, and this can result

in the wrong idea that practice isn’t helpful. Unfortunately, Michael Jordan at Boston Garden
these same students usually have had little, if any, training in
how one might prepare for a presentation, and so they employ the scholastic training they are most familiar
with—how to write a paper. This is not the same activity as presenting, and so the lack of proper preparation only
contributes to the lack of confidence. Let’s look at a few elements of effective practice.

Visualize Success
Athletes and performers are often coached to visualize what they are trying to do as a way to perform correctly.
Baseball players need to anticipate what they will do if the ball is hit their way so that they are ready to perform
without having to make split-second choices. Football and basketball players must envision how each member of

326
the team will move during a particular play because team success depends on speedy and flawless coordination
between individuals. Dancers and divers are trained to visualize the form and positioning of their bodies as they
execute their moves. Golfers are coached to visualize the flight and arc of the shot they are about to attempt.
Engaging the imagination in this way can be beneficial to performance.

I visualize things in my mind before I have to do them. It’s like having a mental workshop. – Jack
Youngblood

Speakers too, should visualize success. As you practice, visualize

yourself presenting with confidence to a receptive audience. “See” your
relaxed facial expressions and “hear” your confident vocal tone. Imagine
yourself moving gracefully, complementing what you say with expressive
gestures. Imagine the audience reacting appropriately—nodding
appreciatively and giving thoughtful consideration to your points. Imagine
the gratification of watching the audience really “get it.” When you can
honestly envision yourself performing at this level, you are taking an
important step toward achieving that goal.

Avoid Gimmicks
Some acting coaches (and speech teachers) encourage their students to
practice in front of mirrors, so that they can watch themselves perform
and evaluate how they move. In acting, this can be very useful; but in
speaking, it is less so. When you practice your presentation, the most
important element is expressiveness. You want to become more familiar
with the volume of material, the order in which you plan to present it, and
the phrasing you think would be most effective to express it. Watching
yourself perform in a mirror will focus your attention on your appearance
first—and on what you express second. This makes using a mirror during practice a distraction from what the
practice ought to achieve.

Plus, consider what you are seeing in the mirror as you practice. Obviously, it is you! But more to the point, what
you see in the mirror (your reflection) will not resemble, in any way, the audience that you would see while
delivering your presentation. Just as you want to visualize success in yourself as part of your preparation; you
also want to visualize success in your audience—which means that you want to imagine the members of your
audience reacting positively to your presentation, paying close attention and nodding their heads as you make
your points.

For some reason, the myth persists that imagining your audience in
their pajamas—or something similarly silly—is an effective way to
make standing in front of them seem less scary. Many of my students
have discussed hearing “tips” like imagining the audience wearing pink
bunny-ears as a way to make them less intimidating. These sorts of
gimmicks don’t work! In fact, concentrating on anything other than
what you are doing is distracting and not beneficial at all. Do your best
to avoid such advice. Visualize success!

Breathe. Let go. And remind yourself that this very moment is the
only one you know you have for sure. – Oprah Winfrey

Breathe and Release

One type of pre-presentation exercise that might be helpful is based on a therapeutic idea called systematic de-
sensitization
sensitization, which is a multi-stage regimen to help patients deal with phobias through coping mechanisms.
Going through both the cognitive and behavioral aspects of systematic desensitization often requires weeks of
concerted effort to overcome the body’s involuntary reactions to stress. That sort of psychological therapy
involves gradual exposure to what produces the anxiety, long-term self-reflection, and mental discipline. Here, we
will discuss a shortened version called “breathe
breathe and release
release.” This is a short-cut relaxation technique that could

327
be useful for nervous speakers—especially those who are concerned with the physical manifestations of
nervousness, such as shaky hands or knees. The key to “breathe and release” is to understand that when
nervous tension results in minor trembling, the effort of trying to keep one’s hands from shaking can contribute to
the whole situation—that is, trying to stop literally can make it worse! Therefore, the best approach is through
relaxation.

“Breathe and Release” involves three steps:

1. Imagine the nervousness within your body. Imagine that
energy bubbling inside you, like liquid being cooked.
2. Draw that energy to a high point within your body with a
deep, cleansing breath. Imagine this cleansing breath to be
acting like a vacuum—drawing up all of the bubbling liquid.
3. Release the energy by deliberately relaxing the entirety of
your upper extremities—not just your hands, or even your
hands and arms—but all the way from your fingertips to the
bottom edges of your shoulder blades. Imagine how keeping
any part of your upper extremities tense would result in a
“kink” in the release valve, and so complete relaxation is the
key to success. Remember: Relax everything from the
fingertips to the very bottom edges of your shoulder blades.

“Breathe and Release” is something that can be done even as one walks to the front of the classroom or
boardroom to begin speaking. Many speakers, especially those who are concerned about the physical
manifestations of nervousness, have used this relaxation technique effectively.

I’ve a grand memory for forgetting. – Robert Louis Stevenson

Minimize What You Memorize

One important hint for speech preparation involves avoiding the writing of an entirely scripted version of the
presentation. Many people have the impression that writing a script of the entire speech is the necessary first step
in preparation; that practicing can only happen after you are done writing the entire speech. Unfortunately, this
common impression is mistaken. Remember that lunch with your friends? When you were describing the movie
plot, you were being conversant in a prepared way. This means that you knew what you were describing, but you
were not concerned with the specific words you were using. Being conversant is the condition of being prepared
to discuss an issue intelligently. Fans of sports are conversant about their favorite teams. Experts are conversant
in their fields. A well-prepared speaker is conversant with regard to her topic. Consider how being conversant in
this manner allows freer, more fluid communication, with no stress associated with your ability to remember what
words you wanted to use. Being conversant also gives the speaker the best chance to recognize and react to
audience feedback. If you are completely focused on the integrity of scripted comments, then you will be unable
to read and react to your audience in any meaningful way. Imagine how frustrating it would be for your friends at
that lunch if you would not respond to any of their questions until you were finished reading a few descriptive
paragraphs about the movie. They would probably just wait until you were done reading and then try to engage
you in a conversation!

If you wish to forget anything on the spot, make a note that this thing is to be remembered. – Edgar
Allan Poe

Many people have had experience being in a stage play or some other type of performance that involved
memorized recitation of a script. Many of us might recall moments during rehearsals when our minds would
“freeze” and we might need just a quick reminder—the next word or phrase, the next few notes—to get back on
track. This is because people do not memorize in units, but in phrases or chunks. The mind attaches to a
rhythm—not to each individual unit, word, or note. This is why it is best to minimize what you memorize. Prepare
your opening carefully so that you start smoothly. Prepare your closing comments so that you can end sharply
and with style. But avoid preparing and then memorizing an entire script.

Preparing for a speech by memorizing a written script engages your mind at a different level from that of a
conversant speaker. Concentrating on remembering words is different from paying attention to how one’s
audience is reacting. The pressure that arises from trying to remember the next word can be considerable, yet

328
that pressure is entirely avoidable. The goal of public speaking should never be about loyal recreation of a
script—it is about getting the appropriate response from your audience. Trying to remember an entirely scripted
speech can result in the rather ironic situation of a person being able confidently and smoothly to discuss the topic
in casual conversation, but still quite stressed about their ability to remember their scripted comments.

Many students forget their lines while discussing topics like their families and hometowns. Of course they knew
what they were talking about, but their minds were focused on the task of remembering specific words—a task
different from effective speaking. So, should you write any prepared comments at all? Yes, of course ,you should.
Specifically, the feedback you should be most concerned with will happen during the body of the speech—when
you are discussing the substance of your presentation. It is during the body of the speech when you need
especially to retain the ability to adjust to how your audience reacts. Thus, memorizing your entire speech is
ultimately detrimental to your ability to react to your audience. However, during the introduction and conclusion of
your speech, the primary concerns are about connecting with your audience personally; which is something best
assured through consistent eye contact. So, carefully preparing the introduction and the conclusion of your
speech is a smart strategy—but don’t make the mistake of scripting everything that you plan to say. The best rule
here: Minimize what you memorize—familiarize instead!

If I don’t train enough, of course I’m nervous. – Haile Gebrselassie

Practice Out Loud

Remember the very first time you tried to do anything—a
game, a sport, an activity, anything at all. How good were
you out of the gate? Perhaps you had talent or were gifted
with a “feel” for what you were doing. But even then, didn’t
you get better with more experience? Nobody does anything
the very best they can on their very first attempt, and
everyone—even the most talented among us—will benefit
from effective practice.

Speaking in public is no different from any other activity in

this way. To maximize the chance that your presentation will
come out smooth and polished, you will need to hear it all
the way through. By practicing out loud, from the beginning
to the ending, you will be able to listen to your whole speech
and properly gauge the flow of your entire presentation.
Additionally, without at least one complete out-loud practice, there will be no way to accurately estimate the length
of your speech and your preparation will remain insufficient. When dealing with CA, the last thing you want is to
leave some questions unanswered in your own mind! The out-loud “dress rehearsal” is the single, most important
element to your preparation. Without it, you will be delivering your presentation in full for the first time when it
counts the most. Putting yourself at that sort of disadvantage isn’t wise, and is easily avoided.

Consider your current method of preparing a public presentation. At some point, you will have gathered notes and
information together. That represents an opportune moment for your first out-loud practice. You might even
consider trying that initial practice without the benefit of any notes. Stand up; start speaking; see what comes out!
Such a practice can serve as an “oral first draft” in the same vein as any written first draft of a paper, and can
answer a number of questions for you:
1. Where, during your presentation, are you most—and least—conversant?
2. Where, during your presentation, are you most in need of supportive notes?
3. What do your notes need to contain?

Prepare for your public presentation by speaking and listening to yourself, rather than by writing, editing, and
rewriting. Remember that when you are having a conversation, you never use the same sort of language and
syntax as you do when you are writing a formal paper. Practice with the goal of becoming conversant in your
topic, not fluent with a script.

You can’t hire someone to practice for you. – H. Jackson Brown, Jr.

329
Customize Your Practice
We’ve discussed a variety of techniques in this chapter; from the importance of out-loud practice to suggestions of
when, during your preparation, you should start the out-loud practice. We’ve discussed Cognitive Restructuring as
a means of changing your attitude about presenting in a positive way. Depending on your personal brand of CA,
you may choose to implement these hints in different ways. Take a moment to reflect on what causes your CA.
Do you dislike the feeling of being the center of attention? Are you more concerned with who is in the audience
and what they might think of you? Or are you worried about “freezing” in front of the audience and forgetting what
you wanted to say? Write some of these concerns down and put them into a priority order. If you are worried
about a particular issue or problem, how might you prepare to minimize the chance of that issue arising?

Then consider your current method of preparation. Do you prepare

more for a written paper than for an oral presentation? Do you have
the goal of presenting a scripted message? Do you practice out loud?
When, during your process, do you practice aloud? Do you practice at
all before you begin to compose your speaking notes; or do you only
practice after? Remember that dealing with CA often involves the
breaking of a mental habit. It is a good idea to change what you have
done previously. Be deliberate. Observe what works for your situation.

Recall what was discussed at the beginning of this chapter: CA is a

condition unique to each person dealing with it. CA is the result of
many varied causes—some internal and personal, some external and
experiential. Dealing with anxiety may be as much dealing with your attitude as with your skills, as much a
struggle with perception as with ability. Because of this, you are in the best position to know how to deal with your
particular brand of CA. As stated earlier in the chapter: Each individual deals with CA most effectively through
increased self-awareness and a willingness to take each of the steps in the entire process. After you acknowledge
your reality, then you take the steps necessary to overcome apprehension. When you’ve read about the ways to
overcome the debilitating impact of CA, the next steps in your process involve seeing what works best for you. Do
not continue to prepare in exactly the same way as before. Speak more; write and revise less. Be sure to practice
out-loud at least once during your preparation, in order to prepare yourself sufficiently. Reflect on your personal
concerns and try Cognitive Restructuring on those concerns. Take your time. Do the work. Have confidence that
your preparation will yield positive results.

Nothing in the affairs of men is worthy of great anxiety. – Plato

Licensing & Attributions

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330
 CONCLUSION, REVIEW QUESTIONS, AND
ACTIVITIES

Conclusion
In this chapter, we’ve discussed Communication
Apprehension or CA. This difficult condition can be the result
of many, varied causes. Even professional researchers don’t
always agree on whether CA is inherent in the person, or the
result of what the person experiences or perceives—with
some calling it “trait-anxiety;” others “state-anxiety;” and still
others classifying it as “scrutiny fear.” The first step for any
person to address this condition is self-reflection. Try to
identify what has caused you to feel the way you do about
public speaking. Careful introspection can result in a more
productive level of self-awareness.

Whatever the root cause of CA might be for any particular

individual, the first step in addressing CA is to objectively
view the habitual frame of reference that has emerged in
your mind regarding public speaking. Consider all those “what-if’s” that keep cropping up in your mind and how
you might begin to address them productively, rather than simply to ignore them and hope they go away. Go
through the steps of Cognitive Restructuring or CR. Consider how many of those “what-if’s” are nothing more than
invented pressure that you place upon yourself.

Relaxation techniques, such as “Breathe and Release,” have proven to be effective for many speakers, especially
those concerned with the physical manifestations of nervousness like trembling hands or shaky knees.
Remember that those sorts of tremors can often be exacerbated by efforts to hold still. Don’t force yourself to hold
still! Relax instead.

Lastly, we discussed the most effective means to prepare—which is toward the goal of becoming conversant in
your topic, rather than being able to recite a memorized script. By familiarizing yourself with your topic, you
become better able to consider the best way to talk to your audience, rather than becoming “married to your
script” and ultimately consumed with saying the words in the right order. Practicing out-loud, without a mirror to
distract you, is the best way to prepare yourself.

CA is a real issue, but it need not be an obstacle to success. Take the time to become more aware of your
personal brand of CA. Take positive steps to minimize its impact. Your willingness to work and your positive
attitude are the keys to your success.

Believe you can and you’re halfway there.- Theodore Roosevelt

Review Questions
1. What percentage of the general population is likely dealing with CA?
2. What are some of the potential issues or problems that can result from CA?
3. What are some of the different ways researchers classify CA? What are the differences between
these ideas?
4. What are some of your sources of CA? Would you classify these as examples of trait-anxiety or
state-anxiety?

331
 5. How does Cognitive Restructuring work? Does it work the same for every person who tries it?
6. What does it mean to become conversant in your topic?
7. Why is memorizing a presentation a risky move? Is there any part of your presentation that should be
memorized?

Activities
1. Prior to a speech, practice the following relaxation technique from Williams College (from
http://wso.williams.edu/orgs/peerh/stress/relax.html):
1. Tighten the muscles in your toes. Hold for a count of 10. Relax and enjoy the sensation of
release from tension.
2. Flex the muscles in your feet. Hold for a count of 10. Relax.
3. Move slowly up through your body—legs, abdomen, back, neck, face—contracting and
relaxing muscles as you go.
4. Breathe deeply and slowly.
2. After your speech, evaluate the technique. Did you find that this exercise reduced your nervousness?
If so, why do you think it was effective? If not, what technique do you think would have been more
effective? Together with a partner or in a small group, generate a list of relaxation techniques that
you currently use to relieve stress. Once you have run out of ideas, review the list and eliminate the
techniques that would not work for helping you cope with nervousness before a speech. Of the
remaining ideas, select the top three that you believe would help you personally and that you would
be willing to try.
3. The author of this chapter says that one of the keys to overcoming nervousness is preparation. Make
a list of the barriers to your own preparation process (e.g. “I don’t know how to use the library,” or “I
have young children at home who make demands on my time”). Having identified some of the things
that make it difficult for you to prepare, now think of at least one way to overcome each obstacle you
have listed. If you need to, speak with other people to get their ideas too.

Licensing & Attributions

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• Chapter 11 Conclusion. Authored byby: Alyssa G. Millner, Ph.D. and Rachel D. Price, Ph.D.. Provided by
by: University of Central Arkansas, University of Arkansas at Little Rock & University of Kentucky and Southern Illinois
University & University of Kentucky. Located at
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GLOSSARY AND REFERENCES

Glossary

TERM DEFINITION

“Breathe and This is a short-cut version of systematic de-sensitization appropriate for public speaking
Release” preparation.

Cognitive
CR is an internal process through which individuals can deliberately adjust how they
Restructuring
perceive an action or experience.
(CR)

332
 Communication
CA is the anxiety resulting from fear of public speaking.
Apprehension

Conversant Being conversant is the condition of being able to discuss an issue intelligently with others.

A frame of reference refers to the context, viewpoint, or set of presuppositions or of

Frame of
evaluative criteria within which a person’s perception and thinking seem always to occur;
Reference
and which constrains selectively the course and outcome of these activities.

Anxiety resulting from being in a situation where one is being watched or observed, or
Scrutiny Fear where one perceives themselves as being watched, is known as scrutiny fear. This sort of
anxiety does not necessarily involve interacting with other people.

State-Anxiety State-anxiety is derived from the external situation within which individuals find themselves.

Systematic De- Systematic de-sensitization is a multi-stage, therapeutic regimen to help patients deal with
sensitization phobias through coping mechanisms.

Trait-Anxiety Trait-anxiety is anxiety that is aligned with, or a manifestation of, an individual’s personality.

References
Adler, R. B., (1980). Integrating reticence management into the basic communication curriculum. Communication
Education, 29, 215-221.

Beatty, M.J. (1988). Public speaking apprehension, decision-making errors in the selection of speech introduction
strategies and adherence to strategy. Communication Education, 37, 297 – 311.

Daly, J. A. & Leth, S. A., (1976), Communication Apprehension and the Personnel Selection Decision, Paper
presented at the International Communication Association Convention, Portland, OR. Dwyer, K. & Cruz, A
(1998), Communication Apprehension, Personality, and Grades in the Basic Course: Are There Correlations?
Communication Research Reports, 15(4), 436 – 444.

Mattick, R. P., Peters, L., & Clarke, J. C., (1989) Exposure and cognitive restructuring for social phobia: A
controlled study. Behavior Therapy, 20, 3-23.

McCroskey, J. C., & Anderson, J. (1976). The relationship between communication apprehension and academic
achievement among college students, Human Communication Research, 3, 73-81.

McCroskey, J. C. (1977). Oral Communication Apprehension: A summary of recent theory and research. Human
Communication Research, 4, 78-96 McCroskey, J. C. (1984).

The communication apprehensive perspective. In J. A. Daly & J. C. McCroskey (Eds.), Avoiding communication:
Shyness, reticence, and communication apprehension. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

McCroskey, J. C. (1976) The Problem of Communication Apprehension in the Classroom, Paper prepared for the
special edition of Communication, Journal of the Communication Association of the Pacific compiled for the
C.A.P. Convention (Kobe, Japan, June 1976).

Menzel, K. E., &Carrell, L. J., (1994). The relationship between preparation and performance in public speaking,
Communication Education, 43, 17-26.

Pelias, M. H. (1989). Communication apprehension in basic public speaking texts: An examination of

contemporary textbooks. Communication Education, 38(1), 41- 53.

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photo credits
p. 1 Rebiya Kadeer http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rebi ya_Kadeer_Speaking_at_UN_Geneva_(3).jpg By
United States Mission Geneva

p. 5 Tuvalu woman speaking http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tuva

lu_woman_speaking_on_the_climate_threat_ her_culture_and_nation_face.jpg By Takver

p. 6 Michael Jordan http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jorda n_by_Lipofsky_16577.jpg By Steve Lipofsky

p. 6 Woman in wheelchair http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commo ns/5/5a/USMC-111028-M-ZU667-58.jpg

By Cpl. Andrew D. Thorburn

p. 7 Man speaking http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Midd le_age.jpg By Måns Sandström

p. 8 98 year-old mother of neuroscience http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NGF _%2708_Rita_Levi-

Montalcini.jpg By Audrey_sel

p. 9 Kellee Santiago http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kelle e_Santiago_-_Game_Developers_

Conference_2010_-_Day_1.jpg By Official GDC

p. 9 Two men http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kelle e_Santiago_-_Game_Developers_Conference

_2010_-_Day_1.jpg By Official GDC

p. 10. Patrick Norton & Veronica Belmont http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Patri

ck_Norton_Veronica_Belmont_Tekzilla.jpg By Tyler Howarth
Licensing & Attributions
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by: University of Central Arkansas, University of Arkansas at Little Rock & University of Kentucky and
Southern Illinois University & University of Kentucky. Located at
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334
 GROUP PRESENTATIONS

OBJECTIVES, OUTLINE, AND INTRODUCTION

Chapter 18: Group Presentations

By: Jennifer F. Wood, Ph.D.
Millersville University, Millersville, PA

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Identify the differences between a small group, a team, and a speaking group
• Evaluate your individual presentation skills
• Describe the four coordination elements of group presentations
• List the four common types of group presentations
• Apply chapter concepts for coordinating group communication
• Discuss techniques for coordinating a group assignment
• Plan speech organization for the intended audience
• Practice effective group delivery

Chapter Outline
• Introduction
• Communicating about group interaction
◦ Interaction Roles
◦ Decision Making
◦ Conflict Resolution
• Preparing all Parts of the Assignment
◦ Type of Group Presentations
◦ Establishing Clear Objectives
◦ Logistics for Group Members
◦ Agreed Outcomes & Debriefing
• Organizing for Your Audience
◦ Content
◦ Structure
◦ Packaging
◦ Human Element
• Delivering Your Presentation as One
• Conclusion
• Review Questions and Activities
• Glossary

335
 • References

Introduction
Imagine you have been assigned to a group for a project
requiring a presentation at the end. “Now is the busiest time
in my schedule and I do not have time to fit all these people
into it,” the voice in your head reminds you. Then you ask
the question: “Is there ever a non-busy time for assembling
a group together for a presentation?” These thoughts are a
part of a group presentation assignment. The combined
expertise of several individuals is becoming increasingly
necessary in many vocational (related to a specific
occupation) and avocational (outside a specific occupation)
presentations.

Individual commitment to a group effort—that is what

makes a team work, a company work, a society work, a
civilization work. – Vince Lombardi

Group presentations in business may range from a business team exchanging sales data; research and
development teams discussing business expansion ideas; to annual report presentations by boards of directors.
Also, the government, private, and public sectors have many committees that participate in briefings, conference
presentations, and other formal presentations. It is common for group presentations to be requested, created, and
delivered to bring together the expertise of several people in one presentation. Thus, the task of deciding the most
valuable information for audience members has become a coordination task involving several individuals. All
group members are responsible for coordinating things such as themes, strong support/evidence, and different
personalities and approaches in a specified time period. Coordination is defined in the dictionary as harmonious
combination or interaction, as of functions or parts. This chapter focuses on how the group, the speech
assignment, the audience, and the presentation design play a role in the harmonious combination of planning,
organization, and delivery for group presentations.

A small group of thoughtful people could change the world. Indeed, it’s the only thing that ever has.
– Margaret Mead

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336
 COMMUNICATION ABOUT GROUP INTERACTION

Just say the two words separately “group” and

“presentation.” Note which word comes first—group (the
process) and not presentation (the product). In group
presentations, there is often a tendency to put the focus on
“presentation.” Thus, the group interaction often falls short to
only include exchanging contact information and schedules
before diving straight into the presentation assignment.
Successful group work begins with something more than
simply exchanging contact information. It begins with
acknowledging the layers of “group interaction.” Small
group interaction is “the process by which three or more
members of a group exchange verbal and nonverbal
messages in an attempt to influence one another” (Tubbs,
1995, p. 5). Notice that the definition includes both verbal
and nonverbal messages. Thus, all your individual actions
and words, including silence or no response, communicate something to others. This is why group members are
disappointed when other members do not attend group meetings. Their absence from the group communicates a
nonverbal message.

Although “group” and “team” are often used interchangeably, the process of interaction between the two is
different. Beebe & Mottet (2010) suggest that we think of groups and teams as existing on a continuum. On one
end, a small group consists of three to fifteen people who share a common purpose, feel a sense of belonging to
the group, and exert influence on each other (Beebe & Masterson, 2009). On the other end, a team is a
coordinated group of people organized to work together to achieve a specific, common goal (Beebe & Masterson,
2009). Many—perhaps even most—vocational and avocational group members and size are determined by those
who requested the group presentation. Whereas, vocational and avocational teams are guided by defined
responsibilities for team members. For example, a public relations campaign team typically includes an account
executive, research director, creative director, media planner and copywriter/copy editor. This chapter will not use
the two terms interchangeably. It will focus on the interaction process of a group.

You may be most familiar with casual groups and social groups such as your fraternity or sorority or even your
neighborhood. However, there are many types of groups formed everyday including committees, educational
groups, problem-solving groups, task forces, work groups, and even virtual groups. In presentational speaking it is
important to view the group as a speaking group , which is a collection of three or more speakers who come
together to accomplish message content goals. The emphasis on “speakers” is critical because audience
members come to a presentation for the speaker content and not necessarily the group’s relationship. Speaking
groups require all members to discuss and gain an understanding of one another’s basic speaking skills related to
preparation, organization, and delivery. In short, all groups require individuals to build harmony and rapport with
one another but successful speaking groups are known more for their message continuity between speakers not
the harmony between group members.

Group coordination is key in building message continuity. At its most

basic level, group coordination focuses on group communication
communication, “the
process of creating meanings in the minds of others” (Tubbs, 1995, p.
186). Such coordination requires establishing shared meanings about
interaction roles, the decision-making process, and conflict resolution.
In short, the purpose of group coordination is to assist you in
establishing a communication plan.

For many people, the mental image that forms when they hear they
have been assigned to a group features some of their worst
experiences or a quick private slideshow of their best group
experience. Whether a negative or positive mental image, the image
may be accurate of the past, but may have nothing to do with the

337
current assignment. So when you first meet in your group, begin by coordinating an icebreaking conversation
about each other’s past experiences working in groups and more specifically experiences of working on previous
group presentations of the same nature. This icebreaking conversation can play a powerful role in your group,
establishing a communication plan for cohesiveness, or the tendency for a group to stick together and remain
unified in the pursuit of its instrumental objectives (Carron, Brawley, & Widmeyer, 1998) and minimizing social
loafing
loafing, the decreased effort of each individual member as the number of a group increases (Tubbs, 1995, p.
103). The conversation also will aid your group in a discussion concerning what communication vehicles and
content will have priority for this speaking group.

Review your work. You will find, if you are honest, that 90% of the trouble is traceable to loafing. – Ford
Frick

Interaction Roles
Next, remember that groups are cooperative and require each member to participate in different interactions.
Benne and Sheats (1948) proposed a classification of roles in three broad categories: (1) task roles, (2) group-
building and maintenance roles, and (3) individual roles. Your group will need to discuss how they will
communicate about and assign tasks related to preparation, organization and delivery (POD).

Task roles deal with a variety of logistics. Communication related to preparation include such things as guidelines
for electronic information retrieval, sharing research information and visual aid content, and the scheduling of
milestone appointments such as draft due dates and rehearsal times. Task roles emphasizing organization focus
on script development—cohesive language, transitions, and consistent graphics. It is important that your group
commits to not developing content independently. A group presentation is not an individual narrative. It is one
master presentation. Therefore, the group must plan on how they will identify and close gaps in content and
support material. Finally, task roles at the level of delivery necessitates that the group communicate about
assumptions, such as every individual is familiar with presentation software like PowerPoint or every individual is
a regular user of the videosharing website YouTube. Other logistical challenges associated with delivery include
planning the introduction of the group, where to stand, and equipment set up.

Leadership is the capacity to translate vision into reality. – Warren G. Bennis

Table 18.1 Leaders’ Responsibilities in Group Presentations

Help build and maintain group communication about:

• Familiarity with the topic
Preparation
• Comfort level with research in this specific content area
• Language and terminology barriers

Assist members in solidifying commitments to:

• A group meeting schedule
• Rehearsals
Organization
• Honest status updates (establish a group atmosphere where members can indicate
when they are behind; do not understand how to do something, or simply need a
deadline extension)

Let members self-disclose about:

• What types of presentations each member has done in the past
Delivery • Individual anxiety levels
• Successes, failures, and no experience in group presentations in a similar setting (this
may be related to different majors, topics, or modes of delivery)

338
In addition to task roles, group maintenance roles also play
a vital role in the group’s progress. Relationships within a
group must be built and maintained simply because they are
composed of individuals with different personalities, work
styles, expertise, and availability. Your job as a group is to
determine the best communication strategies for this
speaking group. The strategies should support and enhance
learning about and working with the differences. Although
time restraints may limit the sophistication and quantity of
your strategies, a communication plan for interaction roles
should not be skipped. The best place to start is by selecting
a group leader with the most appropriate leadership style to
help the group maintain credibility within the group, among
the audience, in the assignment and its assessment, and
during the delivery. Selection success hinges on everyone
being familiar with leadership styles. Thus, all group members should be aware of three small-group leadership
styles—highly directive, participatory, and negligent (Brilhart, Galanes & Adams, 2001). A highly directive
leadership style is where a leader uses an authoritarian method of dealing with group members. The participatory
leadership style centers around a designated leader who offers guidance, suggestions, listening, and concern for
members while also showing concern for completing the task. A negligent (or laissez-faire) leadership style is
characterized by a leader who offers little guidance or direction. The group leader may guide the communication
planning by first initiating a conversation about what communication media are accessible to group members.
Some group members may not have access to a smartphone, text capability or all social networking sites such as
Twitter, LinkedIn, and Facebook; and may not have consistent access to email or the Internet. For example, it is
not uncommon for a student in a class to have Internet access only during open lab or library hours. You should
not assume everyone wants to use text messaging or email. Finally, keep in mind that some individual schedules
or user-styles do not allow them to check email at the same daily frequency or dictate the same response style.
All members should be careful not to criticize, judge or insult nonusers, limited users, and even overusers of
technology. The focus of the conversation should be about commitment, that is, for this speaking group which
communication vehicle(s) will each group member commit to using with some frequency in order to meet the
group’s assignment. The gathering of contact information may be accomplished within the context of this
conversation. The group leader can facilitate communication about member experience in the areas of
presentation planning, organization, and delivery (see Table 18.1).

Table 18.2 Group Member Responsibilities in Presentations

Individually address questions such as:

• How do I prepare as an individual?
Preparation
• What is my experience with group work (limited, excessive, etc.)?
• What is my familiarity with participatory communication modes in this setting?

Keep the focus on yourself by asking:

Organization • What is my knowledge related to the specific assignment?
• What expertise do I have that can help the group within the time constraints?

Clearly think about:

• What degree of confidence do I need to develop about my own abilities?
• What do I need to do to develop an interesting presentation?
Delivery • What do I need to know about the audience to assess my comfort level?
• What increases or decreases speech anxiety?
• What do I need to do to forego a lengthy presentation and integrate simplicity?
• What might I need to do in terms of dress?

339
Although a group leader is beneficial, each group member
has a responsibility for his/her part of all interactions (refer to
Table 18.2). See yourself as a co-equal partner in the group
experience. Kelley (1992) suggests individuals be “skilled
followers” who engage in two critical activities: (1) they are
independent and critical thinkers, and (2) they actively
engage in the work, rather than waiting to be told what to do.

You can contribute best by being aware of and monitoring

your strengths and weakness and the effect they have on
group members. You will always have to apply and modify
your individual knowledge, skills, and techniques to be
appropriate for the different stages of group presentations.

Further, you will need to maintain ethical relationship

boundaries with group members as appropriate to your
interaction roles. Thus, when interacting as a member of a
new or returning group it is important to think about your familiarity with and use of participatory communication
modes such as a preparedness to listen, assertiveness, clear verbal and nonverbal communication, confidence
and empathy.

The great gift of human beings is that we have the power of empathy. – Meryl Streep

Decision-Making
Decision-making is not dictatorship. Plus, decision -making isn’t the sole responsibility of a group leader.
Decision-making is a group process of making choices among alternatives. In an individual presentation you
made a lot of decisions on your own. Now it is time to come together as a group to make decisions (see Table
18.3). When you think about group coordination, decision-making is primarily about setting protocols
protocols—mutually
agreed upon ways of interacting. As a group be very clear about how you will procedurally make decisions within
this speaking group; and how the group will make decisions that require assimilating large amounts of
information, exploring different ideas, or drawing on the many strands of experience represented among group
members.

Table 18.3 Most Common Types of Decisions

Either/Or:
Yes/No & Focus on whether a group Should we have handouts?
should do something or not:
• Should we pay for color copying?

Deciding between options:

• Should we use this inductive argument or that deductive
This-or-That: argument?
• Should we use an operational definition or a logical definition
to define this concept?

Decisions put on hold until after certain decisions are met:

Contingency: • Should we wait to determine visual aids until after we decide
on how much technical language we use?

340
 Table 18.3 Most Common Types of Decisions

• Should we wait to determine the binding for the written

document until after we know how many people will attend?

The group may have to make decisions about the flow of information among members, proposed solutions, the
quality of work, or even interpersonal relations among members. The goal is not to anticipate every possible
decision your group may encounter. The goal is to know how this speaking group will make decisions. Successful
principles to employ include group decisions always providing (1) a process for every group member’s opinion to
be heard within an explicit and articulated time period (deadlines are important); (2) a face-to-face voting method
(rather than electronic); and (3) a procedure for prioritizing a set of options, ranking them, and choosing the best
fit.

Table 18.4 DOs and DON’Ts of CONFLICT

• Be open to compromise
• Be willing to cooperate with others on their ideas
DOs: • Be willing to discuss both strengths and weaknesses
• Be willing to vote on disagreements
• Avoid unpleasant or undesirable group activities

• Dominate group conversation and/or assignments

• Sidetrack group meetings off the task at hand
DON’Ts:
• Fail to complete agreed upon tasks
• Destroy group harmony with attitudes about previous group experiences

Finally, each group member should remain flexible and learn how to accept newness, incompleteness, and how
not to blame others. Thus, choose to be aware of three things. First, some decisions come in increments. Second,
the amount of knowledge, understanding, and quality underlying a decision varies. Third, some things are
discovered en route to the group’s final outcome.

Too many problem-solving sessions become battlegrounds where decisions are made based on power
rather than intelligence. – Margaret J. Wheatley

Conflict Resolution
Perhaps the greatest interpersonal skill needed is the ability to work compatibly with others, regardless of whether
or not you like them personally (Lahiff & Penrose 1997). Just because you have worked in groups before does not
guarantee you have experienced all types of conflict. The conflict of ideas and conflict of feeling (personality
conflict) are most common among members. The causes of conflict are many. They include incompatible
personalities or value systems; competition for limited resources especially in a harsh economic climate;
inadequate communication; interdependent tasks (where one person cannot complete his or her task until others
have completed their work); organizational complexity and departmentalization; unreasonable or unclear policies,
standards or rules; time pressure; role ambiguity; change; and inequitable treatment (Kreitner & Kinicki 1995):
Foundational to successful group communication is each person’s willingness to abide by some simple do’s and
don’ts of conflict (see Table 18.4). Successful conflict resolution also involves developing a sound negotiating
strategy, which involves the overall approach you take when you exchange proposals and counterproposals with
another person when discussing a settlement to a conflict (Beebe & Mottet, 2010, p. 195). By articulating a
specific plan that addresses both conflict categories appropriately for this speaking group, group members gain a
feel for what it will mean to balance between actively listening, doing his/her fair share, and soliciting comments
throughout the process. The communication plan also may help your group reach consensus rather than engage

341
in groupthink, which refers to a faulty sense of agreement that occurs when group members seemingly agree but
they primarily want to avoid conflict (Beebe & Mottet, 2010, p. 239).

If everyone is thinking alike, then somebody isn’t thinking. – George S. Patton

Effective conflict management requires interpersonal and

communication competence and draws on group members’
active listening, assertiveness, empathy and clear
communication skills. Keep in mind that any conflict is easier
to create than resolve (deVito 1992). Overall group
coordination will play a role in helping you reflect on group
dynamics, plan for communication during group work,
reinforce relationships, and establish a unified commitment
and collaborative climate.

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PREPARING ALL PARTS OF THE ASSIGNMENT

Now it is time to think about the what of your presentation—the expected content. Many speaking groups are
derived from an invitation to speak, and inherent in the invitation many times is a prescribed
speaking assignment—or topic. In group presentations, you are working to coordinate one or two outcomes—
outcomes related to the content (product outcomes) and/or outcomes related to the group skills and participation
(process outcomes). Therefore, it is important to carefully review and outline the prescribed assignment of the
group before you get large quantities of data, spreadsheets, interview notes and other research materials.

342
Types of Group Presentations
A key component of a preparation plan is the type of group presentation. Not all group presentations require a
format of standing in front of an audience and presenting. According to Sprague (2005), there are four common
types of group presentations.

A structured argument in which participants speak for or against a pre-announced proposition is called a very brief
opening statements.

Finally, the symposium is a series of short speeches, usually informative, on various aspects of the same general
topic. Audience questions often follow (p. 318).

These four types of presentations, along with the traditional group presentation in front an audience or on-the-job
speaking, typically have pre-assigned parameters. Therefore, it is important that all group members are clear
about the assignment request.

Failure comes only when we forget our ideals and objectives and principles. – Jawaharlal Nehru

Establishing Clear Objectives

In order for the group to accurately summarize for themselves who is the audience, what is the situation/
occasion, and what supporting materials need to be located and selected, the group should establish clear
objectives about both the process and the product being assessed.

Assessment plays a central role in optimizing the quality of group interaction. Thus, it is important to be clear
whether the group is being assessed on product(s) or outcome(s) only or will the processes within the
group—such as equity of contribution, individual interaction with group members, and meeting deadlines—also be
assessed. Kowitz and Knutson (1980) argue that three dimensions for group evaluation include (1)
informational—dealing with the group’s designated tasks; (2) procedural—referring to the ways in which the group
coordinates its activities and communication; and (3) interpersonal—focusing on the relationships that exist
among members while the task is being accomplished. Groups without a pre-assigned assessment rubric may
use the three dimensions to effectively create a group evaluation instrument.

Table 18.5 Sample Product Assessment Guide:

• Did we edit and proofread to eliminate redundancy, grammatical, spelling and/or

Accuracy:
punctuation errors in all pieces including PowerPoint?

Approach: • Is the tone appropriate to the purpose, audience and content?

Clarity: • Is the central purpose clearly stated and maintained as the focal point?

Development: • Is the material arranged in a coherent and logical sequence?

Style: • Did we use action verbs, active voice and correct MLA or APA style?

The group should determine if the product includes both a written document and oral presentation. The written
document and oral presentation format may have been pre-assigned with an expectation behind the requested
informative and/or debate
debate. The proposition is worded so that one side has the burden of proof, and that same side

343
has the benefit of speaking first and last. Speakers assume an advocacy role and attempt to persuade the
audience, not each other.

The forum is essentially a question-and-answer session. One or more experts may be questioned by a panel of
other experts, journalists, and/or the audience.

A panel consists of a group of experts publicly discussing a topic among themselves. Individually prepared
speeches, if any, are limited to persuasive content. Although the two should complement each other, the
audience, message, and format for each should be clearly outlined. The group may create a product assessment
guide (see Table 18.5). Additionally, each group member should uniformly write down the purpose of the
assignment. You may think you can keep the purpose in your head without any problem. Yet the goal is for each
member to consistently have the same outcome in front of them. This will bring your research, writing and thinking
back to focus after engaging in a variety of resources or conversations.

Once the assignment has been coordinated in terms of the product and process objectives, type of presentation,
and logistics, it is important for the group to clearly write down the agreed outcomes. Agreed outcomes about the
product include a purpose statement that reflects an agreement with the prescribed assignment (i.e. “at the end of
our group presentation the audience will be informed or persuaded about the prescribed assignment”). It also
includes the key message or thesis to be developed through a presentation outline, a full-sentence outline of
virtually everything the speaker intends to say. The outline allows the speakers to test the structure, the logic, and
persuasive appeals in the speech (DiSanza & Legge, 2012, p. 131).

Failing to plan is planning to fail. – Alan Lakein

Logistics for Group Members

As a group, be very clear about the length of your
presentation and its preparation. The length of the
presentation refers to your time limit, and whether there is a
question and answer period involved. Assignment
preparation may or may not have a prescribed deadline. If
the assignment does not have a deadline, then set one as a
group. If there is a deadline, then the group begins by
creating a schedule from the final deadline. As a group,
create an action timetable explicitly listing all processes and
outputs, as well as communication update points.

As a group decide the best way to leave enough time at the

end to put all the pieces together and make sure everything
is complete. If there is a written document, it should be
completed prior to the oral presentation rather than at the
same time. As a group, realize not everyone may work off a physical calendar. Thus, do not hesitate to require
each member to write down all deadlines.Next, the group can strategically add meeting dates, times, and venues
to the action timetable. A meeting is a structured conversation among a small group of people who gather to
accomplish a specific task (Beebe & Mottet, 2010, p. 219). For group presentations, meetings do not always
include the entire group. So a schedule of who meets with whom and when is useful for planning work and
agendas. In addition, all meetings do not serve the same purpose. For example, informational meetings may be
called simply to update all group members; solicitation meetings are called to solicit opinions or request guidance
from group members; group-building meetings are designed to promote unity and cohesiveness among group
members; and problem-solving meetings result in making decisions or recommendations by the time the meeting
convenes.

Once the group is unified about the assignment objectives and time frame, it is vital to predetermine the type of
note-taking required of each group member (which may vary) and the variety of information exchange. The more
systematic a group is in these two areas, the more unified the process and the product. The system begins with
each group member writing down the message, specific purpose, and central ideas for the group presentation. If
these are still to be determined, then have each group member identify the areas of background information
needed and basic information gathering. Next, simply create a general format for note-taking— whether typed or
handwritten and what types of details should be included especially sources. Also with the increasing use of

344
electronic databases be very clear on when related articles should be forwarded to group members. The email
inbox flooded with PDF files is not always a welcome situation.

True genius resides in the capacity for evaluation of uncertain, hazardous, and conflicting information.
– Winston Churchill

The group should be clear on the explicit requirements for locating recent, relevant and audience-appropriate
source material for the presentation. All of this leads to the foundation of clearly defining the responsibilities of
each group member.. All tasks should be listed, given deadlines, and assigned people. A means for tracking the
progress of each task should be outlined. The group should be clear on what are individual, joint (involving more
than one group member), and entire group tasks. Throughout the entire process, all group members should be
supportive and helpful but should not offer to do other people’s work.
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ORGANIZING FOR YOUR AUDIENCE

In an earlier chapter, you learned about audience analysis. The analysis helps you create a profile. Organizing for
your audience relates to the how the gathered content can be best arranged for them. According to Patricia Fripp
(2011), a Hall of Fame keynote speaker and executive speech coach, any presentation can be intimidating but the
key is to remember “your goal is to present the most valuable information possible to the members of the
audience” (p. 16). Now what you think is most valuable and what the audience thinks is most valuable must be
coordinated because of differences in perception (the process by which we give meaning to our experience).
Therefore, organizing for your audience is focused on content, structure, packaging, and human element—not for
you, not for the assignment, but for the audience. A customized plan of organization will assist your group in
creating relevant messages that satisfy others’ personal needs and goals (Keller, 1983).

Act as if what you do makes a difference. It does. – William James

Content
Audience members are interested in your expertise that has been developed from solid research and preparation.

Audience members may have expectations about what foundational literature and key sources should be
contained within your presentation. Therefore as a group you need to go beyond providing a variety of supporting
material within your presentation to considering who will be present, levels of expertise and their expectations. In
general, organizing the content should be focused on usage, knowledge levels, and objectives. First, usage refers
to how audience members expect to use your presentational content which will help the group transform ideas
into audience-centered speech points. Second, knowledge level means the audience’s knowledge level about the
topic within the audience which assists the group in developing supporting material for the entire audience. Third,
the objectives are linked to how the content serves the audience’s needs and assists the group in being
intentional about helping the audience see the reason for their involvement and receive value for the time they
devoted to attend. Overall, the content is coordinated in a way that keeps at the forefront who the decision makers
are and what specifics they need to know, would be nice to know, and do not need to know.

Structure
Next professionally packaging a presentation for the audience deals with the structure or how you arrange points.
The structure takes into consideration a strong opening, logical order, relevant key points, conciseness, and use
of supplementary visual aids. In addition, the linking of points involves conversational language and the

345
appropriate use of acronyms and technical jargon for inclusion or exclusion. The focus is geared to the perception
of trustworthiness. Three strategic questions to answer include:
1. What qualities as a group will demonstrate your trustworthiness to this audience?
2. What content order needs to be achieved to give the consistent perception of fairness?
3. What content requires repeating and how should that be achieved—through comparisons, examples,
illustrations, etc.?

Packaging
The packaging of successful group presentations revolves around the type of relationship with the audience, the
division of time, and enthusiasm. An important dynamic of group presentations is for your group to know if
audience members will be required to give an internal presentation or briefing from your presentation. As a group,
know if you are packaging a one-time presentation, bidding for a long-term relationship, continuing a relationship
for offering expertise, or if the presentation is tied to internal pressures to performance appraisals. Such
knowledge will aid your group in developing talking points which can be re-presented with accuracy.

The type of presentation will help you divide the time for
your presentation. The majority of the time is always spent
on the body of the speech. A typical 30-minute speech might
be divided into four minutes for the introduction, ten minutes
for the body, and four minutes for the conclusion. The
remainder 12 minutes is for the audience to ask questions,
offer objections, or simply to become part of the discussion.
It is important to leave enough time for the audience to
contribute to the intellectual content. Therefore, always
design group presentations with the intent not to run out of
time before the audience can participate. All group
presentations should have enthusiasm. Group members
should be enthusiastic about the audience, message, and
occasion. Planned enthusiasm should play a role in the
creating the introduction, conclusion, and body of your
presentations. The consistent use of enthusiasm can be planned throughout the speech outline.

Human Element
Now it is time to focus on compatibility. As a group consider what will it take to get this audience to pay attention
to your presentation. Answer questions such as:
1. What can your group do to develop an introduction, transitions, and conclusions in a way to connect with
this audience?
2. What types of stories are common or relatable to this audience?
3. What are the attitudes, beliefs, and values of this audience?

What is success? I think it is a mixture of having a flair for the thing that you are doing; knowing that it is
not enough, that you have got to have hard work and a certain sense of purpose. – Margaret Thatcher

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346
 DELIVERING YOUR PRESENTATION AS ONE

By completing the other three levels of coordination, the group will have decided on the key message, thoroughly
researched the supporting material, developed logical conclusions, and created realistic recommendations.
Therefore all that stands between you and success is the actual presentation—the vehicle that carries the facts
and the ideas to your audience. Here it is important to recognize that if an assignment required both a written
document and an oral presentation then be sure one effectively complements the other. Although you can
reference the written document during the oral presentation, the oral presentation should be planned with the
thought in mind that not everyone is given the written document. Therefore, the oral presentation may be the only
content they receive. Since you will not always know who receives the written document, it is best to coordinate
the presentation as if no one has the full written document, which can serve as reference tool for gaining content
requiring further explanation or accessibility to detailed information. At the same time, if the entire audience is
provided written material keep in mind different decision makers may be in the audience. For example, the
creative director may be only interested in your creative concepts, whereas a vice president of finance may be
only interested in figures.

The presentation preparation primarily focuses on your group’s ability to develop a clear plan and execution of
delivery. A delivery plan includes essential elements such as (1) purpose, (2) oral content, (3) dress, (4) room, (5)
visuals, (6) delivery, and (7) rehearsal to ensure that the group presentation is both captivating and useful to your
audience, as well as worth their time.

Purpose
Group members should keep at the forefront of their minds
the answer to the question “Was the general purpose—to
inform or to persuade— achieved?” As a group, practice
keeping the purpose of the presentation explicit for the
audience. The purpose should never become hidden during
the presentation. Each group member’s awareness of the
purpose is important in maintaining the right kind of delivery.
It is possible to have great content for a presentation and
miss the entire purpose for the presentation. For example,
say your group had been asked to do a presentation about
Facebook and how it could be used in the financial industry.
You could take an informative or persuasive approach.
However, if the audience—banking professionals—attends a
presentation where the content is focused on Facebook
rather than having a focus on its use in the financial industry,
then the purpose was not achieved.

The delivery plan will help you evaluate if the purpose of the presentation is clearly aimed at the primary
audience. In addition, the group can determine when and how clearly they are articulating the explicit purpose of
the presentation. The purpose is complemented by a clear preview, the audience members’ awareness of what
decisions are at issue, and the audience’s desire to get important information first.

Oral Content
Up to this point the majority of the group’s engagement with the content has been in terms of reading and writing.
It is time to orally interact with the selected content to ensure that it has been developed for this audience,
properly structured, and clearly articulated. The delivery plan is a time to evaluate word choice, idioms, and
antidotes. When working with this content, make sure that it is suited to the purpose, and that the key message is
explicit so the audience remembers it well.

347
The introduction of group members, transitions, and internal summaries are all important elements of the delivery
plan. A proper introduction of group members and content will not happen automatically. Therefore, it is important
to practice it to determine if introductions fit better at the beginning of the presentation, if names need to be
emphasized through the wearing of name tags, or if names are better used as a part of transition content. The
use of name only may not be effective in some speaking situations. Therefore, it is important for the group to
determine what a proper group member introduction includes beyond the name.

Plus, be consistent; that is, determine if everyone is using first name only or full name, do they need to know your
positions, some background, or can you simply state it in a written format such as a team resume. Speech
content is not useful if the audience does not accept your credibility.

I dress to kill, but tastefully. – Freddie Mercury

Dress
As in all presentations, an awareness of your physical appearance is an important element in complementing the
content of your speech. Do not hesitate to talk about and practice appropriate dress as a group. It is important to
look like a group. Really consider defining a group’s speaking uniform by deciding how formal or informal the
dress code.

As a group, the overall question you want to be able to answer is: Did our dress provide an accurate first
impression not distracting from the content? So what kinds of things can be distracting? The most common are
colors, busy patterns, clothing that can be interpreted as seductive, and large or clinking jewelry. As a group
determine what type of dress is effective in coordinating your group’s credibility. It is important to take into
consideration cultural, occupational and regional norms. In addition, it is important to think about branding
choices. Often groups want to brand themselves for the audience. It is not necessary to mimic your audience. For
example, a sales presentation to cranberry association members may entice a group to wear red. However, the
cranberry association may not be the only sale your group needs to make so you will be forced to ask the
question: Will each sales presentation audience determine the color we accent in dress? In short, do not let the
speaking occasion brand you. Simply know what is considered professional for this presentation. You have spent
a lot of time on preparing the content for this audience so do not detract from it.

Facilities
It is not always feasible to practice your delivery in the actual room where you will deliver your speech. However,
it is extremely important that you actively plan your delivery for the room by recreating the speaking environment.
If prior access to the room is not available, then you will need to do your planning by asking a series of questions
of the presentation planner. Some common things to find out include the size of the room; if a projector is
available and its location within the room; is there a platform and/or a stationary lectern; is there a sound system
and how many microphones; where the group will be seated before being introduced; will the presentation be
recorded; what is the availability of the room in advance of the presentation; and what is the number of seats and
seating arrangement so the group can plan for the zone of interaction.

348
Visuals
The term visuals refers to both non-technology visual aids
(handouts, posters, charts, etc.) and presentation
technology. Visuals should not appear as though several
individuals made them but rather as uniform to the group’s
presentation. All visuals should blend smoothly into the
speech. All group members should be clear on what visuals
or documents were pre-requested (so you do not eliminate
them as unnecessary during rehearsal). Many times it is
better to simply project or display visuals. At other times,
visuals may need to be assembled in a presentation packet
for all audience members. Bohn & Jabusch (1982) suggest
that there are several researched-based reasons why visual
aids enhance presentations including (a) enhanced
understanding—helps audience comprehend what they hear
and see; (b) enhanced memory—serves as a visual
reinforcement; (c) enhanced organization—visually displays your organizational strategy; (d) enhanced
attention—grabs and maintains audience interest; and (e) enhanced sequencing—shows rather than describes.

Delivery
The four modes of delivery— memorized, impromptu,
manuscript, and extemporaneous—are all valuable in group
presentations. However, the most common mode of delivery
is extemporaneous. Earlier in the chapter, developing a
script was discussed. The step of transforming the script into
a delivery outline
outline—an abbreviated version of the preparation
outline (DiSanza & Legge, 2012)—is a significant part of
planning delivery. The ultimate goal is to figure out how the
group can be confident that the entire presentation stays
together and does not just exist in pieces. The delivery
outline may go as far as to stipulate vocal and gesture
instructions. The delivery outline is not created to be read
from, therefore, the group also should determine how
speaker notes will be used. The delivery outline should be
provided to every group member so everyone is familiar with the entire presentation. It is important to set up
contingency plans for who will present content if someone is absent on the day of the presentation— the
presenter who gets stuck in morning traffic or the professional who had a flight delay.

The key is for all group members to remain conversational in their delivery style. This may be best achieved by
utilizing effective delivery strategies such as appropriate gestures, movement and posture; appropriate facial
expressions including eye contact; and appropriate vocal delivery— articulation, dialect, pitch, pronunciation, rate,
and volume. Group members should evaluate each other on audibility and fluency.

One important key to success is self-confidence. An important key to self-confidence is preparation.

– Arthur Ashe

Rehearsal
Rehearsals are for the final polishing of your presentations. It is a time to solidify logistics of how many group
members are presenting, where they will stand, and the most appropriate transitions between each speaker.
Group members should grow more comfortable with each other through rehearsals. A key aspect of polishing
involves identifying gaps in content and gaining feedback on content (oral and visual), style, and delivery. The
rehearsals are good time to refine speaker notes and to practice the time limit. The number of scheduled
rehearsals is dependent on your group and the amount of preparation time provided. The most important element

349
for the group is to adapt their rehearsal timetable based on an honest evaluation of the speaking skills
represented within the group.

The only part of a group presentation that you may not be able to rehearse is responding to the actual audience
members’ questions and objections. However, you can anticipate the types of questions and practice a simple
strategy of how you will respond— repeating the question, stating who from the group will respond, and
answering succinctly. Four of the most common types of questions are follow-up questions; action-oriented
questions focused on what would you do if; hypothetical questions focused on different scenarios; and
information-seeking questions. A primary way to practice is to think of at least three questions you would like to
answer, prepare the answer, and practice it during rehearsal(s).
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CONCLUSION, REVIEW QUESTIONS, AND

ACTIVITIES

Conclusion
The foundation of a group presentation is constructed from all the guidelines you use in an individual presentation
coupled with additional strategies for working effectively with others. Group presentations primarily entail group
communication, planning, organization, and delivery. Effective groups communicate about interaction roles,
decision making, and conflict resolution. Such communication helps the group reflect on group dynamics,
customize communication for this speaking group, and establish a unified commitment and collaborative climate.

After a group receives an invitation to speak, they begin by establishing clear objectives related to the group
process and/or product. In addition, they direct their preparation by developing a unified understanding of the type
of presentation, logistics, and agreed outcomes and debriefing. Preparation is foundational in guiding group
research, writing, and thinking back to focus after engaging in a variety of resources or conversations.

350
The audience is at the core of the organizing content. A plan helps group members determine what to put in as
well as leave out of the selected content. The group members work to establish group credibility and
trustworthiness among their audience. In addition, the plan will assist the group in packaging for various types of
audience-centered presentations—one-time presentations; presentations bidding for a long-term relationship;
presentations continuing a relationship for offering expertise; or presentations tied to performance appraisals. The
plan guides the group in determining the most compatible words, narratives, and enthusiasm to support their
relevant messages.

Finally, presenting as one focuses on areas such as (1)

purpose, (2) oral content, (3) dress, (4) room, (5) visuals, (6)
delivery, and (7) rehearsal(s). The delivery plan allows the
group to collectively be aware of their own communication
and the communication of others. Also, the plan guides the
group in transforming a written script or preparation outline
into a delivery outline. Group members unify in elements of
vocal and bodily delivery and style. However, most
importantly together they identify gaps in content and gain
feedback to polish oral and visual content.

Remember “delivering a dynamic presentation is not rocket

science; however, it is a lot more complex than most people
realize” (Fripp, 2011, p. 16).

Review Questions
1. List and explain the four coordination elements.
2. Define the three types of interaction roles.
3. Describe the difference between a group, a team, and a speaking group.
4. List and explain a characteristic of the three small-group leadership styles.
5. Define a skilled follower.
6. What are the two most common categories of conflict?
7. Describe the difference between process and product assessment.
8. What are the four common types of group presentations?
9. Define relevant messages.

351
 Activities
1. In small groups of 3–4 people, create a presentation about a social media (Facebook, Twitter, music
downloads, LinkedIn, photosharing, etc.) for a particular industry.
2. Describe in your journal an instance when you were both successful and unsuccessful in using
participatory communication—participatory communication modes such as a preparedness to listen,
assertiveness, clear verbal and nonverbal communication, confidence and empathy.
3. Before two focus groups, deliver a two-minute group presentation of a topic of your choice to a
vocational audience and one to an avocational audience. Discuss the differences.

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Project: Public Speaking Project.
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BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

GLOSSARY AND REFERENCES

Glossary

TERM DEFINITION

Avocational
Presentations outside of a specific occupation in which one engages.
Presentations

The tendency for a group to stick together and remain unified in the pursuit of its
Cohesiveness
instrumental objectives.

A structured argument in which participants speak for or against a pre-announced

proposition. The proposition is worded so that one side has the burden of proof, and that
Debate
same side has the benefit of speaking first and last. Speakers assume an advocacy role and
attempt to persuade the audience, not each other.

Delivery
An abbreviated version of the preparation outline.
Outline

Essentially a question-and-answer format. One or more experts may be questioned by a

Forum
panel of other experts, journalists, and/or the audience.

Group
The process of creating meanings in the minds of others.
Communication

A faulty sense of agreement that occurs when group members seemingly agree but they
Groupthink
primarily want to avoid conflict.

A structured conversation among a small group of people who gather to accomplish a

Meeting
specific task.

352
 Negotiating The overall approach you take when you exchange proposals and counterproposals with
Strategy another person when discussing a settlement to a conflict.

A group of experts publicly discussing a topic among themselves. Individually prepared

Panel
speeches, if any, are limited to very brief opening statements.

Preparation A full-sentence outline of virtually everything the speaker intends to say. It allows speakers
Outline to test the structure, the logic, and persuasive appeals in the speech.

Protocols Mutually agreed upon ways of interacting.

Consists of three to fifteen people who share a common purpose, feel a sense of belonging
Small Group
to the group, and exert influence on each other.

Small Group The process by which three or more members of a group exchange verbal and nonverbal
Interaction messages in an attempt to influence one another.

Social Loafing The decreased effort of each individual member as the number of a group increases.

Speaking A collection of three or more speakers who come together to accomplish pre-assigned
Group message content goals.

A series of short speeches, usually informative, on various aspects of the same general
Symposium
topic. Audience questions often follow.

A coordinated group of people organized to work together to achieve a specific, common

Team
goal.

Vocational
Presentations related to a specific occupation.
Presentations

References
Beebe, S.A. & Masterson, J.T. (2009). Communicating in small groups: Principles and practices (9th edition).
Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Beebe, S.A.& Mottet, T.P. (2010). Business and professional communication: Principles and skills for leadership.
Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Benne, K.D. & Sheats, P. (1948) . Functional roles of group members. Journal of Social Issues 4, 41-49.

Bohn, E. & Jabusch, D. (1982). The effect of four methods of instruction on the use of visual aids in speeches.
The Western Journal of Speech Communication, 46, 253-265.

Brilhart, J.K., Galanes, G.J., & Adams, K. (2001). Effective group discussions: Theory and practice (10th edition).
New York: McGraw-Hill.

Carron, A. V., Brawley, L. R., & Widmeyer, N. W. (1998). The measurement of cohesiveness in sports groups. In
J. L. Duda (Ed.), Advances in sport and exercise psychology measurement. Morgantown, WV: Fitness
Information Technology

deVito, J. 1992, The interpersonal communication handbook (6th edition). New York: Harper Collins.

Fripp. P. (2011). 9 timely tips for pre-presentation preparation. American Salesman, 56, 13-16.

Keller, J.M. (1983). Motivational design of instruction. In C.M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories: An
overview of their current status (pp. 383-434). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

353
Kelley, R.E. (1992). The power of followership: How to create leaders that people want to follow and followers
who lead themselves. New York: Doubleday/Currency.

Kowitz, A.C. & Knutson., T.J. (1980). Decision making in small groups: The search for alternatives. New York:
Allyn and Bacon.

Kreitner, R. & Kinicki, A. (1995). Organizational behaviour (3rd edition). Chicago: Irwin.

Lahiff, J. & Penrose, J. 1997, Business communication: Strategies and skills (5th edition). Princeton, NJ: Prentice
Hall.

Sprague, J. & Stuart D. (2005). The speaker’s handbook (7th edition). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.

Tubbs, S. L. (1995). A systematic approach to small group interaction (5th edition). New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Photo Credits
p. 1 World Diversity Leadership Summit by the United States Navy http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:US_Navy_110907-N-PO203-063_Dr.
_Anthony_Junior,_left,_education_programs_manager_for_the_Office_of_Naval_Research,_moderates_a_panel_discussion_
duri.jpg

p. 2 Panel Discussion at LCC by Alyssalevantinecenter http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/

File:Panel_Discussion_at_the_LCC..jpg

p. 5 Science, Faith and Technology Panel Discussion by David Bruce http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/

File:Panel_Discussion_Close-up,_Science,_Faith,_and_Technology.jpg

p. 6 EMP Sound and Vision Panel by Joe Mabel http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/

File:EMP_Sound_%26_Vision_panel_01.jpg

p. 7 Design Management Institute Conference by Wiki4des http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/

File:DMI_conference.jpg

p. 8 International Relief and Development Panel by Crespo Events, LLC http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/

File:IRD_Sudan_Panel_with_Kojo_Nnamdi.jpg

p. 11 German Panel Discussion by Heinrich Boll Stiftung http://www.flickr.com/photos/boellstiftung/6886589855/

in/photostream

p. 11 United Nations Conference Bali – by Oxfam International http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/

File:Bali_conference_inside.jpg
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354
 THE ORIGINS OF PUBLIC SPEAKING

OBJECTIVES, OUTLINE, AND INTRODUCTION

Chapter 2: Origins of Public Speaking

By: Peter A. DeCaro, Ph.D.
University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Identify the historical events that led up to democracy and recognize persuasion and public speaking
as art forms in Athens, Greece.
• Describe the nature of public speaking in Athens during the 5th century B.C. and the role it played in
a democratic society.
• Apply Plato’s approach to dialectics and logic.
• Explain Aristotle’s descriptions of rhetoric and public speaking.
• Describe the Roman Republic’s adoption of rhetoric to public speaking.
• Elucidate Cicero’s influence on the Roman Republic and public speaking.
• Describe the relevance of Quintillion’s influence on the Roman Empire, rhetoric, and public speaking.
• Recognize the impact that St. Augustine, Christianity, and the Middle Ages had on rhetoric and public
speaking.
• Clarify the roles that the Renaissance, Rationalism, and the Humanists had on the rebirth of rhetoric
and public speaking.
• Explain the role that Classical rhetoric and the advent of psychology in the 18th and 19th centuries,
known as the Modern Period, had on public speaking.
• Describe the influence of the Elocutionary Movement on public speaking.
• Describe the restoration of public speaking in the United States.

CHAPTER OUTLINE
• Introduction
• Ancient Greece
◦ The Rise of Democracy
◦ The Nature of Rhetoric
◦ Dialectics and Logic
◦ The Rhetorical Approach
• The Roman Republic’s Adoption of Rhetoric
◦ Cicero’s Influence
◦ Quintillion’s Influence
• The Middle Ages

355
 ◦ St. Augustine
◦ Christianity
• The Renaissance
◦ The Humanists
◦ The Rationalists
• The Modern Period
◦ The Epistemological Tradition
◦ The Belles Lettres Movement
◦ The Elocutionary Movement
• Conclusion
• Review Questions and Activities
• Glossary
• References

Introduction
The art of public speaking was practiced long before the
Greeks wrote about it in their treatises more than 2,500
years ago. For Greek men, it was a way of life, a way of
being, just like football and baseball are to us today. We
attribute today’s field of communication to the ancient
Greeks because they were the first to systematize the art
of public speaking, which they called “rhetoric.”

The art, or use of public speaking, is quite different today

than when it was practiced by the Greeks, and then the
Romans. Theirs was a time that didn’t have
multimedia—television, radio, internet, movies,
newspapers, and the like—for getting their messages to
the masses. Instead, the Greeks and Romans informed,
praised, or persuaded people the old fashion
way—through discourse—otherwise known as the oral “Parthenon” by Lisa Schreiber. CC-BY-NC-ND.
tradition. That meant speaking face to face with their
audience.

What we know today as the art of public speaking has undergone a number of changes since the days of
Pericles, Cicero, and Quintilian. Public speaking brought us through the Middle Ages, experienced a rebirth as a
result of the Renaissance, redefined to conquer and explain the known and unknown, interpreted to perform
theatrics, and finally, along this historical path from the ancient Greeks and Romans, the art of public speaking
was reinvented to accommodate the electronic age of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.

So what is public speaking? Has it really changed since the days of the Greeks and Romans, St. Augustine, and
Descartes? No, the concept of public speaking hasn’t changed; it has basically remained the same. However, as
the field of communication transitioned from one era to another, so did the understanding of public speaking.

This chapter is meant to give you, the reader, an accurate and detailed history of how the art of public speaking
came into existence beginning with the ancient Greeks and Romans. We will learn how the Greeks came to
develop the art and then were followed by the Romans who codified and refined public speaking. After the fall of
the Roman Empire, we will see how public speaking was kept alive by just a few individuals until the
Renaissance, when documents, or extants (which are treatises and writings that survived history), were
discovered in Italy, and the approaches, both scientific and Humanistic, that defined the art of public speaking
came about. Finally, we visit the latter part of the 19th and 20th centuries to understand contemporary public
speaking.

God, that all-powerful Creator of nature and architect of the world, has impressed man with no
character so proper to distinguish him from other animals, as by the faculty of speech. – Quintilian

356
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Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives

ANCIENT GREECE

The Rise of Democracy

In order to understand what contemporary public
speaking is, we first must understand the genesis of
public speaking. We begin with the Greeks and
rhetoric. Rhetoric
Rhetoric, as defined by Aristotle, is the
“faculty of discovering in the particular case all the
available means of persuasion.” ( (Note: Kennedy, G.
(1963). The Art of Persuasion in Greece. Princeton:
University Press. p. 19)) For the Greeks, rhetoric, or
the art of public speaking, was first and foremost a
means to persuade. Greek society relied on oral
expression, which also included the ability to inform
and give speeches of praise, known then as
epideictic (to praise or blame someone) speeches.
The ability to practice rhetoric in a public forum was a
direct result of generations of change in the governing
structures of Attica (a peninsula jutting into the
Aegean Sea), with the city of Athens located at its “Biblioteca” by queulat00. CC-BY.
center. The citizens of Athens were known as
Athenians, and were among the most prosperous of people in the Mediterranean region.

Speech is the mirror of action. – Solon

It was in the Homeric Period, also known as “The Age of Homer,” between 850 B.C. and 650 B.C., that an
evolution in forms of government from monarchy to oligarchy, and tyranny to eventual democracy, began in
ancient Greece. Homer was the major figure of ancient Greek literature and the author of the earliest epic poems,
the Iliad and the Odyssey. In the year 630 B.C., the last tyrant of Attica, Ceylon, seized the Acropolis, which was
the seat of government in Athens, and established himself as the ruler of all Attica. He didn’t rule for long. Ceylon
was overthrown within weeks by farmers and heavily armed foot soldiers known as hoplites. Many of Ceylon’s
followers were killed, and the few that escaped death fled into the mountains. Thus, Athenian democracy was
born.

In 621 B.C., the citizens of Athens commissioned Draco

Draco, who was an elder citizen considered to be the wisest of
the Greeks, to sort their laws into an organized system known as codification, because until that time, they simply
remained an oral form of custom and tradition and weren’t written like the laws of today. Draco was concerned
only with criminal offenses, which until this time had been settled through blood feud (an eye-for-an-eye type of
revenge between families) or rulings by the King. Draco established courts, complete with juries, to hear cases of
homicide, assault, and robbery. By conforming the codes for criminal offenses into standards of practice, Draco
began the tradition of law, where cases were decided on clearly enunciated crimes and penalties determined by
statute rather than by the whims of the nobility. His laws helped constitute a surge in Athenian democracy.

In 593 B.C. Draco’s laws were reformed by Solon, an Athenian legislator, who introduced the first form of popular
democracy into Athens. Solon’s courts became the model for the Romans and centuries later for England and
America. Murphy and Katula argued: “It is with Solon’s reforms that we mark the unalterable impulse toward
popular government in western civilization.” ( (Note: Murphy James J. and Katula, R.A. (1995). A Synoptic History

357
of Classical Rhetoric. 2nd ed. Davis: Ca. Hermagoras Press.)) The Athenian period of democratization included
legislative as well as judicial reform.

It was during the reign of Pericles

Pericles, from 461 B.C. to 429 B.C., that Athens achieved its greatest glory. Some of
these accomplishments included the installation of a pure democracy to maintain, a liberalized judicial system to
include poor citizens so that they could serve on juries, and the establishment of a popular legislative assembly to
review annually all laws. In addition, he established the right for any Athenian citizen to propose or oppose a law
during assembly. Pericles’ achievements far exceeded those mentioned. Because of his efforts, Athens became
the crossroads of the world—the center of western civilization—and with it came the need for public speaking.

“Persuasion is the civilized substitute for harsh authority

and ruthless force,” wrote R.T. Oliver. ( (Note: Oliver, R.T.
(1950). Persuasive Speaking. New York: Longmans,
Green and Co. p.1)) Oliver said that the recipients of any
persuasive discourse must feel free to make a choice. In a
free society it is persuasion that decides rules, determines
behavior,and acts as the governing agent in human
physical and mental activities. In every free society
individuals are continuously attempting to change the
thoughts and/or actions of others. It is a fundamental
concept of a free society. Ian Harvey suggested that the
technique of persuasion is the technique of persuading
free people to a pattern of life; and persuasion is the only
possible means of combining freedom and order. ( (Note:
Harvey, I. (1951). The Technique of Persuasion. London:
The Falcon Press.)) That combination successfully
achieved is the solution to the overriding problems of our “Discurso Funebre Pericles” by Philipp Foltz. Public domain.
time. Rhetoric (persuasion), public speaking and
democracy are inextricable. As long as there is rhetoric, and public speaking to deliver that message, there will
exist democracy; and as long as there is democracy, there will exist rhetoric and public speaking.

I believe that the will of the people is resolved by a strong leadership. Even in a democratic society,
events depend on a strong leadership with a strong power of persuasion, and not on the opinion of the
masses. – Yitzhak Shamir

The Nature of Rhetoric

Pericles’ democracy established the need for training in public speaking. Greek
assemblies debated old and new laws on a yearly basis. The courtrooms that Solon
reformed now bristled with litigation. Pericles’ juries numbered between 500 and
2,000 people, so speaking at a public trial was similar to speaking at a public
meeting. And to speak at a legislative assembly required serious, highly developed,
and refined debate, because at stake generally were issues of peace and war.
Murphy and Katula stated that the Athenian citizens realized that their very future
often depended on their ability to speak persuasively. ( (Note: Murphy and Katula
1995)) Public speaking was an Olympic event where the winner received an olive
wreath and was paraded through his town like a hero. Thus, Athens became a city of
words, a city dominated by the orator. Athens witnessed the birth of what we know
today as rhetoric.

To say that rhetoric played an important role in Greek and Roman life would be an
understatement. The significance of rhetoric and oratory was evident in Greek and
Roman education. George Kennedy ( (Note: Kennedy, G. (1963). The Art of
Persuasion in Greece. Princeton: University Press.)) noted that rhetoric played the “Socrates” by Coyau. Coyau /
central role in ancient education. At about the age of fourteen, (only) boys were sent Wikimedia Commons / CC-
to the school of the rhetorician for theoretical instruction in public speaking, which BY-SA-3.0.
was an important part of the teaching of the sophists. Public speaking was basic to
the educational system of Isocrates (the most famous of the sophists); and it was even taught by Aristotle.” (
(Note: Kennedy 1963, p. 7))

358
Dialectics and Logic
It is important to note that rhetoric and oratory are not the same, although we use rhetoric and oratory
synonymously; nor are rhetoric and dialectic the same. Zeno of Elea (5th century B.C.), a Greek mathematician
and philosopher of the Eleatic school, is considered to be the inventor of dialectical reasoning. However, it is
Plato, another Greek philosopher and teacher of Aristotle, and not Socrates, that we attribute the popularity of
dialectical reasoning. Dialectic can be defined as a debate intended to resolve a conflict between two
contradictory (or polar opposites), or apparently contradictory ideas or elements logically, establishing truths on
both sides rather than disproving one argument. Both rhetoric and dialectic are forms of critical analysis.

Among the most significant thinkers of the fifth century B.C. were the traveling lecturers known as sophists
sophists. They
were primarily teachers of political excellence who dealt with practical and immediate issues of the day, and
whose investigations led in many instances to a philosophical relativism
relativism. Unlike Socrates and Plato, the sophists
believed that absolute truth was unknowable and perhaps nonexistent, especially in the sphere of forensics and
political life, where no universal principles could be accepted. Courses of action had to be presented in
persuasive fashion. Unlike the sophists, Socrates taught that truth was absolute and knowable and that a clear
distinction should be made between dialectic, the question and answer method of obtaining the one correct
answer, and rhetoric, which does not seem interested in the universal validity of the answer but only in its
persuasiveness for the moment. Plato developed this criticism of rhetoric to such an extent that he is the most
famous and most thorough-going of the enemies of rhetoric. Plato preferred the philosophical method of formal
inquiry known as dialectic.

In making a speech one must study three points: first, the means of producing persuasion; second, the
language; third, the proper arrangement of the various parts of the speech. – Aristotle

The Rhetorical Approach

Aristotle wrote that rhetoric is the faculty of discovering in the particular
case all the available means of persuasion. He cited four uses of
rhetoric: (1) by it truth and justice maintain their natural superiority; (2)
it is suited to popular audiences, since they cannot follow scientific
demonstration; (3) it teaches us to see both sides of an issue, and to
refute unfair arguments; and (4) it is a means of self-defense. For
Aristotle, rhetoric is the process of developing a persuasive argument,
and oratory is the process of delivering that argument. He stated that
the “authors of ‘Arts of Speaking’ have built up but a small portion of
the art of rhetoric; because this art consists of proofs alone—all else is
but accessory. Yet these writers say nothing of enthymemes, the very
body and substance of persuasion.” ( (Note: (Book 1, p. 1)))

Aristotle said that rhetoric has no special subject-matter; that is, it isn’t
limited to particular topics and nothing else. He claimed that certain
forms of persuasion come from outside and do not belong to the art
itself. This refers to, for example, witnesses, forced confessions, and
contracts that Aristotle said are external to the art of speaking. He
considered these to be non-artistic proofs. Aristotle identified what he
considered to be artistic proofs which must be supplied by the
speaker’s invention (the “faculty of discovering” that Aristotle used in
his definition of rhetoric); and these artistic means of persuasion are “The School of Athens” by Raphael. Public
threefold. They consist in (1) evincing through the speech a personal domain.
character that will win the confidence of the listener; (2) engaging the
listener’s emotions; and (3) proving a truth, real or apparent, by argument. Aristotle concluded that the mastery of
the art, then, called for (1) the power of logical reasoning (logos); a knowledge of character (ethos); and a
knowledge of the emotions (pathos).

In summary, Plato had opposed rhetoric to dialectic; Aristotle compared the two: both have to do with things
which are within the field of knowledge of all men and are not part of any specialized science. They do not differ in

359
nature, but in subject and form: dialectic is primarily philosophical, rhetoric political; dialectic consists of question
and answer, rhetoric of a set speech. Both can be reduced to a system and thus are properly called “art.”

Rhetoric is the art of ruling the minds of men. – Plato

Aristotle became the primary source of all later rhetorical theory. Eventually, the dispute between rhetoric and
philosophy in the time of Aristotle had ended in a compromise in which philosophy accepted rhetoric as a means
to a goal. The rhetoric of not only Cicero and Quintilian, but of the Middle Ages, of the Renaissance, and of
modern times, is basically Aristotelian.
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC'S ADOPTION OF

RHETORIC

As Athens declined in power, a new force emerged, the Roman Republic. The Senate was the only permanent
governing body and the only body where debate was possible. In order to debate, one had to know the
persuasive art of rhetoric and oratory, or public speaking.

Greek rhetoric appeared in republican Rome in the middle

of the second century B.C. The teachers of rhetoric were
Greek, and they taught in both Greek and Latin. Eventually
Roman teachers were produced. The remarkable thing
about Roman rhetorical theory, wrote Murphy and Katula, (
(Note: Murphy James J. and Katula, R.A. (1995). A
Synoptic History of Classical Rhetoric. 2nd ed. Davis: Ca.
Hermagoras Press.)) is that it appeared for the first time in
its fullest form around 90 B.C., with very little direct
evidence as to how it developed into its completed form.
Sometime after Aristotle, writers refined and identified the
subject of rhetoric into five parts—Invention, Arrangement,
Style, Memory, and Delivery. These five canons are still a
“Cicero Denounces Catiline” by Cesare Maccari. Public
part of public speaking in education today. Two Romans
domain.
stand out as quintessential figures of Roman rhetoric,
Cicero and Quintilian.

Cicero’s Influence
Marcus Tullius Cicero was born on January 3, 106 BC and was murdered on December 7, 43 BC. His life
coincided with the decline and fall of the Roman Republic, and he was an important participant in many of the
significant political events of his time. He is considered to be the greatest of the Roman orators, and was, among
other things, a lawyer, politician, and philosopher.

In Cicero’s Rome the government eventually came under the control of a well-trained ruling class. Legal training
became an integral part of this ruling class. Roman rhetoric provided rules for all forms of oratory; however, legal
speaking became the primary emphasis of textbooks.

360
Cicero is noted for writing the De Inventione when he was about twenty years old. It is important because it gives
us insight into the general nature of rhetorical instruction in the first century B.C. And later in life, as a more
mature individual, he wrote the De Oratore, which he compared and contrasted to the De Inventione. Cicero’s
contributions to the theory of oral discourse included the belief that the orator must have a firm foundation of
general knowledge. Cicero believed that the perfect orator should be able to speak wisely and eloquently on any
subject with a dignified, restrained delivery. Corbett wrote that “Cicero felt that the perfect orator had to be
conversant with many subjects. In order to invent his arguments, the perfect orator must have a command of a
wide range of knowledge.” ( (Note: Corbett, E.P.J. (1965). Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student. New York:
Oxford University Press. p.542)) Cicero despised the shallowness of orators who depended exclusively on perfect
diction and elegant words that lacked substance. His ideal person was the philosopher-statesman-learned orator
who used rhetoric to mold public opinion.

It is not by muscle, speed, or physical dexterity that great things are achieved, but by reflection, force of
character, and judgment. – Marcus Tullius Cicero

Cicero firmly held that oratory was more than legal pleadings or a school subject. Cicero considered oratory to be
the highest form of intellectual activity and an instrument indispensable for the welfare of the state. In addition, he
combined the three functions of the orator to the three levels of style. He was able to provide his colleagues with a
broad interpretation of Atticism, and he revived the best of the Greek theoreticians and practitioners of oratory. It
can be said that Cicero was an idealist. As a student of Greek rhetoric, he encouraged his contemporaries to
practice the same ideals, ethics and standards of the past. His primary focus was to adapt Hellenic (ancient
Greece) doctrine to the needs of Rome. During Cicero’s time, Rome had become a place where the free
expression of ideas was no longer tolerated. The government had been corrupted.

Quintilian’s Influence
Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (A.D. 35–95) was a celebrated orator,
rhetorician, Latin teacher and writer who promoted rhetorical theory
from ancient Greece and from the height of Roman rhetoric. His
work on rhetoric, the Institutio Oratoria, is an exhaustive volume of
twelve books and was a major contribution to educational theory
and literary criticism. Many later rhetoricians, especially from the
Renaissance, derived their rhetorical theory directly from this text.

The mind is exercised by the variety and multiplicity of the

subject matter, while the character is molded by the
contemplation of virtue and vice. – Quintilian

During the hundred years plus which elapsed between the death of
Cicero and the birth of Quintilian, education had vastly spread all
over the Roman Empire, with rhetoric as the most important part of
education. But by Quintilian’s time ( (Note: Gwynn, Aubrey. Roman
Education from Cicero to Quintilian. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1926.)), the popular trend in oratory was not rhetoric in the
traditional sense, rather it was called “silver Latin,” a style that
favored ornate embellishment over clarity and precision. During this
time rhetoric was primarily composed of three aspects: the
theoretical (contemplating new rhetorical methods), the educational “Quintillian” by unknown. Public domain.
(teaching students the five canons), and the practical (courtroom
and political speeches).

Quintilian’s Institutio Oratoria may be read as a reaction against this trend; it advocated a return to simpler and
clearer language. Gwynn wrote that Quintilian adopted Cicero’s oratory prowess as the model for this return to
rhetorical tradition; because during the previous century, Cicero’s far more concise style was the standard. (
(Note: Gwynn 1926)) Quintilian disliked the excessive ornamentation popular in the oratory style of his
contemporaries (silver Latin). Quintilian believed that deviating from natural language and the natural order of
thought in pursuit of an over-elaborate style created confusion in both the orator and his audience.

361
Much of this work dealt with the technical aspects of rhetoric and the Institutio Oratoria stood—along with
Aristotle’s Rhetoric and Cicero’s writing—as one of the ancient world’s greatest works on rhetoric. According to
Barrett, ( (Note: Barrett, H. (1987). The Sophists: Rhetoric, Democracy, and Plato’s Idea of Sophistry. Novato,
CA; Chandler & Sharp Publishers.)) he organized the practice of oratory into five canons: inventio (discovery of
arguments), dispositio (arrangement of arguments), elocutio (expression or style), memoria (memorization), and
pronuntiatio (delivery). This thorough presentation reflects his extensive experience as an orator and teacher, and
in many ways the work can be seen as the culmination of Greek and Roman rhetorical theory.

Quintilian emphasized the value of rhetoric as a moral force in the community. “My aim,” said Quintilian, “is the
education of the perfect orator.” ( (Note: Quintilian. (1987). Carbondale: Illinois University Press. "Revised and
enlarged version of On the early education of the citizen-orator, published by Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1965." I.
Pref. 8)) Since the function of the orator is to advance the cause of truth and good government, Quintilian said he
must by definition be a good man morally and not just an effective speaker. According to Gwynn this was a
revolutionary doctrine in the development of rhetoric: Aristotle saw rhetoric as morally neutral, a human tool
whose moral character resided in the speaker not the art. ( (Note: Gwynn 1926)) Quintilian saw rhetoric as a
means for a better self- governing society; to make moral goodness integral to oratory.

How does Quintilian’s perspective on rhetoric compare to Plato, Aristotle, and Cicero? Plato defined rhetoric as a
philosophy rather than an art, an unnecessary tool. Plato was concerned more with the truth than Quintilian, while
Aristotle believed that rhetoric was “finding the available means of persuasion.” Quintilian challenged this
definition because he felt that Aristotle had omitted the fact that anyone, not just the learned, can persuade. To
Quintilian, rhetoric was “the good man speaking well.” ( (Note: Honeycutt, L. (2007).
http://honeyl.public.iastate.edu/quintilian/index.html))

Quintilian’s system of rhetorical education aimed at the creation of

the ideal Roman orator: a virtuous, efficient, courageous, eloquent
man. His goal was to prepare an orator-philosopher-statesman who
could combine wisdom with persuasion for the sake of regulating the
state. It was this insistence on the intellectual and moral training of
the aspiring orator that made Cicero and Quintilian the two most
potent classical influences on rhetorical education in England and
America.

From the death of Quintilian (about A.D. 100) until the fall of the
Roman Empire (A.D. 410), very little was contributed to the rhetorical
doctrine. A Greek cultural movement in the second and third
centuries A.D. (although some sources place this movement during
the fourth and fifth centuries A.D.) called the “Second Sophistic,” was
centered in Athens. ( (Note: Barrett, H. (1987). The Sophists:
Rhetoric, Democracy, and Plato’s Idea of Sophistry. Novato, CA;
Chandler & Sharp Publishers.)) However, the art of oratory focused
more on excessive performance (delivery) and professional speech
making rather than the art of intellectual development. There isn’t a
total gap between Quintilian and medieval rhetoric. This period
produced works by Victorinus, who wrote a systematic commentary “Title page of Quintilian’s Institutio oratoria” by
on Cicero’s rhetoric, Aquila Romanus, Fortunatianus, and Sulpitius Aristeas. Public domain.
Victor. They are mentioned because they reflect the type of rhetorical
education common to the third and fourth centuries and provide a bridge between classical and medieval rhetoric.
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362
 THE MIDDLE AGES

A thing is not necessarily true because badly uttered, nor false because spoken magnificently. – Saint
Augustine

St. Augustine
The Middle Ages (400–1400 A.D.) followed the Second Sophistic
movement, wrote Foss, ( (Note: Foss, S.K.; Foss, K.A.; Trapp, R. (1991).
Contemporary Perspectives on Rhetoric. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland
Press.)) and during this period, rhetoric became aligned with preaching,
letter writing, and education. As Christianity grew in power, rhetoric was
condemned as a pagan art; many Christians believed that the rhetorical
ideas expressed by the pagans of classical Greece and Rome should not
be studied and that one’s belief in Christian truth brought with it the ability
to communicate that truth effectively. St. Augustine had been a teacher of
rhetoric before converting to Christianity in A.D. 386, and is considered to
be the only major thinker on rhetoric associated with the Middle Ages.
Rhetoric played a role in education in the Middle Ages as one of the three
great liberal arts. Along with logic and grammar, rhetoric is considered
part of the trivium of learning, similar in function to the West’s three R’s of
reading, writing and arithmetic today.

Christianity
The clearest bridge to the Middle Ages, according to Murphy and Katula, (
(Note: Murphy James J. and Katula, R.A. (1995). A Synoptic History of
Classical Rhetoric. 2nd ed. Davis: Ca. Hermagoras Press.)) is found in the De doctrina christiana of Saint
Augustine (354–430 A.D.). Augustine divided his work into four books. The first three deal with “sign,” or “that
which is used to signify something else.” ( (Note: Robertson, D.W. (1958). Saint Augustine on Christian Doctrine.
New York: Library of Liberal Arts.)) For example, language was for Augustine a set of conventional signs which
human beings agree to show each other to convey ideas and feelings. He posited that the world itself is a sign of
God. Augustine argued that human beings needed to know the nature of signs in order to understand the
language of the Bible, and then needed to understand rhetoric in order to explain the Christian message, and then
teach it to others. He believed every Christian was obligated to spread Christ’s message (e.g. Matthew 18:20),
thus, rhetoric became an obligation to every Christian.

His influence prevailed, and the Christian Church adopted the Ciceronian rhetoric as a guide to preachers. Saint
Augustine is sometimes called “the last classical man and the first medieval man.” With respect to rhetoric, Foss
et al., ( (Note: Foss et al. 1991)) stated that this is certainly true, and it is possible to see him an agent of
communication from one age to another.
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363
 THE RENAISSANCE

The end of the Middle Ages was witnessed by the birth of the
Renaissance (1400–1600), and with it the rise of Humanism, a
movement that brought such thinkers and writers as Petrarch, Francis
Bacon, Albertus Magnus, Joseph Webber, Ben Jonson, William
Shakespeare, Thomas More, Descartes, Hobbes, Locke, Hume, and
Kant. This emergence also produced the great discoveries of
Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton. In architecture it brought
about the revival of the classical style. And in the fine arts it inspired
new schools of painting in Italy, such as Raphael, Leonardo, Bellini,
Michael Angelo, Giorgione, and the Flemish school in the
Netherlands.

The Renaissance is the name of the great intellectual and cultural

movement of the revival of interest in classical culture that occurred in
the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. The Renaissance began in Italy as
a major revolt against an intellectually barren medieval spirit, and
especially against scholasticism, in favor of intellectual freedom. A
hunger developed for all things classical. Greek scholars were
encouraged to travel to Italy. Florence became the cradle of classical
revival. Latin classics were in demand. Libraries were built. And
schools for the study of Greek and Latin in their classic forms were
opened in Rome and other major cities. “Shakespeare” by National Portrait Gallery.
Public domain.

The Humanists
The second period of the Renaissance produced a continued passion
for classical study, which was later coined “Humanism” in 1808 by a
German educator, F.J. Niethammer, to describe a program of study
distinct from scientific and engineering educational programs. Of all
the practices of Renaissance Europe, nothing is used to distinguish
the Renaissance from the Middle Ages more than Humanism as both
a program and a philosophy.

The Humanists began by rediscovering lost Latin texts, rather than

searching for classical Greek extants. The two most important
classical authors of the Renaissance were Cicero and Quintilian, not
Aristotle or Plato. Petrarch spearheaded the rediscovery of Cicero;
and one of the texts he found, the Brutus, a handbook on rhetoric,
became one of the most important books in the Renaissance.
Quintilian later became the basis of the Humanistic education
curriculum. The most important influences on Petrarch were Cicero
and Augustine. He took from Cicero the principles of composing Latin
and much of his philosophy; and from Augustine he derived his ideas
about the relationship of the human to the divine. Throughout the
Renaissance, the single most important author, classical or otherwise,
during the entire Humanist movement is Cicero.
“Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer” by DALIBRI.
Love is the crowning grace of humanity, the holiest right of the Public domain.
soul, the golden link which binds us to duty and truth, the
redeeming principle that chiefly reconciles the heart to life, and is prophetic of eternal good. – Petrarch

364
Interested in the human world as constructed through language, rather than the natural world, the Humanists
focused on the human epistemologically. They emphasized the world of human culture and language, believing in
the power of the word not only because it gives those with a command of it special advantage in daily
interactions, but because of its inherent capacity to disclose to the world of humans. The Italian Humanists
believed rhetoric, not philosophy, to be the primary discipline because it is through language that humans gain
access to the world. ( (Note: Foss, S.K.; Foss, K.A.; Trapp, R. (1991). Contemporary Perspectives on Rhetoric.
Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.))

A second trend in rhetoric also began during the Renaissance — a

trend that dominated the theories of rhetoric to follow. Rationalism,
represented by the work of Peter Ramus (1515–1572) and René
Descartes (1596–1650), sought objective, scientific truths that would
exist for all time. Foss et al., wrote that, “Not surprisingly, the
rationalists had little patience for rhetoric: while poetry and oratory
might be aesthetically pleasing, they were seen as having no
connection to science and truth.” ( (Note: Foss et al. 1991, p. 8))

Howell (1956) claimed that Ramus was a French scholar who made
rhetoric subordinate to logic by placing invention and organization
under the rubric of logic and leaving rhetoric with only style and
delivery. Ramus argued that invention should not be an intellectual
process governed by contingencies, as Aristotle or Cicero would
have it. He presented invention as a rhetorical procedure that must
conform to the theory of logic. He successfully argued that rhetoric
must be concerned with the canons of style and delivery only.
Ramus’ identification of rhetoric with style launched a denigration of
invention that lasted for centuries. ( (Note: Virtualology.com (2007).
Retrieve on January 26, 2007 from http://www.virtualology.com/
rhetoricaltheory/peterramus.com/)) (Virtualology.com, 2007). “Portrait of René Descartes” by Frans Hals.
Public domain.
René Descartes is one of the most important Western philosophers
of the past few centuries. During his lifetime, Descartes was just as famous as an original physicist, physiologist
and mathematician. But it is as a highly original philosopher that he is most frequently read today. He attempted
to restart philosophy in a fresh direction. For example, his philosophy refused to accept the Aristotelian and
Scholastic traditions that had dominated philosophical thought throughout the Medieval period; it attempted to
fully integrate philosophy with the “new” sciences; and Descartes changed the relationship between philosophy
and theology. Descartes believed that in order to reach certain knowledge, the foundations of thought provided by
others had to be abandoned. He was willing to accept only that which would withstand all doubt. He rejected
truths established in speech or in the course of social or political action. Language became only a means of
communicating the truth once it was discovered, not a powerful sphere in which human life emerges. ( (Note:
Foss, et al., 1991))

I think; therefore I am. – Rene Descartes

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365
 THE MODERN PERIOD

Dominated by the rationalism instituted by Descartes and Ramus,

modern rhetoric continued to promote the importance of science and
philosophy over rhetoric. Francis Bacon (1561–1626) was a
prominent figure of the modern period. He was concerned with the
lack of scholarly progress during the Middle Ages and sought to
promote a revival of secular knowledge through an empirical
examination of the world. His definition of rhetoric suggests his effort
to bring the power of language under rational control, “. . . the duty of
rhetoric is to apply Reason to Imagination for the better moving of
the will.” ( (Note: Dick, H.C., ed. (1955). Selected Writings of Francis
Bacon. New York: Modern Library. p.100).)) Bacon, then, advanced
the scientific approach to the study of rhetoric that would support the
three trends of modern rhetorical thought.

The three trends in rhetoric that characterized the modern period

are—epistemological, belletristic, and elocutionist. Epistemology is
the study of the origin, nature, methods, and limits of human
knowledge. Epistemological thinkers, such as Bacon, sought to
change classical approaches in terms of modern developments in
psychology. They attempted to understand rhetoric in relation to the
psychological process and contributed to the development of a
rhetoric premised on human nature. “Francis Bacon” by Drebbel. Public domain.

The Epistemological Tradition

George Campbell (1719–1796) and Richard Whately (1758–1859) exemplify the best of the epistemological
tradition. Campbell authored The Philosophy of Rhetoric (1776). He drew on Aristotle, Cicero, and Quintilian as
well as faculty psychology and empiricism (experience of the senses) of his times. Faculty psychology attempted
to explain human behavior in terms of the five faculties of the mind—understanding, memory, imagination,
passion, and will—and Campbell’s definition of rhetoric was directed to these faculties. Campbell distinguished
three types of evidence—mathematical axioms, derived through reasoning; consciousness, or the result of
sensory stimulation; and common sense, an intuitive sense shared by virtually all humans. ( (Note: Foss, S.K.;
Foss, K.A.; Trapp, R. (1991). Contemporary Perspectives on Rhetoric. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.))

As one may bring himself to believe almost anything he is inclined to believe, it makes all the difference
whether we begin or end with the inquiry, “What is truth?” – Richard Whately

Richard Whately published Elements of Rhetoric in 1828. His view of rhetoric was similar to Campbell’s in its
dependence on psychology, but he shifted from Campbell by making argumentation the focus of the art of
rhetoric. He is also known for his analysis of presumption [of innocence] and burden of proof, which paved the
way for modern argumentation and debate practices. The epistemologists combined their knowledge of classical
rhetoric and contemporary psychology to create rhetorics based on an understanding of human nature. By doing
this, they introduced audience- centered approaches to rhetoric and pioneered the way for contemporary
investigations with audience analysis.

366
The Belles Lettres Movement
The second direction rhetoric took in the modern period is known as
the belles lettre movement; the term, in French, literally means “fine
or beautiful letters.” This is a departure from both the rationalists and
elocutionists because this form of literature valued the aesthetic
qualities of writing rather than any informative value it may have. The
scope of what was considered to be rhetoric broadened to include all
of the fine arts of the period, poetry, music, drama, gardening and
architecture, along with oral discourse, writing and criticism.

Hugh Blair is best known for his advocacy of the belletristic

movement. He was a Presbyterian preacher and occupied the Chair
of Rhetoric and Belles Lettres at the University of Edinburgh. He had
a number of publications, but his most well-known was the Lectures
on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres, which was based on his lectures.
Lectures is important because it drew on the works of Cicero and
Quintilian and combined them with the modern works of Addison and
Burke to become one of the first whole language guides. Blair’s
theories were founded in the belief that the principles of rhetoric
evolve from the principles of nature.

Gentleness corrects whatever is offensive in our manner. –

Hugh Blair “Hugh Blair” by John Kay. Public domain.

The Elocutionary Movement

The elocutionary movement
movement, the third rhetorical trend of the modern
period, reached its height in the mid- eighteenth century. Before the
Elocutionary Movement most scholars of rhetoric quickly assimilated
the Latin elocutio (style) with the English word elocution. However, by
the eighteenth century scholars more accurately began to regard
elocution as the Latin pronunciato (delivery). This change in association
gave rise to the Elocutionary Movement, a movement that focused
primarily on delivery. Although there are many theorists associated with
the Elocutionary Movement, the most widely publicized is Thomas
Sheridan. Sheridan was an Irish actor and educator of elocution. He
wanted to reform the educational system of Britain to correct the
serious neglect of rhetorical delivery-elocution. This belief not only
involved the voice, but also incorporated the entire person with facial
expressions, gesture, posture and movement.

He steps on stage and draws the sword of rhetoric, and when he

is through, someone is lying wounded and thousands of others are
either angry or consoled. – Pete Hamill

However, the elocutionists of this period regarded themselves as

rhetoricians and their work as rhetoric. There were a number of reasons
why the movement flourished. During the eighteenth and nineteenth “Thomas Sheridan” by Roger Ingpen. Public
century an increasing number of professions required the skill of public domain.
speaking. As a result, a needed change from style to delivery
developed in response to the poor delivery styles of contemporary preachers, lawyers, and other public figures.

367
Foss et al. ( (Note: Foss et al. 1991)) explain that like the epistemologists,
the elocutionists were concerned about contributing to a more scientific
understanding of the human being and believed that their observations on
voice and gesture—characteristics unique to humans—constituted such
contribution. The elocutionists also sought to determine the effects of
delivery on the various faculties of the mind, thus continuing the link with
modern psychology.

The practices the elocutionists promoted eventually led to their demise.

Toward the end of their success the public began to see rhetoric as empty,
insincere speaking that hid beneath the mask of sophistication. It declined
as a subject matter of study and of teaching. As college curriculum became
more diverse and specialized, new departments were formed that did not
include rhetoric as a multidisciplinary art; rather, instruction was generally
limited to departments of English—until a major shift again occurred in the
development of rhetoric in the United States in 1910. In 1914 a new
association, the Speech Communication Association, was formed in the “Cicero” by Tobiasnordmark. Public
United States by a small group of public speaking teachers who wanted to domain.
restore the rich qualities and scope that were once attributed to rhetoric.
Today, this organization is called the National Communication Association.

CONCLUSION, REVIEW QUESTIONS, AND

ACTIVITIES

Conclusion
We have explored a brief history of rhetoric, the basis for
persuasion, from the time of Aristotle to the beginning of
the twentieth century. This exploration is by no means
complete, but it is intended to provide you with a particular
understanding about rhetoric. From Aristotle to Saint
Augustine, we see that rhetoric served a threefold
purpose: first, it was a tool designed to develop and
cultivate one’s mental faculties in order to be a “good
citizen” who could serve the state well. And serving the
state well meant having the ability to think well and to
discover and develop sound arguments. Second, it gave a
person the oratorical skills necessary to convince a
decision-maker or decision-making body, that they should
adhere to a particular argument. And third, all of this could
only be attained if one had moral fiber—ethos—in both
thought and character. These conditions were seminal for
the classists in their pursuit of advancing the art of rhetoric.
Eventually, new thoughts and trends distorted, altered, and
at times, removed these conditions. The Greeks and
Romans held one’s character to the highest degree, and
no man could be rhetorically successful if they did not “Diogenes brings a plucked chicken to Plato” by unknown.
possess this quality. Public domain.

Rhetoric brought us through the Middle Ages and St. Augustine as a unifying figure. The Renaissance gave us a
rebirth of the Greek and Roman classical art of public speaking, a new breath for public discourse and education,
and the emergence of humanist and rational thinkers. And we have learned that the art of public speaking was,
for a short time in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, used as a means for entertainment.

368
Today, persuasion has taken many forms, with rhetoric being just one of these forms. We know that people will
say and do most anything to get their way, whether that be in politics, sales, religion, or advertising, and whether
what they attempt to do is ethical or not. As you continue to read this on-line text, remember one fundamental
premise: that public speaking, ultimately, is all about affecting human behavior; about getting people to do
something they normally would not want to do. The key to public speaking is effectively answering the question,
“How do I create a message that will connect with my audience?”

The design of Rhetoric is to remove those Prejudices that lie in the way of Truth, to Reduce the
Passions to the Government of Reasons; to place our Subject in a Right Light, and excite our Hearers
to a due consideration of it. – Mary Astell

Review Questions
1. What historical events gave rise to Athens establishing democracy for its citizens?
2. Who was Draco, and what did he do in Athens?
3. Under whose reign did Athens enjoy its greatest glory, and why?
4. Who was Plato, and what form of inquiry did he advocate?
5. Who was Aristotle, and what is he most noted for?
6. What did the Romans borrow from the Greeks and how did they improve upon it?
7. Why was Cicero considered to be the greatest Roman orator?
8. What did Quintilian contribute to the art of persuasion?
9. What role did rhetoric play in education in the Middle Ages?
10. The Renaissance gave birth to the Humanists and Rationalists. Can you describe the differences
between the two and name two representatives from each and their contributions to persuasion?
11. What is the “epistemological tradition” and who best represent this movement?

Activities
1. Create two teams of at least three students per team. One team will represent the dialectical
approach to problem solving and the other team will represent the Aristotelian rhetorical tradition.
One team will attempt to explain how a problem is solved and conclusions arrived at through the
dialectical approach, the other through the rhetorical approach. The problem to be solved will be
created by student consensus.
2. The Humanists and Rationalists viewed persuasion from differing perspectives. Students should form
teams that represent each perspective, choose an issue, then argue or advocate for their side using
each perspective, and then compare the process of problem-solving to see how they arrived at their
conclusions.
3. Review the approaches that Aristotle, Cicero, and Quintilian held toward rhetoric, then identify and
compare and contrast the similarities and differences between them and how these differences
advanced the art of public speaking.

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by: University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK. Located at
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License:
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• Diogenes brings a plucked chicken to Plato. Provided by
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_Diogenes_brings_a_plucked_chicken_to_Plato.jpg. License Terms: This image (or other media file) is in the public domain because its copyright has expired.

369
 GLOSSARY AND REFERENCES

Glossary

TERM DEFINITION

Atticism An expression characterized by conciseness and elegance.

Dialecticcan be defined as a debate intended to resolve a conflict between two contradictory

Dialectic (or polar opposites), or apparently contradictory ideas or elements logically, establishing truths
on both sides rather than disproving one argument.

In 621 B.C., the citizens of Athens commissioned Draco, an elder citizen considered to be the
wisest of the Greeks, to codify the laws, which had remained an oral form of custom and
Draco tradition. He began the tradition of law, where cases were decided on clearly enunciated
crimes and penalties determined by statute rather than by the whims of the nobility. His laws
helped constitute a surge in Athenian democracy.

Elocutionary Movement is a movement that focused primarily on delivery. It not only involved
Elocutionary
the voice, but also incorporated the entire person with facial expressions, gesture, posture and
Movement
movement.

Epistemology Epistemology is the study of the origin, nature, methods, and limits of human knowledge.

Marcus Marcus Fabius Quintilianus, also referred to as Quintilian, was a celebrated orator, rhetorician,
Fabius Latin teacher and writer who promoted rhetorical theory from ancient Greece and from the
Quintilianus height of Roman rhetoric.

Marcus
Marcus Tullius Cicero is considered to be the greatest of the Roman orators, and was, among
Tullius
other things, a lawyer, politician, and philosopher.
Cicero

Oratory The ability to speak with rhetorical skill and eloquence.

Responsible for the installation of a pure democracy to maintain popular support, a liberalized
judicial system to include poor citizens so that they could serve on juries, and the
Pericles establishment of a popular legislative assembly to review annually all laws. In addition, he
established the right for any Athenian citizen to propose or oppose a law during assembly.
Pericles’ democracy established the need for training in public speaking.

Philosophical relativism is the concept that points of philosophical views have no absolute
Philosophical
truth or validity, having only relative subjective value according to differences in perception
Relativism
and thought.

The Renaissance is the name of the great intellectual and cultural movement of the revival of
Renaissance
interest in classical culture that occurred in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries.

René Descartes is one of the most important Western philosophers of the past few centuries.
René
He was also an original physicist, physiologist and mathematician who attempted to restart
Descartes
philosophy in a fresh direction.

370
 Rhetoric is the faculty of discovering in the particular case all the available means of
Rhetoric
persuasion.

5th century B.C. Greek philosophers and teachers who speculated on theology, metaphysics,
Sophists and the sciences, and who were characterized by Plato as superficial manipulators of rhetoric
and dialectic (thefreedictionary.com)

St. Augustine had been a teacher of rhetoric before converting to Christianity in 386, and is
St. Augustine
considered to be the only major thinker on rhetoric associated with the Middle Ages.

A syllogism is a deductive form of argument, proceeding from a generalization to a specific

Syllogism application. It is a systematic arrangement of arguments consisting of a major premise, a
minor premise, and a conclusion.

Zeno of Elea was a 5th century B.C. Greek mathematician and philosopher of the Eleatic
Zeno of Elea
school who is considered to be the inventor of dialectical reasoning.

References
Atkins, J.W.H. (1952). Literary Criticism in Antiquity. London: Methuen.

Barrett, H. (1987). The Sophists: Rhetoric, Democracy, and Plato’s Idea of Sophistry. Novato, CA; Chandler &
Sharp Publishers.

Bowra, C.M. (1957). The Greek Experience. New York: The New American Library

Campbell, G. (1776). The Philosophy of Rhetoric. Bitzer, L., ed. (1963). Carbondale: Southern Illinois University
Press.

Clark, D. L. (1957). Rhetoric in Greco- Roman Education. Westport, CT: Greenwood.

Cooper, L. (1952). The Greek Genius and Its Influence. Ithaca, N.Y.

Corbett, E.P.J. (1965). Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student. New York: Oxford University Press.

Dick, H.C., ed. (1955). Selected Writings of Francis Bacon. New York: Modern Library.

Ehninger, D., ed. (1963). Richard Whately, Elements of Rhetoric. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.

Fearnside, W.W. (1980). About Thinking. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prenticed-Hall, Inc.

Freeley, A.J. & Steinberg, D.L. (2005). Argumentation and Debate, 11th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing
Co.

Freeman, K. (1963). The Murder of Herodes. New York: W.W. Norton, Inc.

Foss, S.K.; Foss, K.A.; Trapp, R. (1991). Contemporary Perspectives on Rhetoric. Prospect Heights, IL:
Waveland Press.

Grimaldi, W.M.A. (1980). Aristotle, Rhetoric I: A Commentary: New York: Fordham University Press.

Guthrie, W.K.C. (1956). Plato, Protagoras and Meno. Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books.

Harvey, I. (1951). The Technique of Persuasion. London: The Falcon Press.

Honeycutt, L. (2007). http://honeyl.public.iastate.edu/qui ntilian/index.html

Howell, W.S. (1956). Logic and Rhetoric in England, 1500-1700. New York: Russell & Russell.

371
Ijsseling, S. (1976). Rhetoric and Philosophy in Conflict: An Historical Survey. The Hague: Martinus.

Golden, J.L.; Berquist, G.F.; Coleman, W.E. (1983). The Rhetoric of Western Thought, 3rd ed.. Dubuque: Kendall/
Hunt.

Gwynn, Aubrey. Roman Education from Cicero to Quintilian. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1926.

Inch, E.S.; Warnick, B.; Endres, D. (2006). Critical Thinking and Communication. New York: Pearson Education,
Inc.

Kennedy, G. (1963). The Art of Persuasion in Greece. Princeton: University Press.

Larson, Charles, U. (1995). Persuasion: Reception and Responsibility. 7th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth
Publishing.

Murphy James J. and Katula, R.A. (1995). A Synoptic History of Classical Rhetoric. 2nd ed. Davis: Ca.
Hermagoras Press.

Oliver, R.T. (1950). Persuasive Speaking. New York: Longmans, Green and Co.

Quintilian. (1987). Carbondale: Illinois University Press. “Revised and enlarged version of On the early education
of the citizen-orator, published by Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1965.”

Reike, R.D.; Sillars, M.O.; Peterson, T.R. (2005). Argumentation and Critical Thinking. New York: Pearson
Education, Inc.

Robertson, D.W. (1958). Saint Augustine on Christian Doctrine. New York: Library of Liberal Arts.

Rolfe, J.C. (1963). Cicero and His Influence. New York: Cooper Square.

Virtualology.com (2007). Retrieved on January 26, 2007 from http://www.virtualology.com/rheto ricaltheory/

peterramus.com/

photo credits
P. 1 The Parthenon by Lisa Schreiber

P. 2 Pericles’ Funeral Oration by Phillip von Foltz http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Discur

so_funebre_pericles.PNG

P. 3 Parc de Versailles. Isocrates, Pierre Granier (1684-1688) ; Photo by Coyau http://commons.wikimedia.org/

wiki/File:Parc_ de_Versailles,_Rond- Point_des_Philosophes,_Isocrate,_Pierre_Granier_ MR1870_04.jpg

P. 4 The School of Athens [Plato and Aristotle] by Raffaello http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sanzi

o_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg

P. 4 Cicero Denounces Catiline by Cesare Maccari (1840 – 1919) http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commo

ns/a/a3/Maccari-Cicero.jpg

P. 5 Quintillian by Unknown http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Quinti lian.jpg

p. 6 Saint Augustine by Sandro Bottecelli http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Saint_ Augustine_Portrait.jpg

P. 7 Shakespeare by John Taylor ? http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Shake speare.jpg

P. 7 Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer by Unknown http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commo ns/5/5b/

Friedrich_Immanuel_Niethammer.jpg P. 8 Francis Bacon by Unknown http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commo ns/6/65/Francis_Bacon.jpg

P. 8 Renes Descartes by Frans Hals (1649 – 1700) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Frans_ Hals_-

_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg P. 9 Hugh Blair by John Kay http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Hugh_ Blair.jpg

372
P. 9 Thomas Sheridan by Roger Ingpen http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Thom as_Sheridan.jpg

P. 10 Diogenes brings a plucked chicken to Plato by Anonymous http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Anony

mous_- _Diogenes_brings_a_plucked_chicken_to_Plato.jpg P. 10 Cicero by Unlnown
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cicero .jpg
Licensing & Attributions
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by: Peter A. DeCaro, Ph.D.. Provided by
by: University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK. Located at
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BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives

373
 SPEECH VIDEOS AND RESOURCES

50 WISE SPEAKERS

50 Wise Public Speakers is a wonderful resource put together by Phil Vendetti at Clover Park Technical College
in Tacoma, WA. Phil interviewed 50 prominent speakers, and his public speaking students edited the interviews
and wrote transcripts for accessibility purposes.
• In the category section, you can search for speakers by genre.
• In the Questions section, you can search for topics like “overcoming stage fright.”
• In the speakers section, you can search by name.

This wonderful trailer the students put together will give you an overview of the project:

Watch this video online: https://youtu.be/g2xuOCadUPw

Everything about the project is shared under a CC BY Open Educational License.

Here is a link to the website:

http://www.cptc.edu/fifty-wise/

Licensing & Attributions

CC licensed content, Original
• Public Speaking. Authored by
by: Christie Fierro and Brent Adrian. Provided by
by: Lumen Learning. Located at
at: http://lumenlearning.com/. Project License: CC BY: Attribution
Project: Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License

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at: http://youtu.be/g2xuOCadUPw. License

VIDEO: CC LICENSED STUDENT EXAMPLE

SPEECHES

These students volunteered to share their speeches with a Creative Commons license.

Drew Lawson demonstrating wakeboarding – CC BY

Watch this video online: https://youtu.be/vvQkWjDLf4E

Corry Jaynes demonstrating his tips for customer service. – CC BY

http://link.videoplatform.limelight.com/
media/?mediaId=d6babbca7784450e8bb41c2177a7e8cd&width=720&height=457&playerForm=82a2bc4e7dfe444080fed33059

Joanne Eller demonstrating how to make chocolate covered strawberries filled with Grand Marnier. – CC BY NC

374
Watch this video online: https://youtu.be/qmly4i3sFS8

Heather Pederson demonstrating how to make Kimbap – CC BY NC ND

Watch this video online: https://youtu.be/PY4rqJnnFy0

Josh Davis demonstrating Reference Alignment – CC BY

Watch this video online: https://youtu.be/SVD9qChGXEg

Raven Wells Persuasive Speech – CC BY

http://link.videoplatform.limelight.com/
media/?mediaId=16d15073a6224819aada2097ca65841b&width=720&height=457&playerForm=82a2bc4e7dfe444080fed3305

Alexandra Kahler Informational Speech – CC By

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Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
• Public Speaking. Authored by
by: Christie Fierro and Brent Adrian. Provided by
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at: http://lumenlearning.com/. Project License: CC BY: Attribution
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• Drew Lawson demonstrating wakeboarding. Authored by by: Christie Fierro. Located at License: CC BY: Attribution
at: http://youtu.be/vvQkWjDLf4E. License
• How to make Kimbap. Authored by by: Jasmine Pedersen. Located at License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
at: http://youtu.be/PY4rqJnnFy0. License
• Josh Davis Demonstration Speech. Authored byby: Christie Fierro. Located at License: CC BY: Attribution
at: http://youtu.be/SVD9qChGXEg. License
• Alexandra Kahler Informational Speech. Authored by
by: Christie Fierro. Located at License: CC BY: Attribution
at: http://youtu.be/NjnpOe6QquI. License

All rights reserved content

• Chocolate covered strawberries with Grand Marnier. Authored by
by: Joanne Moore. Located at License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms
at: http://youtu.be/qmly4i3sFS8. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

VIDEO: AMY CUDDY "YOUR BODY LANGUAGE

SHAPES WHO YOU ARE"

From TED.com: “Body language affects how others see us, but it may also change how we see ourselves. Social
psychologist Amy Cuddy shows how ‘power posing’ — standing in a posture of confidence, even when we don’t
feel confident — can affect testosterone and cortisol levels in the brain, and might even have an impact on our
chances for success.”

This link has transcripts in multiple languages:

http://www.ted.com/talks/amy_cuddy_your_body_language_shapes_who_you_are.html

Watch this video online: https://youtu.be/Ks-_Mh1QhMc

Licensing & Attributions

CC licensed content, Original
• Public Speaking. Authored by
by: Christie Fierro and Brent Adrian. Provided by
by: Lumen Learning. Located at
at: http://lumenlearning.com/. Project License: CC BY: Attribution
Project: Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License

CC licensed content, Shared previously

• Amy Cuddy Your body language shapes who you are. Authored by
by: TED. Located at License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms
at: http://youtu.be/Ks-_Mh1QhMc. License Terms: Standard YouTube license

375
 VIDEO: TERRY MOORE - "HOW TO TIE YOUR
SHOES"

From TED.com: “Terry Moore found out he’d been tying his shoes the wrong way his whole life. In the spirit of
TED, he takes the stage to share a better way. (Historical note: This was the very first 3-minute audience talk
given from the TED stage, in 2005.)”

This link leads to the same talk with transcripts available:

http://www.ted.com/talks/terry_moore_how_to_tie_your_shoes

Watch this video online: https://youtu.be/zAFcV7zuUDA

Licensing & Attributions

CC licensed content, Original
• Public Speaking. Authored by
by: Christie Fierro and Brent Adrian. Provided by
by: Lumen Learning. Located at
at: http://lumenlearning.com/. Project License: CC BY: Attribution
Project: Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License

All rights reserved content

• Terry Moore How to tie your shoes. Authored by
by: TED. Located at License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
at: http://youtu.be/zAFcV7zuUDA. License

VIDEO: DEMONSTRATION SPEECH - HOW TO

GIVE THE PERFECT MAN HUG

From YouTube.com video description: “Don’t get left behind, learn how to show your affection for your fellow man.
Give a great man to man hug to your closest friends and family without getting that awkward feeling!”

Watch this video online: https://youtu.be/JUdWApwbudQ

Licensing & Attributions

CC licensed content, Original
• Public Speaking. Authored by
by: Christie Fierro and Brent Adrian. Provided by
by: Lumen Learning. Located at
at: http://lumenlearning.com/. Project License: CC BY: Attribution
Project: Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License

All rights reserved content

• How to give the perfect man hug. Authored by
by: Videojug. Located at License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms
at: http://youtu.be/JUdWApwbudQ. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

376
 VIDEO: DEMONSTRATION SPEECH - EASY TUBE
PILLOW CASE TUTORIAL

From YouTube description: “This is the easiest, cutest, quickest pillowcase you will ever make! If you are ready to
move on from a generic pillowcase, try this fun and easy tutorial. Try it out to support the American Patchwork &
Quilting Million Pillowcase Challenge (http://www.allpeoplequilt.com/million…).”

Watch this video online: https://youtu.be/MrYWCma9wgM

Licensing & Attributions

CC licensed content, Original
• Public Speaking. Authored by
by: Christie Fierro and Brent Adrian. Provided by
by: Lumen Learning. Located at
at: http://lumenlearning.com/. Project License: CC BY: Attribution
Project: Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License

All rights reserved content

• Easy Tube Pillow Case Tutorial - Support the Million Pillowcase Challenge!. Authored by
by: Missouri Star Quilt Company. Located at License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms
at: http://youtu.be/MrYWCma9wgM. License Terms: Standard
YouTube License

VIDEO: BRENE BROWN - "THE POWER OF

VULNERABILITY"

From TED.com: “Brene Brown studies human connection — our ability to empathize, belong, love. In a poignant,
funny talk at TEDxHouston, she shares a deep insight from her research, one that sent her on a personal quest to
know herself as well as to understand humanity. A talk to share.”

Follow this link for another version of the video with a transcript available: http://www.ted.com/talks/
brene_brown_on_vulnerability?language=en

Watch this video online: https://youtu.be/iCvmsMzlF7o

Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
• Public Speaking. Authored by
by: Christie Fierro and Brent Adrian. Provided by
by: Lumen Learning. Located at
at: http://lumenlearning.com/. Project License: CC BY: Attribution
Project: Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License

All rights reserved content

• Brene Brown The power of vulnerability. Authored by
by: TED. Located at License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms
at: http://youtu.be/iCvmsMzlF7o. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

VIDEO: ELIZABETH LESSER - "TAKE 'THE OTHER'

TO LUNCH"

From TED.com: “There’s an angry divisive tension in the air that threatens to make modern politics impossible.
Elizabeth Lesser explores the two sides of human nature within us (call them “the mystic” and “the warrior”) that
can be harnessed to elevate the way we treat each other. She shares a simple way to begin real dialogue — by
going to lunch with someone who doesn’t agree with you, and asking them three questions to find out what’s
really in their hearts.”

377
Follow this link for the same video with transcripts available: http://www.ted.com/talks/
elizabeth_lesser_take_the_other_to_lunch

Watch this video online: https://youtu.be/AsSd2nmoKNA

Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
• Public Speaking. Authored by
by: Christie Fierro and Brent Adrian. Provided by
by: Lumen Learning. Located at
at: http://lumenlearning.com/. Project License: CC BY: Attribution
Project: Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License

378