Fluid Flow-I

Subject Code: ChE-108

Dr. Asif Jamil

Department of Chemical, Polymer and Composite

Materials Engineering
 Turbulence
Turbulence: is a mass of eddies of various sizes
coexisting in the fluid stream, large eddies are
continually formed, they break down to smaller eddies
and finally disappeared.

eddies

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 Nature of Turbulence

 Turbulent flow consists of mass of eddies of

various sizes coexisting in flowing stream.
 Larger eddies break down into smaller one and
finally disappear.
 Flow within an eddy is Laminar.
 Diameter of the smallest eddies is 10 to 100 μm.
 The smallest eddies contain 1012 molecules, hence
all eddies are of macroscopic scale.
 Upon eddies disappearance, the mechanical
energy is converted to heat and does not available
to maintain pressure or to overcome resistance to
flow.
Deviating Velocities in Turbulent Flow
 The instantaneous local velocities at a given point can
be measured by Laser-Doppler anemometers.
 Local velocities can be analyzed by splitting each
component of the total instantaneous velocity in two
parts;
◦ A) Time average or mean value of velocity
◦ B) Deviating velocity, the instantaneous fluctuations
around the mean value

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Deviating Velocities in Turbulent Flow
 Components of instantaneous velocity in x, y and z
directions are ui, vi, and wi,
 The bulk flow is in x direction.
ui = u+u’ vi = v’ wi = w’
ui, vi, wi = instantaneous velocity in (x,y,z) dimensions
u = const. net velocity of stream in x direction
u’, v’, w’ = deviating velocity in (x,y,z) dimensions

 Due to random nature of fluctuations, the time avg. of

the fluctuating components of pressure and velocity
become zero over a time period to the order of few
seconds.

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Deviating Velocities in Turbulent Flow
 However, the time average of the mean square
of any one of these velocity component is not
zero.
𝒕𝒐
𝟏 𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝟐
𝒖′ = 𝒖′
𝒕𝒐 𝟎

 The mean square is not zero, as squared value

always give positive values.
 In Laminar flow, no eddies form, so the
deviating velocities and pressure fluctuations
do not exist.
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 Statistical nature of turbulence
 Measuring u’, v’, & w’ at different places and over varying
time period, two kind of data are obtained.
 Three deviating velocity component at single point can be
measured as function of time.
 The value of the single deviating velocity can be measured
at different positions over the same time period.

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Statistical nature of turbulence
 U’ measured at two different positions.
 The correspondence b/w velocities at two stations varies
from a very close relationship at very small value of y to
completely independence when y is large.
 It is expected that at small y value it’s a single eddy.
 At large separating distance (y), the measurements are
made for two different eddies and the correlation
disappears.
 These observations are quantified by defining correlation
coefficients.

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Statistical nature of turbulence

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Intensity & Scale of Turbulence
Intensity of Turbulence

Turbulence fields are characterized by two average

parameters.
1st: measures intensity of the field, speed of rotation of the eddies and
energy contained.
2nd: measures the size of the eddies.
 Intensity is measured by root mean square of a velocity
component.
 Average mean velocity as

 Turbulence fields just below the turbulence producing grids,

intensity may reach 5 to 10 %.
 In an unobstructed flow, intensities are less and of the order
of 0.5 to 2 %.
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Intensity & Scale of Turbulence
Scale of Turbulence
The scale of turbulence is based on correlating coefficients
such as Ru’, measured as function of the distance b/w stations.

The scale Ly of the eddy in the y direction.

Each direction usually gives a different values of Ly.
 For air flowing in pipes at 12 m/s, the scale is about 10 mm,
and this is a measure of the average size of the eddies in the
pipe.

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ISOTROPIC TURBULENCE
 The root-mean-square components are equal
for all directions at a given point.

 The turbulence is said to be isotropic.

 Isotropic turbulence exists when there is no
velocity gradient, as at the center-line of a pipe.
 Small eddies, especially near obliteration from
viscous action, are practically isotropic.

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Reynolds Stresses
 Shear forces much larger than laminar flow exists in
turbulent flow, whenever there is velocity gradient
across a shear plane.
 The mechanism of turbulent shear depends upon the
deviating velocities in anisotropic turbulence.
 Turbulent shear stresses are called Reynolds stresses.

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Reynolds Stresses
 Fluid in turbulent flow moving in positive x-direction.
 Plane S is parallel to the flow.
 Instantaneous velocity in the plane is ui,
 Mean velocity is u.
 An eddy moving towards the wall has a negative value of v’.
 Mass flow rate ρ(-v’) into the fluid below plane S.
 Rate of momentum transfer per unit area ρ(-v’)u’.
 This momentum flux, after time averaging of all eddies, is a
turbulent shear stresses or Reynold stress given by the
equation,

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Eddy Viscosity

 μ & υ are True properties of fluid and average values of the molecules.
 Eυ and ƐM are not true but depends upon velocity and geometry of the system.
 Eddy viscosity (Eυ) and eddy diffusivity (ƐM)are difficult to determine and
measured by means of special instruments.
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Boundary Layer
 When a fluid flows past a solid surface, the velocity
of the fluid in contact with the wall is zero (friction
because of viscosity) but rises with increasing
distance from the surface and eventually
approaches the velocity of the bulk of the stream.

 Boundary Layer: Part of the moving fluid in which

the fluid motion is influenced by the presence of a
solid boundary.
 The formation and behavior of the boundary layer
are important, not in the flow of fluids but also in
the transfer of heat and mass.

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Boundary Layer

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Boundary Layer
 If the velocity profile is plotted at different distances from the
leading edges (c, c’ and c’’), as in figure.
 All the change in velocity occurs in a very thin layer of fluid
adjacent to the solid surface: known as a boundary layer.
 Line OL is drawn so that the velocity changes are confined
between the line and the trace of the wall.
 Line OL represents an imaginary surface that separates the
fluid stream into two streams: one in which fluid velocity is
const. and the other where velocity changes from zero at the
wall to a velocity substantially equal to that of the
undisturbed fluid.
 As a result, it is possible to treat the flow as two regions: the
boundary layer where viscosity has a significant effect, and
the region outside the boundary layer, known as the free
stream, where viscosity has no direct influence on the flow.
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Laminar & Turbulent flow in boundary layers
 The boundary layer consists of two parts laminar and
turbulent.
 Near the leading edge of the plate, the flow in the boundary
layer is entirely laminar.
 At distances farther from the leading edge, a point is reached
where turbulence appears and after this point turbulent
boundary layer exists.

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Laminar & Turbulent flow in boundary layers
The turbulent boundary layer consists of three zones namely; viscous
sublayer, buffer layer and turbulent core.
 The fluid velocity near the wall is small and flow in this part of
boundary layer is laminar. This part of boundary layer is called
viscous sublayer.
 Farther away from the surface the fluid velocity may be fairly large
and flow in this part of boundary layer may become turbulent. This
part of boundary layer is called turbulent core.
 Between the zone of fully developed turbulence and the region of
laminar flow is a transition or buffer layer of intermediate
character. This part of boundary layer is called buffer layer.
 Laminar flow in boundary layer, the thickness Zx of the layer increases
with x0.5, where x is the distance from leading edge of the plate.
 As Turbulence appears: Zx increases with x1.5.
 After fully turbulent development: Zx increases with x0.8.

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 Transition from Laminar to Turbulent
Flow; Reynolds Number
The point at which turbulence appears in a laminar boundary
layer are coordinated by the Reynolds number

 With parallel flow along a plate, critical Reynolds number

b/w 105 and 3x106.
 The transition occurs at the lower Reynolds numbers when
the plate is rough and the intensity of turbulence is high.
 The transition occurs at the higher Reynolds numbers when
the plate is smooth and the intensity of turbulence is low. 22
 Boundary-Layer formation in straight tubes
 Fluid entering at uniform velocity along thin-walled tube.
 Point 1:Boundary layer begins to form at the entrance to the
tube. (velocity at the wall = zero)
 Point 2: As the stream moves farther, boundary layer
occupies an increasing portion.
 Point 3: the boundary layer reaches at the center of the tube.
 At (point 3) the velocity distribution reaches at final form and
this is called fully developed flow.

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Transition length for laminar & turbulent flow
 Transition length: the length of the entrance region of the
tube necessary for the boundary layer to reach the center
of the tube and to establish fully developed flow.

The approximate length of The approximate length of

the straight pipe for fully the straight pipe for
developed laminar flow, turbulent flow,

xt = (40 – 50) D

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Boundary layer separation & wake formation
Boundary layer separation occurs whenever the change in velocity
of the fluid either in magnitude or direction is too large for the fluid
to adhere the solid surface.
Conditions at which boundary layer separation occurs:
1. Change in the flow channel by Sudden expansion or sudden
contraction
2. Sharp bend
3. Obstruction around which the fluid must flow
Effect of boundary layer separation on the fluid:
In the boundary layer separation zone large eddies called vortices
are formed. This zone is known as the wake. The eddies in the wake
are kept in motion by the shear stresses between the wake and the
separated current. They consume considerable mechanical energy
and may lead to a large pressure loss in the fluid.

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How to minimize boundary layer separation?
1. By avoiding sharp changes in the cross sectional area of
the flow channel (avoid sudden expansion and sudden
contraction)
2. Streamlining any objects over which the fluid must flow.

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