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The application of Jackfruit by-product on the development of healthy
meat analogue
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ICROEST 2020 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 575 (2020) 012001 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/575/1/012001
The application of Jackfruit by-product on the development of
healthy meat analogue
M A Hamid, F L C Tsia, A A B Okit, C W Xin, H H Cien, L S Harn, P N Patrick,
S Samirin, W A A W Azizi, A Irfanian, and C F Yee
Faculty of Food Science and Nutrition, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400
Kota Kinabalu, Sabah
Email: [email protected]
Abstract. This study is aimed to introduce the potential of jackfruit by-products to develop a
healthy meat analogue. Meat analogue had been produced with different jackfruit by-products
to wheat gluten ratio. The textural properties of meat analogs were studied, where the result
showed a significant decrease in hardness and chewiness with decreasing wheat gluten content.
In sensory properties, meat analogue with 58% jackfruit by-products and 20% vital wheat
gluten was the most preferred meat analogue in terms of appearance, aroma, taste, color,
hardness, juiciness and overall acceptability. Other than that, the nutritional composition of
jackfruit by-products meat analogue showed higher content of protein and dietary fiber. It was
concluded that jackfruit by-products were the new main ingredient to develop healthy meat
analogue for vegetarians and health-conscious individuals who stick on meat-free or a reduced
meat diet without jeopardizing protein and micronutrients intake.
1. Introduction
Jackfruit is a kind of popular Asian tropical fruit likes durian and banana, and it is recognized for its
unique size and shape. Its sweet arils have a pretty strong fruity aroma, which can be appreciated from
a distance. Jackfruit belongs to the family of Moraceae, which is a congener of the tree of
fig, mulberry, and breadfruit, and its botanical name is Artocarpus heterophyllus [1]. Today, it widely
cultivated in the tropical regions of the Indian subcontinent, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Brazil
for its fruit, seeds, and wood. Jackfruit plant is a huge tree that can grow to a height of 8 to 25 m and a
canopy diameter of 3.5 to 6.7 m at five years of age. It has a straight stem and dense canopy, which is
normally dome in shape. The trunk of the tree is rarely buttressed with the greyish-brown, scaly,
uneven, and rough bark [2]. The tree grows best in tropical humid and rainy climates but rarely
survives cold and frosty conditions. The jackfruit, which is known as the largest of all cultivated fruits,
has a weight range from 4.5 to 30 kg with a reported weight of 50 kg [3].
The compound fruit of jackfruit is made of three parts, which are pulp (30-32%), seeds (18%), and
the rind (5- 55%) [4]. Apart from its pulp, the underutilized parts of jackfruit like jackfruit seed and
rind have been reported to possess high nutritional values. Jackfruit seed is reported to have a similar
nutritional composition as that of grains [5]. Jackfruit seed is a good source of starch and dietary fiber,
which composed 22% and 3.19% of the jackfruit seed, respectively [6]. Besides, jacalin is the major
protein in jackfruit seed which possessed immunological properties. Not only that, but jackfruit seed
also contains lignans, isoflavones, saponins, all phytonutrients, and their health benefits are
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IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 575 (2020) 012001 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/575/1/012001
wide‐ranging from anti-cancer to antihypertensive, anti-aging, antioxidant, antiulcer and so on [7]. On
the other hand, jackfruit rind is high in pectin content. It was found that inedible portions of jackfruit
contain higher pectin content than the edible part (pulp). The yields of pectin from jackfruit rind
ranged from 14.8-18.6 % (w/w), while pectin from cempedak rind was from 17.6-20.5% (w/w) [8]. In
addition, jackfruit rind also contributes to some antioxidants content of the jackfruit. It was reported
that jackfruit rind extracts had a higher polyphenol and flavonoid content compared to its spine and
skin. It was also found that the polyphenol content of jackfruit rind was higher than the fruit peels of
pineapple, pomegranate, and orange [9].
Nowadays, the development of a meat analogue to provide alternatives for meat has become a trend.
The increase in consumers has driven this trending demand healthy diet, the concern about rising meat
prices, the increase in the popularity of vegetarianism, and the growing consumer interest in related
eating patterns such as the avoidance or reduced consumption of red meat [10]. Meat analogue can be
defined as food which structurally similar to meat but differs in composition [11]. A typical meat
analogue is composed of a combination of ingredients such as water (50-80%), non-textured proteins
(4-20%), textured vegetable proteins (10-25%), fat (0-15%), flavourings (3-10%), binging agents (1-
5%) and coloring agents (0-0.5%) [12]. Meat analogues could be deemed as one of the best suitable
ways in which non-animal protein can be introduced, and the underlying impetus remains the
utilization of a wider range of proteins for human food [13].
Recently, the utilization of by-products with high nutrient values to develop value-added food
products have been receiving special attention. About 60% of the whole jackfruit is deemed inedible
consisting of the outer prickly rind, inner perigones (no edible perianth), and central core, which are
unutilized waste [14]. Thus, with the wide usage of jackfruit in the food industry, there will be a large
quantity of jackfruit rind accumulated. Besides, the soaring of the human population has caused the
resources which are available to sustain the population getting depleted, and this has brought a direct
impact on the food supply. The demand for food is predicted to increase by 70% by 2050 due to the
further addition of 2.3 billion populations [15]. The rapid growth of the population has also led to an
increase in waste and by-products accumulated. Thus, this research aims to utilize underutilized
jackfruit by-products as the main ingredient to produce value-added meat analogue for a healthy diet.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Preparation of jackfruit by-products
Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) was purchased from the market around Kota Kinabalu, Sabah.
Ripe jackfruit was chosen, and the green with soft thorn part at the outer layer of the skin was removed
by cutting them away, remaining only the white part. Attached to the rinds were the rags or flakes,
which were white stripes surrounding the yellow jackfruit. Rinds and rags were cut into smaller pieces,
washed, and blanched in boiling water for 2 minutes. After blanching, they were soaked in cold
running water to stop the continued cooking activity. Water was squeezed out from the blanched and
cooled rigs and rags by using hands and settled aside. Finally, those rinds and rags were blended into
fine chunks by using a blender.
Seeds of jackfruit were washed and then cooked in boiling water for about 20 minutes until they
were softened. After that, the thin brownish shell coats surrounding each seed were removed, leaving
the whitish cotyledon to be blended into a fine powder. The blended rinds, rags, and seed powders
were stored into the cold storage (6°C) until analysis.
2.2. Preparation of jackfruit by-products meat analogue
Four different jackfruit by-products meat analogue formulations were prepared with the addition of
jackfruit by-products at different levels (18%, 38%, 58%, and 78%). Vital wheat gluten was also used
at different levels (60%, 40%, 20%, and 0%) for texture modification. 5% of starch was also added for
texture modification. For the fat source, 6% of vegetable oil was used. 8% of soy protein was added
for the additional protein source. Seasonings and spices used were salt (0.2%), nutritional yeast
(0.75%), mushroom seasonings (0.7%), garlic powder (0.4%), onion powder (0.4%), chili powder
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ICROEST 2020 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 575 (2020) 012001 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/575/1/012001
(0.3%), turmeric powder (0.15%), black pepper powder (0.05%) and Chinese five-spices powder
(0.05%). First, the blended jackfruit by-products and other ingredients were weighed according to the
formulation and mixed in a bowl. Seasonings were added first to let them dissolve in the slightly moist
jackfruit by-products blend, followed other ingredients. Kneading was followed by the mixing of all
the ingredients. The dough was divided into a suitable size of patty using a cutter and rounded into a
ball shape, followed by flattening them shapes that resemble burger patty. After that, they were being
placed in an oiled baking tray and rested for a few minutes. Steaming was carried out to precook the
patties. The patties were cool down for a while before the patties were packaged inside the plastic
film. The patties were placed overlapping with each other, and grease paper was put between each
patty to make it easy for separation prior cooking process. The patty was stored under a freezing
temperature of -18oC inside the freezer.
2.3. Instrumental textural properties
Hardness and chewiness of jackfruit by-products were determined by using a texture analyzer (TA.XT
Plus, Stable Micro Systems, UK), as described by Chiang et al. [16]. The sample was cut into square
shape and dimension (15 × 15 × 8 mm) and compressed using a P/51 probe to 50% of its original
thickness at a speed of 1 mm/s for the first bite, returned to original position over 5 s, and followed by
the second bite at 1 mm/s to 50% of the first compressed thickness.
2.4. Sensory evaluation
Four formulations of jackfruit by-products meat analogue were prepared for sensory evaluation by
using the seven-point hedonic scale (1= extremely dislike, 7= extremely like). Each meat analogue
was cut uniformly and presented in a randomized order. The sensory panelists were comprised of 50
students from the Faculty of Food Science and Nutrition, University Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia. These
formulations were evaluated based on attributes of appearance, aroma, taste, color, hardness, juiciness,
and overall acceptability.
2.5. Nutritional composition
The methods used for all the analysis of the sample compositions were based on the methods provided
by AOAC [17]. The nutritional composition, including carbohydrate, protein, fat, and total dietary
fiber of best formulations of meat analogue were used to compare with commercial meat analogue.
The moisture content of jackfruit by-products meat analogue was determined using the oven-drying
method after drying the sample at 105°C for 12 hours in an air-drying oven. Ash content of jackfruit
by-products meat analogue was determined by using the method of dry ashing, which was using a
muffle furnace heated at 550°C for 24 hours. Crude fat content was measured by Soxhlet extraction
methods using the solvent extraction system (SoxhletTM 2050, FOSS, Germany). Crude protein content
was determined using the Kjeldahl method with the Kjeldahl nitrogen analyzer (KjeltecTM 2030, FOSS,
Germany). The total carbohydrate content of jackfruit by-products meat analogue was calculated using
equation 1.
Total carbohydrate % = 100% − %MC + %F + %P + %A + %CF (1)
Where;
MC = moisture content, F = fat, P = protein, A = ash and CF = crude fibre
2.5.1. Determination of total dietary fiber. Total dietary fiber of jackfruit by-products meat analogue
was determined based on the Enzymatic Gravimetric method provided by AOAC [17]. Dried and
defatted samples were cooked at 100°C with heat-stable α -amylase and incubated at 60°C with
protease and amyloglucosidase. The residue was filtered, then washed with 95% ethanol and acetone,
dried, and weighed. One duplicate sample was analyzed for protein content, whereas another duplicate
sample was incubated in a muffle furnace at 525°C to determine ash content. The total dietary fiber
was obtained by deducting the weight of ash and protein.
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ICROEST 2020 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 575 (2020) 012001 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/575/1/012001
2.5.2. Statistical analysis. A One Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to determine the
effects of the addition of jackfruit by-products on the sensory properties of meat analogue. All the data
collected was analyzed using statistical SPSS software version 22.0. The significant differences among
the means of different parameters were considered at p < 0.05.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Instrumental textural properties
The instrumental textural properties of jackfruit by-products meat analogue are shown in table 1.
Hardness is considered as the maximum force of the first compression, while chewiness applies only
to solid products and is calculated as hardness × cohesiveness × springiness [18]. The hardness of
meat analogue decreased with decreasing wheat gluten content and increasing jackfruit by-products.
The addition of wheat gluten enhanced more dense network formation. The low chewiness of meat
analogue was due to low content of wheat gluten and high content of jackfruit by-products. Might due
to the addition of wheat gluten that formed in the better dissolution of proteins within the melt and a
more dense, cohesive structure on cooling [18].
Table 1. Instrumental textural properties of meat analogue with different percentages of jackfruit by-
products to wheat gluten ratio.
Instrumental Score (Mean ± SD)
textural properties F1 F2 F3 F4
Hardness 77.60 ± 4.25a 60.80 ± 9.55b 43.70 ± 7.54c 45.40 ± 4.69d
Chewiness 44.31 ± 5.16a 41.77 ± 7.77ab 34.01 ± 7.24b 35.28 ± 4.11ab
1
Samples F1, control = 18% jackfruit by-products+ 60% vital wheat gluten; F2 = 38% jackfruit by-
products + 40% vital wheat gluten; F3 = 58% jackfruit by-products + 20% vital wheat gluten; F4 = 78%
jackfruit by-products + 0% vital wheat gluten. Different superscript alphabets indicates that there is
significant different (p<0.05) within same row.
3.2. Sensory evaluation
Sensory characteristics were evaluated, and the results are presented in Table 2. The results showed
that the addition of different percentages of jackfruit by-products had a significant effect (p<0.05) on
appearance, aroma, taste, color, hardness, juiciness and overall acceptability of the prepared meat
analogue samples. The sample F3, with the addition of 58% jackfruit by-products and 20% vital wheat
gluten, had the highest overall acceptability compared to other samples. In terms of appearance, there
were no significant differences between all the samples. There were also no significant differences
between the color of sample F1 and F3. However, the aroma of sample F2 and F3 showed significant
differences with other samples. This indicates that a high amount of jackfruit by-product will affect the
aroma of patties as jackfruits have a very strong fruity aroma. The odor-active compounds that give
jackfruit its strong and distinctive aroma are 3-methyl butanoate, ethyl butanoate, 3-methylbutanal,
and 2-methyl propanal [19].
Taste is an important attribute for consumers to choose a food product. The sample F3 had the
highest level of taste acceptance. The sample F4 showed the lowest value of hardness acceptance due
to a lack of vital wheat gluten. There was no significant difference between the juiciness of sample F3
and F4. However, based on all attributes, sample F3 (58% jackfruit by-products + 20% vital wheat
gluten) was significantly different from other samples and chosen as the best formulation.
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ICROEST 2020 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 575 (2020) 012001 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/575/1/012001
Table 2. Sensory characteristics of vegetarian patties with different percentages of jackfruit by-
products.
Characteristic Score (Mean ± SD)
F1 F2 F3 F4
Appearance 4.70 ± 1.17a 4.80 ± 1.16a 4.84 ± 1.23a 4.66 ± 1.15a
Aroma 4.35 ± 1.07b 4.88 ± 0.82a 5.00 ± 1.11a 4.40 ± 1.19b
bc ab a
Taste 4.06 ± 1.15 4.64 ± 1.18 5.13 ± 1.09 4.25 ± 1.23b
a b a
Colour 4.89 ± 1.06 4.40 ± 1.04 4.99 ± 1.11 3.79 ± 1.14c
ab a a
Hardness 4.38 ± 0.98 4.77 ± 0.70 4.72 ± 1.31 4.20 ± 1.24b
b b a
Juiciness 4.46 ± 1.04 4.53 ± 1.35 5.27 ± 0.84 4.93 ± 1.28ab
bc ab a
Overall acceptability 4.75 ± 1.02 4.97 ± 0.82 5.14 ± 1.17 4.36 ± 0.96c
1
Samples F1, control = 18% jackfruit by-products+ 60% vital wheat gluten; F2 = 38% jackfruit by-
products + 40% vital wheat gluten; F3 = 58% jackfruit by-products + 20% vital wheat gluten; F4 = 78%
jackfruit by-products + 0% vital wheat gluten. Different superscript alphabets indicates that there is
significantly different (p<0.05) within same row.
3.3. Nutritional composition
The best formulation of jackfruit by-products meat analogue (58% jackfruit by-products + 20% vital
wheat gluten) was used to determine nutritional composition. It is also compared with the commercial
of meat analogue product. The nutritional composition of jackfruit by-products meat analogue and
commercial meat analogue product are shown in table 3.
Table 3. Nutritional value of Jackfruit by-products meat analogue and commercial meat analogue
product, per 100 g (mean± SD).
Composition Brand of meat analogue
Jackfruit by-products Commercial product
Carbohydrate (g) 16.90 ± 2.56a 7.92 ± 1.67b
a
Fat (g) 13.00 ± 2.68 13.90 ± 0.94a
a
Protein (g) 20.67 ± 3.96 14.26 ± 1.38b
a
Crude fibre (g) 3.41 ± 0.75 1.67 ±0.58b
Ash (g) 3.76 ± 0.86a 2.88 ± 0.76b
b
Moisture content (g) 42.27 ± 2.26 60.74 ± 3.87a
a
Dietary fibre (g) 9.12 ± 1.70 5.76 ± 1.26b
a
Energy (kcal/g) 271.65 ± 5.65 265.65 ± 4.87a
As the results above, jackfruit by-products meat analogue had significantly higher (p<0.05) of
protein content as compared to the commercial product. This is because of jackfruit by-products meat
analogue contained wheat gluten and soy protein, which have high protein content. Vital wheat gluten
is also called Seitan can range in protein content from above 70%, according to the United States of
America Patent No. US20190191725A1 (2019). Jackfruit seeds are also a good source of protein with
the protein content of 17.8-37.0 %, depending on the variety of jackfruit [7]. Jackfruit by-products
meat analogue had higher fiber content than commercial meat analogue. This is due to the addition of
jackfruit rind, which has high fiber content. However, the jackfruit by-products meat analogue had
shown slightly higher fat content than commercial meat analogue. The higher fat content in jackfruit
by-products meat analogue may be due to the oil holding capacity (OHC) in the patty. According to
Ozyurt and Ötles [20], oil holding capacity (OHC) is the amount of oil retained by the fibers after
mixing, incubation with oil, and centrifugation. A finding was reported by Felli et al. [21], which
showed that dietary fiber has strong OHC, and variation in the amount of dietary fiber could be a vital
factor in the oil holding capacity. Jackfruit by-products meat analogue has higher dietary fiber as
compared to commercial meat analogue. Besides, the surface properties, charge density, and/or
hydrophilic nature also play an important role in OHC of the fibers [20]. This could be the reason why
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ICROEST 2020 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 575 (2020) 012001 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/575/1/012001
jackfruit by-products meat analogue has slightly higher fat content than commercial meat analogue.
On the other hand, commercial meat analogue had a higher content of carbohydrate than jackfruit by-
products meat analogue.
4. Conclusion
The potential of jackfruit by-products to develop a healthy meat analogue was studied. Four
formulations meat analogues had been produced with different jackfruit by-products to wheat gluten
ratio. The decreased hardness and chewiness were due to the lower content of wheat gluten. The F3
consists of 58% jackfruit by-products, 20% vital wheat gluten was the most preferred meat analogue
among all the samples, based on appearance, aroma, taste, color, hardness, juiciness and overall
acceptability. In addition, it also contained a higher content of protein and dietary fiber compared to
another commercial meat analogue patty. This was due to the addition of wheat gluten and soy protein.
Jackfruit by-products such as rind also contributed to the source of dietary fiber. Overall, jackfruit by-
products were considered as the main ingredient in the production of a healthy meat analogue.
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