Engineering Encyclopedia

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Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not
already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given,
or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part,
without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering
Services, Saudi Aramco.

Chapter : Electrical For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: EEX10606 W.A. Roussel on 874-1320
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CONTENTS PAGES

ELECTRICAL PROTECTION SYSTEMS: GENERAL DESIGN

REQUIREMENTS AND PRINCIPLES OF COORDINATION 1

EFFECTS OF MISCOORDINATION ON SAFETY, EQUIPMENT, AND

ELECTRICAL SERVICE CONTINUITY 7

CALCULATING AVAILABLE FAULT CURRENT 10

DETERMINING THE APPROPRIATE TYPES AND SETTINGS OF

DEVICES FOR PROTECTION OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 47

WORK AID 1: DATA FOR CALCULATING AVAILABLE FAULT

CURRENT 56

WORK AID 2: DATA FOR DETERMINING THE APPROPRIATE

TYPES AND SETTINGS DEVICES FOR PROTECTION OF
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 66

GLOSSARY 69

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ELECTRICAL PROTECTION SYSTEMS: GENERAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

AND PRINCIPLES OF COORDINATION

The circumstances that cause system malfunctions usually are unpredictable, though sound
design and preventive maintenance can reduce the likelihood of the occurrence of
malfunctions. This section covers the following topics:

_ General Design Requirements

_ Principles for Coordination

General Design Requirements

An electrical system should be designed and maintained so that the system is automatically
protected against malfunctions. During a fault, the protected zone that includes the faulted
apparatus is deenergized and disconnected from the system. To ensure adequate protection of
the system during the fault, the system must contain circuit breakers with sufficient
interrupting capacities, busbars and cables with sufficient ampacities, and protective relays
that are properly set and coordinated. Circuit breakers and busbars must be appropriately
sized to handle the available short-circuit currents in a system during a fault. The sizing of
this equipment is considered during the fault study. Relays should be purchased with settings
that are approximate to the settings that are required to ensure that the chosen relays have the
proper TAP and TIME dial ranges.

The following two basic requirements govern the choice of protective devices and their
settings that will provide proper coordination between upstream and downstream protective
devices that are within the system:

_ The first requirement is to determine that the protective devices afford

adequate protection without interfering with the normal operation of the
associated equipment and power system.

_ The second requirement is to ensure that coordination is obtained with

other protective devices that are in the same chain as the device under
consideration.

This requirement will ensure that the protective devices will not interfere with the normal
equipment operation and that these devices will still provide adequate protection to all
connected equipment.

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Principles of Coordination

The performance of a circuit breaker with respect to the connected conductors and load is a
primary concern when protection is being considered. To achieve coordination, consideration
also is given to the performance of a circuit breaker with respect to other upstream and
downstream protective devices. The objective in the coordination of protective devices is to
make such devices selective in their operation with respect to each other. In doing so, the
effects of short circuits on a system are reduced to a minimum through disconnection of only
the affected part of the system.

Stated another way, only the circuit breaker that is closest to the fault should open. This
selective operation leaves the rest of the system intact and able to supply power to the
unaffected parts.

Figure 1 shows a typical industrial plant distribution system and relay coordination curve.
This figure illustrates the coordination of the system's protective devices. To analyze the
coordination of a system's protective scheme, the time-current curves of the various devices in
series can be plotted on a single sheet of paper. In this example, time delay overcurrent relays
are used because they are the most commonly used relays to provide short-circuit protection.
More complex protection schemes, such as differential overcurrent protection, are more easily
coordinated in a power system because the differential overcurrent device is more selective
than the standard overcurrent device. Figure 1 shows a 13.8 kV power source that supplies
three 2400 volt buses through a 7500 kVA step-down transformer. Each 2400 volt bus and
the supply transformer is protected by a circuit-breaker that is equipped with a time-delay
overcurrent relay. The maximum available fault current on the 2400 volt is 20,000 amps, and
the maximum 13.8 kV available fault current is 10,460 amps (equivalent to 60,000 A on a
2400 volt base). The maximum available fault currents for each bus can be determined
through performance of a fault current study.

The graph that accompanies Figure 1 plots the time current curves for each of the protective
relays. Because the curves for the protective relays often have complicated shapes, the curves
are carefully plotted with respect to short-circuit currents. The time-current characteristic
curves 1, 2, 3, and 4 represent the curves that will provide the coordination to adequately
protect the industrial distribution system.

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Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

Coordination of Time-Current Curves

Figure 1

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To ensure proper relay coordination, the relays must meet the following criteria:

_ Relays that are farther from the power source must have current settings
that are below the current setting of the upstream relays, or the relay that
is closest to the source must be set with a slower operating time.

_ Only relays with similarly-shaped curves are used in series with each
other.

Such criteria are illustrated by curves 1, 2, 3, and 4 in Figure 1. Curve 1 is the characteristic
curve for relay D. The instantaneous setting (0.5 second) of relay D was set at 20,000
amperes, which is equivalent to the available fault current. Due to relay D's operating
characteristics, the relay will operate at fault currents that are as low as 1750 amperes with a
clearing time of 4.1 seconds.

Curve 2 represents the characteristic curve for relay C. Relay C is set to 20,000 amperes with
an operating time of 0.9 seconds. Because Relay C has a similar characteristic curve to Relay
D, this relay will operate at currents as low as 1750 amperes with an operating time of 7.0
seconds. To ensure proper coordination, relays C and D had their operating times placed 0.4
seconds apart at the maximum current of 20,000 amperes. Curve 3, the characteristic curve
for relay B, is set similarly to relays C and D. Relay B's curve is set at a 1.3 second operating
time at the maximum current of 20,000 amperes. This setting is 0.4 seconds apart from relay
C. This 0.4 second displacement of the relays ensures that, at the relay operating currents, the
relay that is closest to the fault will operate faster than the remaining relays in the system.
This 0.4 seconds is a minimum total time margin at maximum fault current to afford
selectivity between inverse time relays.

The margin allows for the circuit breaker opening time, induction disk relay overtravel, and a
safety factor to cover manufacturing variations and inaccuracies in positioning the time dial or
setting of the relay.

Curve 4 is the characteristic curve for relay A. Because Relay A is a 13.8 kV relay, its relay
curve must be placed on the graph at a current that is equivalent to the 2400 volt fault current.
The maximum available fault current on the 13.8 bus kV is equivalent to 60,000 amperes on a
2400 volt base. The operating curve for Relay A must be set at an operating time that will not
conflict with the other system relays. It can be seen, through reference to curve 4, that the
operating time of Relay A is 1.7 seconds at 20,000 amperes. The result of this coordination
study shows that if the characteristic curves of the protective relays are represented by curves
1, 2, 3, and 4, the electrical system in Figure 1 is adequately coordinated.

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This example illustrates the time-current settings of an industrial plant's overcurrent relays.
The coordination curves that are plotted on a single sheet of graph paper provide a means to
display the selectivity of the various relays. The actual plotting of the curves on a common
current scale is essential because rarely do all of the protective devices that are used have
time-current characteristic curves of the same shape. It would be difficult, if not impossible,
to visualize the relationship of curves that have different shapes.

In general, an electrical distribution scheme should be analyzed to ensure the following:

_ That all buses, load equipment, and power sources are provided with
protection from overcurrent.

_ That the characteristic curves on a coordination plot do not cross each

other.

_ That the delay or gap that is between the protective device characteristic
curves is as short as possible to minimize the amount of energy that is
passed to the fault.

The fault current calculation that is performed in later sections of this Module will help to
determine the settings of the protective relays in a distribution system. To ensure proper
coordination, the time settings of the relays will be the responsibility of the relay Engineer.

The following information must be obtained to perform the calculations that are required for
relay settings:

_ System Configuration
_ Fault Study
_ Equipment Specifications

System Configuration

Single line diagrams must be obtained for the system that is under consideration and for those
parts of the adjacent network that have an influence on the system that is under consideration.
The Engineer can look at the overall system configuration from these single line diagrams.

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Fault Study

An adequate fault study of the system that is to be protected should be conducted. The fault
study must consider both maximum and minimum loading conditions. The transient and/or
the subtransient impedances for short circuit calculations will be required, dependent on the
type of protection. In order to determine the preliminary settings of protective relays that are
applied to a power system, it is necessary to predict the fault currents that may occur at each
circuit breaker location. These predictions are commonly referred to as "Fault Current
Studies" or "Fault Current Calculations."

This fault current information sometimes is available from facts or from previous calculations
on adjacent circuits, but most frequently this information will be calculated for a new system
or an extension to an old system.

Equipment Specifications

Equipment specifications and relevant test data for relays, motors, and transformers are
required to complete the study. This information will define the equipment parameters such
as impedances, withstanding currents, and voltages that will be used in the fault study.

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EFFECTS OF MISCOORDINATION ON SAFETY, EQUIPMENT, AND

ELECTRICAL SERVICE CONTINUITY

Miscoordination results in the improper operation of circuit protective devices and may result
in personnel safety hazards, equipment damage, and loss of service continuity.

The causes of miscoordination can be numerous. Some of those causes may include the
following:

_ Application of the wrong relay in a particular application.

_ Improper time-current settings.
_ Improper fault-current calculations.
_ Changes in the system configuration or system parameters.

An example of miscoordination can be seen in the typical industrial distribution system in

Figure 2. This system is identical to the system in Figure 1. The added components to Figure
2 are relay characteristic curves 5 and 6. These curves represent possible characteristic curves
of Relays D and B respectively.

Curve 5 shows Relay D with a slower and less sensitive setting than curve 1. Curve 5 also
does not operate at the same low value of current as curve 1. The more obvious problem with
curve 5 is that the curve crosses the curve of Relay C (curve 2). This miscoordination will
adequately protect the system from a short-circuit but may cause an unnecessary loss of
unfaulted equipment. Such miscoordination can be illustrated through observance of a fault
current of 2000 amperes that is shown in Figure 2.

Relay D (using curve 5) will not sense the 2000A overcurrent and will force Relay C to
operate. The effect of the operation of Relay C is a loss of an additional bus that causes the
loads on Bus C to deenergize.

Curve 6 is an alternate curve for Relay B and meets the requirements in that it is 0.4 seconds
slower than curve 2 (Relay C), when both are set at 20,000 amperes. However, curve 6
crosses curve 4 (Relay A). In the example, the miscoordination would not be too serious
because tripping of either circuit breaker would shut down the whole circuit.

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Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

Miscoordination of Time-Current Curves

Figure 2

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The effects of miscoordination that were presented in the previous example should be
considered when in the design of electrical protection schemes. This section will cover the
following additional effects on miscoordination:

_ Safety Effects
_ Possible Equipment Damage Versus Effects on Service Continuity

Safety Effects

The prevention of human injury is the most important objective of electrical system
protection. Interrupting devices should have an adequate interrupting capability, and
energized parts should be sufficiently enclosed or isolated so that personnel are not exposed
to explosions, fires, arcs, or shocks. Safety has priority over service continuity, equipment
damage, or economics. The fundamental principles of safety always have been adhered to by
responsible Engineers that were engaged in the design and operation of electrical systems.

Established industry codes include prescribed practices that are intended to enhance the safety
of electrical systems. In recent years, an increased concern about safety has led to many
studies. These studies have resulted in detailed recommendations and regulations that relate
to electrical systems. Engineers that are engaged in the design and operation of electrical
system protection should be familiar with the most recent regulations and with all other
applicable codes that relate to personnel safety.

Possible Equipment Damage Versus Effects on Service Continuity

Minimization of the risk of equipment damage or preservation of service continuity depends

on the operating philosophy of the particular plant or business. Some operations can afford
limited service interruptions to minimize the possibility of equipment repair or replacement
costs, while others will regard such an expense as small compared with even a brief
interruption of service. The practice of preserving service continuity allows the operation of
the facility with sustained overloads and reduces the likelihood that minor faults rapidly will
turn into major ones. A case in point is ungrounded systems that required special regard to
maintenance, fault detection, and fault location to clear the first ground fault before a second
ground fault occurs. In such installations, this basic approach is applied throughout the
electrical system and all other systems that impinge on the critical process.

In industries where the process is not highly critical, electrical protection should be designed
for the best compromise between equipment damage and service continuity. Given that a
prime objective is to obtain selectivity so as to minimize the extent of equipment damage in
case of a fault, most operations would prefer the faulted equipment to be deenergized as soon
as the fault is detected.

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CALCULATING AVAILABLE FAULT CURRENT

Electric systems occasionally experience short circuits that result in abnormally high currents
that introduce large amounts of destructive energy into the power system. Overcurrent
protective devices, such as circuit breakers and fuses, should safely isolate faults at a given
location, and should minimize circuit and equipment damage and disruption of the plant's
operation. Other parts of the system, such as cables, bus ducts, and disconnecting switches,
should be able to withstand the mechanical and thermal stresses that result from maximum
flow of fault current through other parts of the system. The magnitudes of fault currents
usually are estimated by calculation, and equipment is selected through use of the calculation
results.

The current flow during a fault at any point in a system is limited by the impedance of the
circuits and by equipment from the source or sources to the point of fault. This fault current is
not directly related to the load on the system. However, additions to the system that increase
the system's capacity to handle a growing load but that do not affect the normal load at some
existing parts of the system may drastically increase the fault currents. Whether an existing
system is expanded or a new system is installed, available fault currents should be determined
for proper application of overcurrent protective devices.

This section on fault current calculations has the following two purposes:

_ To present the fundamental considerations of fault calculations.

_ To illustrate the commonly used methods of making fault calculations
with typical examples.

The following topics will be discussed in this section:

_ Sources of Fault Current

_ Fundamentals of Fault Current Calculations
_ Calculating Short-Circuit Currents
_ Conclusions

Sources of Fault Current

Most industrial power systems have multiple sources that can supply current to a short circuit.
The sources of fault current come primarily from rotating electric machinery and can be
placed in the following four categories:

_ Synchronous generators
_ Synchronous motors and condensors
_ Induction machines
_ Electric utility systems

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The current from each source is limited by the impedance of the source as well as by the
impedance between the source and the fault. The impedance of the source is not a simple
value but is complex and variable with time; therefore, one step in the fault-current
calculation requires the simplification of the multiple sources to the condition where these
sources appear as one source.

Synchronous Generators

If a short circuit is applied to the terminals of a synchronous generator, the short-circuit

current starts out at a high value and decays to a steady-state value some time after the
inception of the short circuit. Because a synchronous generator continues to be driven by its
prime mover and to have its field externally excited, the steady-state value of fault current will
persist unless this value is interrupted by some means of switching. An equivalent circuit that
consists of a constant driving voltage in series with an impedance that varies with time can be
used to represent this characteristic. This varying impedance primarily consists of reactance.

Industry standards have established three specific names for values of this variable reactance
for the purpose of fault-current calculations. These specific names are subtransient reactance,
transient reactance, and synchronous reactance. The following list provides the standard
abbreviations and definitions for the three types of reactance:

_ X"d = Subtransient reactance; determines current during the first cycle

after a fault occurs. The reactance increases to X_d in about 0.1 seconds
.

_ X_d = Transient reactance; determines current after several cycles at 60

Hz. The reactance increases to Xd in about 0.5 - 2 seconds .

_ Xd = Synchronous reactance; the value that determines the current flow

after a steady-state condition is reached.

Because most fault-interrupting devices, such as circuit breakers and fuses, operate well
before steady-state conditions are reached, generator synchronous reactance seldom is used in
calculations of fault currents for application of these devices.

Synchronous generator data that is available from generator manufacturers includes two
values for direct axis reactance: for example, subtransient reactance X"dv and X"di. The
Xdv value should be used for short-circuit calculations.

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Synchronous Motors and Condensers

Synchronous motors supply current to a fault in a manner that is similar to the manner in
which synchronous generators supply fault current. When a fault causes system voltage to
drop, the synchronous motor receives less power from the system for rotating the load. At the
same time, the internal voltage causes current to flow to the system fault. The inertia of the
motor and its load acts as a prime mover, and, with field excitation maintained, the motor acts
as a generator to supply fault current. This fault current diminishes as the magnetic field in
the machine decays.

Again, a constant driving voltage and the same three reactances (X"d, X_d, and Xd) are used
to establish values of current at three points in time.

Synchronous condensers are treated in the same manner as synchronous motors.

Induction Machines

Induction machines will contribute fault current to a circuit fault by virtue of their subtransient
reactance. This fault current is generated by inertia that drives the motor in the presence of a
field flux. The field flux is produced by induction from the stator rather than from a DC field
winding. Because this flux decays on loss of source voltage that is caused by a fault at the
motor terminals, the current contribution of an induction motor to a terminal fault reduces and
completely disappears after a few cycles. Because field excitation is not maintained, there is
no transient (X'd) or steady-state (Xd) value of fault current as for synchronous machines. As
a consequence, induction motors are assigned only a subtransient value of reactance (X"d).
For this reason, induction motors are sometimes not considered as fault current contributors if
the fault occurs at their terminals; however, for large motors or large groups of motors, the
Engineer may want to include the contribution due to the motors.

Electric Utility Systems

The remote generators of the electric utility system are a source of short-circuit current that is
often delivered through a supply transformer. The utility generators usually are remote from
the industrial plant. The current that is contributed to a fault in the remote plant appears to be
a small increase in load current to the very large central station generators. This current
contribution tends to remain constant; therefore, the electric utility system usually is
represented at the plant by a single-value equivalent impedance that is referred to the point of
connection.

Fundamentals of Fault Current Calculations

Ohms's Law (I = E/Z) is the basic relationship that is used to determine the fault current in a
system where I is the fault current, E is the driving voltage of the source, and Z is the
impedance from the source to the fault and includes the impedance of the fault.

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System and equipment complexity and the lack of accurate equipment and system parameters
make precise fault calculations of short-circuit currents exceedingly difficult, but extreme
precision is unnecessary.

The maximum calculated short-circuit current values are used for the following reasons:

_ To select interrupting devices of adequate short-circuit rating.

_ To check the ability of components of the system to withstand

mechanical and thermal stresses.

_ To determine the time-current coordination of protective relays.

The minimum values are used to establish the required sensitivity of protective relays.

Types of Faults

In an industrial system, the three-phase fault condition frequently is the only fault condition
considered because this type of fault generally results in maximum current.

Line-to-line currents are approximately 87% of three-phase fault currents. Line-to-ground

fault currents can range in utility systems from a few percent to possibly 125% of the three-
phase value. In industrial systems, line-to-ground fault currents of more than the three-phase
value are rare.

Assumption of a three-phase fault condition also simplifies calculations. The system that
includes the fault remains symmetrical about the neutral point whether or not the neutral point
is grounded and regardless of wye or delta transformer connections. The balanced three-
phase current can be calculated through use of a single-phase circuit that has only line-to-
neutral voltage and impedance.

To calculate the maximum current, assume that the fault is a zero-impedance (bolted) fault
with no current-limiting effect due to the fault itself. It should be recognized, however, that
actual faults often involve arcing and that variable arc impedance can appreciably reduce low-
voltage fault current magnitudes.

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Basic Equivalent Circuit

The basic Ohm's Law equation finds the current of a simple circuit with one voltage source
and one impedance. In the basic equation, the voltage (E) represents a single overall system-
driving voltage that replaces the array of individual, unequal, generated voltages that act
within separate rotating machines. This voltage is equal to the prefault voltage at the point of
the fault connection. The impedance (Z) is a network reduction of the impedances that
represent all significant power-system elements.

Ordinarily, the prefault voltage is taken as the system nominal voltage at the point of fault
because the nominal voltage is close to the maximum operating voltage under fully loaded
system conditions. Therefore, the short-circuit currents will approach maximum. A higher
than nominal voltage can be used in an unusual case when full load system voltage is
observed to be above nominal.

The single-phase representation of a three-phase balanced system uses per-phase impedances

and the line-to-neutral system driving voltage. Line-to-neutral voltage is line-to-line voltage
divided by 9 . Calculations may use impedances in ohms and voltages in volts, or both in
per unit. Per-unit calculations simplify short-circuit studies for industrial systems that involve
voltages of several levels. The driving voltage is equal to 1.0 per unit if voltage bases are
equal to system nominal voltages when the per-unit system is used.

The major elements of impedance always must be included in a short-circuit calculation.

These impedances include impedances of transformers, busways, cables, conductors, and
rotating machines. There are other circuit impedances, such as those that are associated with
circuit breakers, wound or bar-type current transformers, bus structures, and bus connections,
which are usually small enough to be neglected in short-circuit calculations because the
accuracy of the calculation generally is not affected. Omission of these impedances provides
slightly conservative (higher) short-circuit currents. However, on low-voltage systems and
particularly at 208V, there are cases where inclusion of these impedances can significantly
reduce the calculated short-circuit current.

The usual practice is to disregard the presence of static loads (such as lighting and electric
heating) in the network, despite the fact that their associated impedance is actually connected
in shunt with other network branches. This approach is considered valid since the relatively
high power factor static-load impedances are large and approximately 90 degrees out-of-
phase when compared to the other highly reactive parallel branches of the network.

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In AC circuits, the impedance (Z) is the vector sum of resistance (R) and reactance (X). It is
always acceptable to calculate short-circuit currents through use of vector impedances in the
equivalent circuit. For many short-circuit current-magnitude calculations at medium or high
voltage, and for a few at low voltage, it is sufficiently accurate, conservative, and simpler to
ignore resistances and use reactances only because the reactances usually are much larger.

However, resistance should not be ignored because the calculated currents would be
overconservative for many lower-voltage calculations.

Resistance data is definitely needed for calculations of X/R ratios when high- and medium-
voltage circuit breakers are applied, but the resistance data needs to be kept separate from the
reactance.

Calculating Short-Circuit Currents

The following information and methods to calculate short-circuit currents are presented in this
section:

_ Preliminary Information
_ Direct Calculation
_ Per-Unit Network Method

The preliminary information that is provided is to be used for both calculation methods. The
direct calculation method will be performed first through use of the information that is
provided in Figure 3. The information in Figure 3 then will be used to calculate short circuit
values through use of the per-unit network method. Although the two calculation methods
represent different calculation concepts, these methods produce results with the same degree
of accuracy if both use the same data.

In general, the procedure for calculation of short-circuit currents involves the following three
steps:

_ Develop a graphical representation of the system with the source voltages

and circuit impedances included.

_ Determine the total equivalent impedance from the source to the

designated circuit points.

_ Determine the short-circuit current at each point of interest through

division of the system voltage by the total impedance at that point.

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Preliminary Information

A one-line diagram is a graphical representation of the power system and should be prepared
as the preliminary step to make a short-circuit current study. This diagram should show all
sources of short-circuit current and all significant circuit elements. Reactance and resistance
values of all these elements should be included in the diagram. Reactance and resistance
values can be obtained from the equipment supplier or data tables. Because the fault current
calculations cannot be more accurate than the data that is used, an effort should be made to
obtain the most accurate data possible. Figure 3 provides the significant information that is
required to perform the direct calculation method and the per-unit network calculations. The
various buses and calculation points are designated by triangles. The industrial distribution
system that is shown in Figure 3 illustrates a 13.8 kV utility source that supplies power to two
480 volt motor control centers (MCC's) through a 480 volt switchgear bus.

Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

One-Line Diagram for Typical Industrial Distribution System

Figure 3

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Direct Calculation Method

The direct calculation method of short-circuit calculation uses system and equipment data
such as volts, amperes, and ohms directly. The direct calculation method also uses basic
electrical equations and relationships directly without utilization of special diagrams, abstract
units, or mathematical techniques.

The direct calculation method is particularly useful as a progressive analysis of a whole or

portion of a system. The method starts at the source, considers each echelon step by step, and
determines short-circuit values at each location out to the end of the various circuits. Such an
analysis typically is associated with planning of an entire power system of a new building or
facility where short-circuit values at all points must be determined before proper equipment
can be selected.

The direct calculation method is used in a brief short-circuit study of a power system. Figure 3
is a one-line diagram that represents a comprehensive medium voltage and low voltage power
system. Data from this diagram can be used to illustrate the direct calculation method
techniques. Locations in the system where a short-circuit current value is desired are
designated with bus numbers in triangles.

This example will present the short-circuit current calculations of a 480 volt power system.
The power system is illustrated in Figure 3.

The information that is shown in this power system is typical of the information that is
required to perform the fault calculations. The power system consists of a 1000 kVA
transformer that steps the supply voltage from the utility source down to 480 volts to supply a
switchgear bus and two 480V motor control centers (MCC). The switchgear bus and the
MCC are connected by a 300 foot, three-conductor, 250-thousand circular mils (MCM)
copper conductor. The motor loads that are represented by M1 and M2 are a combination of
several small, three-phase induction motors.

Two-bolted, three-phase faults are identified at points F1 and F2. The various buses in the
figure are identified with numbers in a triangle. These numbers will be referenced throughout
the example to identify the individual buses.

The purpose of this example calculation is to determine the three-phase symmetrical fault
current at fault location F1 and F2. When calculated, the fault current will provide the basis
for the selection of instantaneous and time delay overcurrent relay settings. As the
calculations are performed, the fault currents for all of the major buses will be determined.

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The worksheet in Work Aid 1 is an excerpt from IEEE Std. 242, Protection and Coordination
of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems, and should be used for the direct calculation
method. The worksheet is divided into two major sections: the transformer circuit segment
and the conductor circuit segment. The worksheet eliminates the need to remember a
multitude of formulas, provides the logical, step-by-step method, and includes any formulas
that may be needed throughout the fault current study. In many cases, the worksheet has
oversimplified the calculations to make the study easier for the Engineer. The derivation and
the basis behind the calculations are beyond the scope of this course. All bulleted items on
the worksheet are to be filled in from the data that are given on the diagram. The starred
items are calculated through use of the given formulas and the information on the worksheet.
The direct calculation will be divided into the following sections:

_ Transformer Circuit Segment

_ Conductor Circuit Segment

Transformer Circuit Segment - Use Figure 3 to transfer the following information to the
worksheet in the Transformer Circuit segment:

_ Source SCkVA 600,000

_ Source X/R Ratio 15
_ Source SCA RMS SYM 25,102
_ Voltage (line-to-line) 13,800
_ Transformer kVA 1,000
_ Transformer % Impedance 5.75
_ Transformer X/R Ratio 12
_ Transformer Secondary Voltage 480

It should be noted that if the source SCkVA is not provided on the diagram. The
source SCkVA can be calculated through use of the formula on the worksheet at line
item a. (c d _ 577.35). To use this formula, line item c is multiplied by line item d.
The product of c d is divided by the constant 577.35.

To illustrate this from the example: if the source SCkVA was not provided, the SCA
rms symmetrical amps multiplied by the line-voltage would equal the SCkVA. This
calculation is shown below:

c • d ÷ 577.35 = a

25102 • 13800 ÷ 577.35 =

~ 600,000 =

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Figure 4 shows the source and transformer data that were entered on the worksheet.
The next step before any calculations are performed is to enter the required data in the
conductor circuit segment. This portion of the worksheet allows for up to six
conductor segments to be analyzed. Only one column will be used for this example.
The following data should be transferred from Figure 3 to the conductor circuit
segment column of the worksheet:

Line item
_ System voltage (line-to-line) 480 a
_ Conductor length in feet 300 b
_ Number of conductors/_ 2 c

The system voltage is the voltage of the conductor segment. The conductor length and
number of conductors per phase are obtained from the data on Figure 3. Once all of
the appropriate data have been entered on the worksheet in Figure 4, the circuit
calculations can be performed. Each line item should be calculated in alphabetical
order. It should be noted that five bulleted items on the worksheet in Figure 4 have
not yet been determined. These five items are:

_ Reactance of the conductor

_ Resistance of the conductor
_ SCA from preceding circuit segment
_ Short circuit current (SCA) of the motor
_ X/R back to the source

These values will be determined through performance of the calculations for bus 2 to
bus 4.

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Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

Sample Worksheet
Figure 4

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Refer to Figure 4 for all calculations. All necessary formulas are provided at the
appropriate line items. A scientific calculator is needed for most calculations. The
first calculations to be performed are the source equivalent values of X and R (item j
and k in the transformer circuit segment).

The source equivalent % X (j) = sin (arctan b) 100 e _ a

= sin (arctan 15) 100 1000 _
600,000
= sin (86.186) 0.1667
= (.9978) 0.1667
= .1663

The value of 0.1663 should be entered as line item j in the transformer circuit segment
of the worksheet.

The source equivalent % R (k) = j÷b

= 0.1663 ÷ 15
= 0.011087

The value of 0.011087 should be entered as line item k in the transformer circuit
segment. After the source equivalent reactance and equivalent resistance are
calculated, the transformer reactance and resistance values can be determined. The
transformer calculations use the X/R ratio of the transformer to determine the
individual values of X and R.

The transformer % X (m) = sin (arctan g) • f

= sin (arctan 12) • 5.75
= sin (85.24) • 5.75
= (.9965) • 5.75
= 5.73

The transformer % R (n) = m÷g

= 5.73 ÷ 12
= .4775

The calculated transformer X and R values should be entered in the transformer circuit
segment on the worksheet.

The final calculations of the transformer circuit segment pertain to the transformer
secondary.

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The total % X from the transformer secondary back into the source is the sum of the
transformer and source impedance (j + m).

Total % X (p) = j+m

= .1663 + 5.73
= 5.896

The total % R from the transformer secondary back to the source is the sum of the
transformer and the source resistance (k + n).

Total % R (q) = k+n

= .01109 + .4775
= .4886

The X/R ratio back to the source is equal to X ÷ R (p ÷ g)

X/R ratio (r) = p÷g

= 5.896 ÷ .4886
= 12.067

The total short-circuit amperes (SCA) from the transformer and the source is
calculated as follows:

SCA(s) = sin (arctan r) • e • 57735 ÷ h ÷ p

= sin (arctan 12.067) 1000 • 57735 ÷ 480 ÷ 5.896
= sin (85.26) 20400.5
= 20400.5 (.9966)
= 20330

This result completes the calculation of the source contribution to the fault at F2 and
identifies the available fault current from the source at bus 2 as 20,330 amperes. If
there were no additional sources for fault current, the total amount of fault current that
is available at F2 would be 20,330 amperes. For the circuit that is shown in Figure 2,
there are two additional sources of fault current that must be considered: 400 hp
motors M1 and M2.

Both motors will contribute to the total fault current at F2 at the instant of the fault and
therefore must be considered in the F2 fault calculation. Fault F2 will be discussed
after the fault current at F1 is calculated.

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The motor contributions will be calculated later in the worksheet and can then be
added to the source contribution to determine the fault current at F2.

A quick check of the available fault current at the transformer secondary can be
calculated to determine if the previous results are within the capabilities of the
transformer. The following formula from Work Aid 1 determines the short circuit
capabilities of the transformer based on its ratings:

Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

The quick check produces a value of 20,918 amperes and the worksheet calculated a
value of 20,330 amperes. The available fault current from the transformer secondary,
as calculated on the worksheet, is within the capabilities of the transformer. This
worksheet value is less than the quick check value because the worksheet compensates
for the effects of the source impedance that will limit the overall available short circuit
current.

The fault current that is available at bus 3, the 480 volt switchgear bus, is the same as
the fault current available at bus 2 because the short bus duct between bus 2 and 3
adds no impedance or resistance into the circuit.

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Conductor Circuit Segment - The next and final step to determine the available fault
current at F1 is to list all components between buses 2 and 4 to determine their effects
on the overall available fault current.

Previously, the bus voltage, length of the conductor, and the number of conductors per
phase were entered in the first column of the worksheet's conductor circuit segment.
This column should be labeled bus 2-4 because the calculations will be performed
through use of the data on the equipment between buses 2 and 4. Bus 3 will be
neglected because the bus provides no contribution to the system.

In order to perform the necessary calculations to complete column 2-4 of the

worksheet, the following bulleted items must be determined:

_ Reactance X, m_/conductor/100 ft.

_ Resistance R, m_/conductor/100 ft.
_ SCA from preceding upstream segment
_ X/R ratio back to the source
_ SCA motor contribution

Line item f, the SCA from the preceding upstream segment, is obtained from the
transformer circuit segment calculations. Because the transformer was the last
upstream segment, the available SCA from the transformer secondary, 20,330 amps,
should be recorded in line item f.

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Line item g, the X/R ratio back to the source, also is obtained from the previous
transformer circuit segment calculations. The total X/R ratio back to the source is
identified as line item r on Figure 4 in the transformer circuit segment. The X/R ratio
was calculated as 12 (rounded off) and represents the X/R ratio from bus 4 back to the
source.

Use Work Aid 1 to determine the X and R values (line items d and e) for the conductor
between bus 3 and bus 4.

Work Aid 1 provides a table that contains the R and X values for the cable in Figure 3.
To use the table, find the column that most closely matches the cable and conduit
system in the power system. For this example, the column labeled "Several Single
Conductor Cables" is the correct column. The conductors are run in aluminum
conduit and are 250 MCM. Find 250 in the "cable size" column and move to the right,
where the correct cable size intersects with the aluminum conduit. The X and R values
must be selected from the column that is associated with the type of conduit material
(e.g., steel, aluminum, or plastic). The X and R values for steel (magnetic)

conduit are higher than that of the aluminum and plastic conduit. This increase in
value is due primarily to the induced currents in the conduit. The induced currents in
the conduit produce an opposing magnetic field that tends to increase the overall
impedance of the circuit conductors. The values of X (3.38) and R (4.57) are extracted
from the table and placed on the worksheet.

Item k, the SCA motor contribution at the start of this segment, includes all other
motor or generators in the system other than the motors on the load side of the fault.
The power source is not considered in item k because it already has been added in
previous calculations.

The motor contribution to the fault, in this example, comes primarily from the
induction motors on bus 5 (motor group M2). If, during future expansion, more
motors or generators are added to the system, updated fault current calculations would
need to be performed to account for the additional fault current contributors. To
simplify calculations on the worksheet, the motors downstream of the fault are not
included at this time. Should the Engineer decide the motors are contributors to the
fault, the downstream motor's contribution may be added to the total contribution at
the end of the calculation.

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Item k, SCA motor contribution, must be calculated for motor group M2. Use Work
Aid 1 and the information that was provided in Figure 3 to perform this calculation.
The correct formula for calculation of motor short-circuit currents to use from the
Work Aid depends on the amount of data that is provided on the system diagram. In
this example, the horsepower rating and the subtransient reactance (X"d) is given.
Based on the information that is given, the formulas for calculation of motor short-
circuit current from Work Aid 1 must be used in the following order:

• Motor Rated kVA _ Motor Rated HP

Use Word 6.0c or later to

•
view Macintosh picture.

Use Word 6.0c or later to

• view Macintosh picture.

If the subtransient reactance is not given or cannot be calculated, the following

approximation formula can be used:

_ SCAm = 6 full-load amperes

The SCAm (motor short circuit current) is calculated as follows:

Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

Because the motor group M2 contributes fault current to Bus 3 through a long length
of cable, the motor's contribution must be reduced due to the impedance of the circuit.

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To determine the contribution of the motor through the conductor, the impedance of
segment components must be determined. The motor impedance can be determined
through use of the following formula from Work Aid 1:

Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

The conductor impedance can be determined through use of the values that are
obtained from Figure 3 in Work Aid 1. The following values were previously
obtained:
X = 3.38 mΩ and R = 4.57 mΩ. The conductor impedance can be determined through
use of the following formula from Work Aid 1:

Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

After the impedance of both elements in the segment is determined, the SCAm through
the conductor can be determined through use of a ratio of impedances. Through use of
the following ratio from Work Aid 1, the contribution from motor group M2 can be
determined:

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Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

The SCAm of 1851A can be entered on the worksheet in Figure 4 as item k.

Once all of the appropriate data have been entered on the worksheet in Figure 4, the
conductor circuit calculations can be performed. Each line item should be calculated
in alphabetical order.

At this point, line items a, b, c, d, e, f, g, and k for the conductor circuit segment that is
shown in Figure 4 are filled in from the data that were obtained from Figure 3 and
Work Aid 1. The remaining line items must be calculated through use of the formulas
on the worksheet that is shown in Figure 4 to determine the fault current available at
bus 4.

The purposes of the remaining calculations are to take the available fault current that is
entering bus 4, to correct the value for the affects from conductor resistance and
impedance, and to add any additional sources of fault current.

Line item h, X mΩ back to the source, can be determined through use of items from
the preceding upstream conductor segment or through use of the formula in footnote 1
of the worksheet that is shown in Figure 4. Because there were no preceding
conductor segment calculations, the following formula from the worksheet that is
shown in Figure 4 must be used:

h = sin (arctan g) • a • 577.35 ÷ f

= sin (arctan 12.05) • 480 • 577.35 ÷ 20,330
= sin (85.26) 13.631
= (.9966) 13.631
= 13.585

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Line item j, R mΩ back to the source, can be determined through use of line item t
from the preceding upstream conductor segment or through use of the formula in
footnote 1 of the worksheet that is shown in Figure 4. Because there was no preceding
upstream segment, the following formula from the worksheet that is shown in Figure 4
must be used:

j = h÷g
= 13.574 ÷ 12.0677
= 1.125

The SCA total at the start of the conductor segment 2-4 (item m) can be calculated
through addition of the SCA from the preceding upstream segment (item f) and the
SCA contribution from the motor (item k). The resultant total is 22180.8 amperes and
is recorded in line item m.

Line items n and p calculate the new X and R values back to the source due to the
addition of the motor contribution. Line item n is determined through use of the
following formula from the worksheet that is shown in Figure 4:

n = h•f÷m
= 13.585 • 20,330 ÷ 22180.8
= 12.45

The new resistance back to the source, line item p, is calculated through use of the
formula from the worksheet that is shown in Figure 4:

p = j•f÷m
= 1.125 • 20,330 ÷ 22180.8
= 1.03

The new X and R are slightly less than the original values because the motor
contribution to the fault is in parallel with the source. The next step in the column is to
determine the reactance and resistance contribution from the conductor between bus 3
and bus 4. This calculation simply adds the parallel and series resistance and
reactance that is offered by the multi conductor cable.

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The reactance of the cable (item q) is determined through use of the following formula
from the worksheet that is shown in Figure 4:

q = b • d ÷ c ÷ 100
= 300 • 3.38 ÷ 2 ÷ 100
= 5.07

The resistance of the cable (item r) is determined through use of the following formula
from the worksheet that is shown in Figure 4:

r = b • e ÷ c ÷ 100
= 300 • 4.57 ÷ 2 ÷ 100
= 6.855

After the motor contributions and circuit impedances have been individually
calculated, the total X, R, and X/R ratio for this segment can be calculated.

The total reactance X at the finish of this segment (item s) is the total X at the start of
the conductor segment plus the reactance of the conductor, as shown by the following
formula from the worksheet that is shown in Figure 4:

s = n+q
= 12.45 + 5.07
= 17.52

The total resistance R at the finish of this segment (item t) is the total R at the start of
the conductor segment plus the resistance of the conductor, as shown by the following
formula from the worksheet that is shown in Figure 4:

t = p+r
= 1.03 + 6.855
= 7.88

The X/R ratio at the finish of this segment (item u) is simply the ratio of line item s and
t from the worksheet that is shown in Figure 4.

u = s÷t
= 17.52 ÷ 7.88
= 2.22

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Once the final X/R ratio back to the source is determined, the total SCA from this
conductor segment can be calculated.

The calculation for the SCA from this segment (item v) is complex through use of the
X/R ratio but has been reduced to the following formula from the worksheet that is
shown in Figure 4:

v = sin (arctan u) • a • 577.35 ÷ s

= sin (arctan 2.22) 480 • 577.35 ÷ 17.52
= sin (65.78) 15817.8
= (.912) 15817.8
= 14425.84

The total fault current supplied by the source and motor group M2 through the M1
feeder cable is 14,425.84 amperes.

Because the contribution from motor group M1 has not been included in the
calculation, this contribution should now be added. Motor group M1's contribution is
the same as M2 (1924 amperes).

The total contribution from all sources is determined through addition of M1 to the
source and M2:

SCATOTAL = 14425.84 + 1924

= 16350

In summary, the direct calculation method determined the following information in

reference to Figure 3:

_ The available fault current that is supplied by the utility source.

_ The available fault current that is supplied by external sources: e.g., bus
5 induction motors.

_ The available fault current at individual buses 2, 3, 4, and 5.

_ The fault current at F1 neglecting the motors on the load side of the fault
is 14,425 amperes.

_ The fault current at F1 accounting for all contributions is 16,350 amperes.

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_ The fault current at F2 can be calculated through use of the source

contribution of 20,330 amperes and the motor contributions (reduced by
cable impedance) of 1850 amperes.

SCAF2 = 20,330 + 1850 + 1850

= 24,030

The available fault currents can be used to determine if the system equipment is able to
withstand the mechanical and thermal stresses that may be imposed during a fault.
The available fault current should be compared with the equipment ratings to ensure
that the equipment ratings are greater.

The available fault currents also can be used to determine preliminary settings of
instantaneous and time-delay overcurrent protection devices.

In the previous example, the available fault at the end of the bus 4 segment was
approximately 16,350 amperes. The instantaneous overcurrent devices that protect
this bus should be equal to or less than this value. If the relay setpoint was set higher,
no fault would cause the protective device to trip. The time delay settings of the
overcurrent devices should be set much lower than the available fault current but
greater than the normal start and run currents of the motors.

Per-Unit Network Method

The per-unit network method is more representative of conventional electrical circuit analysis.
The per-unit network method involves conversion of the system one-line diagram into an
equivalent impedance diagram and reduction of this diagram to a single impedance value.
This method is best accomplished, especially when several voltage levels are involved,
through use of a special mathematical technique that establishes a base (or reference) value
for volts, current, kVA, and ohms, and then refers the actual parameters to these bases in
special equations to derive per-unit (or sometimes percent) values. Application of these
values in a special equation produces the short-circuit values.

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The per-unit network method, with special mathematical techniques, is particularly adapted to
calculation of short-circuit values at one or more specific points in the system, especially
when several voltage levels exist between the source and the short-circuit point. In the per-
unit network method, each fault point is considered separately. A system equivalent
impedance diagram is developed through use of those parameters that will have an effect on
the short-circuit current at the fault point. The diagram is reduced by delta and wye
conversion equations to a single impedance that, when applied to the appropriate equation,
produces the short-circuit value. Each fault location requires a separate equivalent impedance
diagram, subsequent reduction, and calculation. The per-unit network method calculation
does not depend on short-circuit values that are obtained from a proceeding circuit section, as
required by the direct calculation method. Because each point is considered separately, the
per-unit network method may be more expedient when a single specific remote location is to
be analyzed (perhaps in an existing system) because progressive calculations at interim points
would be involved with the direct calculation method.

High-voltage and medium-voltage power systems are particularly well-suited to the per-unit
network method because the analysis usually involves few specific points in the existing
system. Also in these systems, reactance usually far exceeds resistance (high X/R Ratio),
which permits resistance to be ignored and greatly simplifies the mathematics.

A one-line diagram should be prepared to show all sources of short-circuit current and all
significant circuit elements. Figure 3 provides all of the necessary information to perform
fault current calculations through use of the per-unit network method. The next step is to
construct, from the one-line diagram, an impedance diagram or diagrams with the significant
fault points marked. Both resistance and reactance values should be shown. The resistance
values can be neglected in the calculation for faults at particular points where the X/R Ratio is
greater than 5.

The impedances are combined at the fault point into a single equivalent impedance, and the
short-circuit current is determined for each fault point. The system X/R Ratio to a fault point
can be determined through treatment of reactance alone and through reduction of the network
down to an equivalent reactance. The same procedure is followed to treat resistance alone.
The X/R Ratio is determined from these two values. X and R values that are obtained in this
way are usable but not completely accurate if many system parallel impedances are involved.
The X/R Ratio of the resultant impedance to the point of fault always will be greater than 5 if
the X/R Ratios of all the component impedances are greater than 5. However, if a major
impedance has a lower X/R Ratio, such as a large amount of cable, all calculations should be
made through use of impedance values that involve both reactance and resistance values.
The effort to determine if the error will be tolerable when resistance is ignored may be better
used in calculations through use of resistance as well as reactance to produce more precise
results. Formulas for calculation of series and parallel impedances are in Work Aid 1.

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As an example, the per-unit network method is used to calculate the short-circuit values at
several locations in the medium-voltage and low-voltage power system that is represented by
Figure 3. These locations also were earlier calculated by the direct calculation method. The
following three steps are required to perform the per-unit network method calculations:

_ First, base values are assigned and all circuit element impedances are
converted to per-unit values. Sources are treated as ideal voltage sources
that have a first cycle series impedance.

_ Second, an impedance diagram is constructed that identifies significant

fault points. The series and parallel impedances are combined, where
possible, to show equivalent impedances.

_ Third, the series and parallel impedances for each fault point that is
handled separately are resolved down to one equivalent impedance, and
the short-circuit current is calculated.

Both reactance and resistance are used in the impedance values to illustrate the full
calculations for best accuracy and to be comparable with the direct calculation method. Zero
is used when the resistance or reactance term is ignored in the equation.

The following is an example of a short-circuit calculation that uses the per unit network
method. All calculations refer to Figure 3.

Determination of Base Values - The first step of the per-unit network method is to convert
all element impedances to their per-unit values on a common base. The assumed base
power is 1000 kVA, and the base voltage Eb is 480 volts. The base power and base
voltage are arbitrarily selected but should be representative of the values to use in the
distribution system. With the base power and base voltage selected, the base current
(Ib) and the base impedance (Zb) must be calculated. The base current formula and
base impedance formula can be found in Work Aid 1.

The base current (Ib) can be calculated through use of the following formula for
calculation of per-unit values from Work Aid 1:

Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

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The base impedance is calculated through use of the base current that was determined
in the previous calculation and the following formula for calculation of per-unit values
from Work Aid 1.

Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

Determination of Per-Unit Values - After the base values are determined, the individual
circuit element impedances are converted to their per-unit values. The resistance and
the reactance will be determined for each element. To refer to Figure 3, the first
element in the distribution system is the 13.8 kV source impedance.

The short-circuit current contribution from the 13.8 kV system usually will be
expressed in symmetrical megavolt-amperes or amperes that give a specific X/R ratio.
For this example, the 13.8 kV fault duty is 600 MVA or 25,102 A symmetrical at an
X/R ratio of 15. The source impedance (Zs) can be calculated through use of the
following formula for calculation of per-unit source impedance from Work Aid 1:
Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

The Rs and Xs values that comprise the equivalent impedance Zs can be determined
through use of the following fundamental formula for calculation of reactance from
Work Aid 1:
Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

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The resistance of the source easily can be determined through use of the X/R ratio that
is provided in Figure 3, as follows:
Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

The next major circuit element is the 1000 kVA transformer. The transformer in
Figure 3 is stated to have an impedance that is 5.75% of the self-cooled base rating of
1000 kVA, and the resistance is 1.21%. The transformer reactance (X) can be
determined through use of the following fundamental formula for calculation of
impedance from Work Aid 1:

Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

The per-unit values of the transformer's R and X are determined through use of the
following formulas for calculation of per-unit values from Work Aid 1:

Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

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The remaining circuit elements to be considered in the fault study are the 300-foot
conductor (C1), the 300-foot conductor (C2), and the 400 hp motor load groups M1
and M2.

Conductor C1 and C2 consist of two 300-foot, 250 MCM three-conductor, copper

cables in a non-magnetic duct. The table of resistance and reactance values for cable
in Work Aid 1 showed that the AC resistance (R) is 4.57 mΩ per conductor per 100-
feet and that the reactance (X) is 3.38 mΩ per conductor per 100-feet. Because C1 and
C2 are identical, only the calculations for C1 will be performed.

To determine the resistance of the 300-foot section of cable, the resistance per
conductor must be divided by 2 (parallel resistance of 2 conductors) and multiplied by
3 (equivalent to hundreds of feet). The following formula is used:
Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

The per-unit value of conductor resistance is determined through division of the actual
resistance by the base impedance to yield the following formula for calculation of per-
unit resistance of conductors from Work Aid 1. (As pointed out previously, the base
impedance is 0.23 from the base calculations.)
Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

The reactance of the cable is determined in the same manner as the resistance through
use of the following formula. (As the table in Work Aid 1 shows, the reactance of the
cable is 3.38mΩ per 100-feet.)

The per-unit value of conductor reactance is determined through division of the actual
value of reactance by the base value of impedance through use of the following
formula for calculation of per-unit reactance for conductors from Work Aid 1:
Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

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The final circuit elements to be considered are the 400 hp motor load groups M1 and
M2. The running motor loads at the motor control centers total 400 hp. Because both
motor control center load groups are identical, only the M1 contribution will be
calculated. The information that is needed to calculate the per-unit values of motor
resistance and motor reactance is the motor's kVA rating, the motor's subtransient
reactance (X"d) and the motor's X/R ratio. As the formulas for calculating motor
short-circuit currents in Work Aid 1 show, hp ≈ kVA. The motor's hp rating (400 hp)
is given in Figure 3; therefore, the motor's kVA rating is approximately equal to 400
kVA. The motor's subtransient reactance (X"d) is given in Figure 3 as 25%. In cases
where the actual subtransient reactance is not known, a value of 20% should be
assumed. The motor's X/R ratio also is given in Figure 3 as 6. The resistance of the
motor can be determined through use of the X/R ratio formula:

Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

The R and X values can be converted to their per-unit value through multiplication of
the actual value by the ratio of the actual and base kVA values. This multiplication is
performed through use of the following formulas for calculation of per-unit values
from Work Aid 1.

Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

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In summary, the following X and R per-unit values have been calculated for the 13.8
kV source, the 2000 kVA transformer, cable C1, cable C2, motor group M1, and
motor group M2:

13.8 kV source RS : .00011

XS : .00167

1000 kVA transformer RT : .0121

XT : .0562

Cable C1 RC1 : .0298

XC1 : .02204

Cable C2 RC2 : .0298

XC2 : .02204

Motor Group M1 RM1 : .1042

XM1 : .625

Motor Group M2 RM2 : .1042

XM2 : .625

Fault Current Calculation - In order to calculate the short-circuit current that is available
at the fault location, the total impedance to the fault must be calculated first.

Separate resistance and reactance diagrams should be drawn to represent the

equivalent impedance circuit through use of all of the calculation data from the
previous impedance calculations.

The resistance and reactance values can easily be simplified to calculate the total
impedance to the fault through use of the separate resistance and reactance diagrams.

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Figures 5A and 5B show the resistance and reactance network representative of Figure
3.

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view Macintosh picture.

Resistance and Reactance Network

Figure 5

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The next step is to reduce the impedance diagrams to their simplest form through
combination of all series and parallel resistances and reactances.

Figure 6 illustrates the process of reduction of the resistance diagram for fault 1 (F1).
Figure 6 also shows the available paths of fault current that will aid in determination of
the series and parallel sources.

Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

Equivalent Resistance Diagram

Figure 6

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RS and RT were summed and RC2 and RM2 were summed as series resistance
networks. The results are shown in Figure 6. RS RT and RC2 RM2 are considered
parallel sources, and the subtotal of these resistances are in series with RC1.

The subtotal can be calculated through use of the following formula for calculation of
parallel resistance from Work Aid 1:

Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

This subtotal provides a parallel path to the motor contribution (RM1). The subtotal is
combined with RM1 through use of the following formula for calculation of parallel
resistance from Work Aid 1:

Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

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Figure 7 illustrates the reduction process of the reactance diagram for fault 1 (F1).
Figure 7 also displays the available paths for fault current.

Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

Equivalent Reactance Diagram

Figure 7

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XS and XT were summed and XC2 and XM2 were summed as series reactance
networks. The results of the addition are shown in Figure 7. XSXT and XC2 XM2
are in parallel with the fault, and the subtotal of this reactance is in series with XC1.

The subtotal can be calculated through use of the following formula for calculation of
parallel reactance (X) from Work Aid 1:

Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

This subtotal provides a parallel path to the motor contribution XM1. The total
reactance can be calculated through use of the following formula for calculation of
parallel reactance (X) from Work Aid 1:

Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

The results of the resistance and reactance diagrams for a fault at location of F1 are as
follows:

R total = .029
X total = .067

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The total impedance should now be calculated through use of the following
fundamental formula for calculation of impedance (Z) from Work Aid 1:

Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

The total three-phase symmetrical fault current at F1 is calculated through use of the
following formula for calculation of per-unit values from Work Aid 1. (As mentioned
previously, the base amperes is 1202.8 amps.)
Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

Conclusions

The purposes of fault current calculations are to aid in the selection of interrupting devices of
adequate short-circuit rating, to check the ability of the components of the system to withstand
mechanical and thermal stresses, and to determine the time-current coordination of protective
relays.

Two methods of fault-current calculations were presented: the direct calculation method and
the per-unit network method. Although these methods are very different calculation methods,
each method yields acceptable results. In the example that was presented in this Module, the
direct calculation method yielded an available fault current of 16,350 amperes and the per-
unit network method yielded 16,476 amperes. The results are very close and are usable
values. The results of each calculation method only can be as good as the initial information
that is provided and the amount of rounding figures throughout the calculation process.

The results from the preceding calculations can determine the settings of protective devices.
Provision of fault current calculations for all buses will allow proper coordination of all time-
current protective devices that are applied to the system.

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DETERMINING THE APPROPRIATE TYPES AND SETTINGS OF DEVICES FOR

PROTECTION OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Types and Settings of Protective Devices: General

After the values of first-cycle RMS symmetrical short-circuit currents are calculated for each
piece of equipment, the system should be evaluated to be sure that its short-circuit rating is
adequate to handle the available fault current. Active equipment, devices that interrupt fault
currents, should have first-cycle and interrupting ratings that are equal to or higher than the
calculated values. Passive equipment, such as busways and cables, should have short-circuit
withstand ratings that are equal to or higher than the calculated values. For devices that are
rated for asymmetrical values of momentary fault current, such as medium-voltage fuses, the
calculated symmetrical values are to be multiplied by appropriate factors to determine the
asymmetrical values.

If some equipment is not adequately rated, the system components should be changed in one
of the following three ways:

_ The pieces of equipment can be replaced with others that have higher
short-circuit ratings.
_ The impedance in the system can be increased to reduce the fault current.
This increase in system impedance can be accomplished through use of
additional reactors, addition of extra footage to cables and busways, or an
increase in transformer impedance. Care should be taken to ensure that
excessive voltage drops are not introduced by the higher impedances.
_ Some equipment can be protected by upstream current-limiting devices or
other series devices.

The suitability of each application that involves these devices should be determined by the
manufacturers of the devices in accordance with recognized testing procedures.

The calculated values of short-circuit current also are needed to check time-current
coordination of protective devices. Two devices in series should be sized and set to
coordinate up to the calculated maximum short-circuit current. If a large impedance, such as
a transformer or a long run of cable is between the two devices, then even instantaneous
devices may possibly be set for selective coordination. Calculated values also are necessary
to determine how some devices are sized and set to protect other equipment or themselves.
Overcurrent relays have thermal damage characteristics that may require the relays to be set
for fast operation at locations where available short-circuit currents are high. Transformers
also have thermal damage characteristics that require their protective devices to clear
secondary faults before specified lengths of time.

This section will discuss types and settings of devices for protection of motors and
transformers.

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Types and Settings of Devices for Protection of Motors

The potential hazards that are normally considered for motors are:

_ Abnormal conditions such as unbalanced operation, undervoltage and

overvoltage, phase sequence, high-speed reclosing, unusual ambient
conditions, and incomplete starting sequences.

_ Faults - phase and/or ground.

_ Thermal damage from overload or locked rotor.

Abnormal motor operating conditions are normally corrected by an operator or acted upon by
a sensing device that is independent of the motor's coordinated overcurrent protection scheme.

For example, unbalanced operating conditions can be protected through use of a differential
protection scheme or a phase imbalance scheme. Under/overvoltage conditions, reverse
phase, high speed reclosing, and incomplete sequence would be monitored through use of
devices that are specifically designed for these purposes. Although all of these devices are
used in a typical motor protection scheme, these schemes would not use the data that are
gathered in the fault current analysis and would therefore not have to be coordinated on the
relay's time-current characteristic curves.

The following motor protection devices will be discussed in this section:

_ Thermal overload protection

_ Time-overcurrent protection
_ Instantaneous overcurrent protection

The thermal overload protection provides long-time overload protection due to excessive load
on the motor. The thermal overload normally is set slightly above the normal full load current
of the motor, but low enough to limit the amount of heat energy that is generated in the motor
during the overload.

The time overcurrent protection provides short-time protection against high resistance ground
faults or short circuits. The time overcurrent device should be higher than normal full load
current and should not interfere with the motor's overload protection. The time overcurrent
device also will have an inverse time characteristic. The inverse time characteristic ensures
that the protective device quickly responds at high overcurrents and more slowly responds for
low value overcurrents.

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The instantaneous overcurrent protection provides the most rapid response to a ground fault
or short circuit. The instantaneous overcurrent device will have the highest setting of all of
the motor's protective devices. The instantaneous device should be set higher than the motor's
locked rotor current to prevent nuisance tripping during a motor start. However, the device
must be set lower than the available short circuit current that is available to the bus, as
calculated in the previous fault current calculations.

The following is an example of a motor installation that requires the determination of the
motor's protective device settings.

A simplified one-line diagram of a new motor installation is shown in Figure 8. The

following ratings are for the new motor:

Type: 4 Pole Squirrel Cage Induction

Horsepower: 16000

Speed: 1787 RPM

Voltage: 13200

Current: 592

Phases: 3

Frequency: 60 Hz

The power is distributed to the motor through use of an SF6 air circuit breaker with an
interrupting capacity of 12000 amps. Overcurrent protection is provided through use of a
time delay and instantaneous overcurrent device. A ground fault relay also is provided.

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Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

New Motor Installation One-Line Diagram

Figure 8

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The formulas for calculation of motor short-circuit currents from Work Aid 2 are used to
perform a short-circuit current calculation for the motor. The short circuit calculation is
required to determine the instantaneous overcurrent device setting. Four formulas for
calculation of motor short-circuit currents are provided in Work Aid 2 to determine the
motor's SCA. The formula that is selected depends on the available information. The
following formula and the code letter F multiplier of 5.6 is used to calculate the short circuit
current based on the provided motor rating information:

Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

The overcurrent relay's instantaneous element should be set at 1.8 times the locked rotor
current (SCAM) due to the DC component of the locked rotor current. The following formula
for determining protective devices settings from Work Aid 2 is to be used:

Instantaneous Element = 1.8 • SCMM

= 1.8 • 3919.51
= 7055.12A

The instantaneous overcurrent device should be set at approximately 7000 amps to provide
adequate fault protection and prevent nuisance tripping.

The thermal relay pickup setting should be selected so that tripping ultimately occurs at not
more than 110% of the motor nameplate full load current. The motor's full load current rating
is used to calculate the relay setting. The following formula for determining protective device
settings from Work Aid 2 is to be used:

Relay Setting = 110% • 592

= 651.2A

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The pickup setting of the overcurrent relay's time element should not be less than 115% of the
motor full load current and can be as high as 130%, if necessary, to allow for motor starting.
The time element range can be calculated, using the following formulas for determining
protective device setting from Work Aid 2:

Time Element Minimum = 115% • 592

= 680.8A

Time Element Pickup = 130% • 592

= 769.6A

Time Element Pickup = 680.8 - 769.6A

Setting Range

If all of the protective devices are set in accordance with the previously calculated values, the
protection will be properly coordinated and provide adequate motor and bus protection.

Failure to set the relays in accordance with the calculations could cause the following
situations:

_ The motor could trip during normal operation if the devices are set at low
values.

_ The motor could trip during a start sequence if the device is set at too low
a value of time dial.

_ Excessive damage could occur to connected equipment if the devices are

set at too high a value.

The zero sequence ground fault instantaneous relay in Figure 8 does not need to be
coordinated with any other protection; therefore, the lowest ground sensor setting can be
applied to provide the most sensitive protection.

Types and Settings of Devices for Protection of Transformers

Transformer protection typically consists of the following:

_ Primary overcurrent protection

_ Secondary overcurrent protection
_ Transformer differential overcurrent
_ Transformer ground fault overcurrent

Transformer differential overcurrent and transformer ground fault overcurrent is highly

selective and do not need to be considered in the coordination of transformer protection. The

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following is an example of a transformer installation that requires the determination of the

transformer's protective device settings.

A simplified one-line diagram of a new transformer installation is shown in Figure 9. The

transformer in this example is a 2500 kVA, delta-wye connected unit. The primary of the
transformer is protected by a fuse and the transformer secondary and loads are protected by a
circuit breaker (CB1) with an integral overcurrent protective device.

Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

New Transformer Installation One-Line Diagram

Figure 9

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Typical fuse ratings are selected around 150% of rated current; therefore, the following
primary current calculation resulted in the selection of a 200 A fuse. The transformer primary
amperes are calculated first, through use of the following formula for calculating transformer
primary amperes from Work Aid 2:
Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

The fuse rating is determined through multiplication of the primary amperes by 150% through
use of the following formula for determining protective device settings from Work Aid 2:
Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

A 200A fuse will adequately protect the transformer primary and still prevent nuisance
tripping.

The transformer secondary and the feeders have low voltage circuit breakers and direct acting
overcurrent units. The following, a secondary current calculation for the transformer, uses the
formula for calculating transformer secondary amperes from Work Aid 2:
Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

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The following calculations, which uses the formulas for determining protective device settings
from Work Aid 2, show the trip setting for the transformer breaker (CB1):

Short Time Setting CB1 = 2.5 • Transformer Secondary Amperes

= 2.5 • 3012.05

= 7530.13A

Long Time Setting CB1 = 1.2 • Transformer Secondary Amperes

= 2.1 • 3012.05

= 3614.46A

The setting for circuit breaker CB1 needs to be coordinated with all downstream circuit
breakers. To afford proper coordination, it is necessary for the downstream circuit breakers to
trip first on a fault to minimize the disturbance in the system; therefore, the device settings for
CB1 must be set higher than the downstream breakers, or the devices must have a delay
setting that is longer than the downstream breakers.

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WORK AID 1: DATA FOR CALCULATING AVAILABLE FAULT CURRENT

Work Aid 1 is designed to assist the Participant in performing Exercise 1. The following
information is provided in this Work Aid:

_ Blank Worksheet for Direct Fault Current Calculations

_ Table of Reactance (X) and Resistance (R) for Cables (in

m /conductor/100 feet)

_ Formulas for Large Motor Short Circuit Current Calculations

_ Fundamental Formulas for Calculation of Short-Circuit Currents at a

Given Point in a System

_ Fundamental Formulas for Calculation of Impedance, Reactance, and

Resistance that are Derived from the Right Triangle Relationship
(Pythagorean Theorem)

_ Formulas for Calculation of Per-Unit Values

_ Formulas for Calculation of Series and Parallel Resistance and

Reactance

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Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

Calculation Sample Worksheet

Figure 15

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Table of Reactance (X) and Resistance (R) Values for Cables

(in mΩ/conductor/100 feet)

Several Single-Conductor Cables (I/C) One Multiple-Conductor Cable (3/C)

Cable
Size
Steel Conduit Aluminum Plastic Conduit Steel Conduit Aluminum Plastic Conduit
Conduit Conduit
R X R X R X R X R X R X
14 257.00 5.60 257.00 4.48 257.00 4.48 257.00 4.29 257.00 3.73 257.00 3.73
12 162.00 5.23 162.00 4.18 162.00 4.18 162.00 4.01 162.00 3.49 162.00 3.49
10 101.80 4.90 101.80 3.92 101.80 3.92 101.80 3.76 101.80 3.27 101.80 3.27
8 64.04 5.14 64.04 4.12 64.04 4.12 64.04 3.94 64.04 3.43 64.04 3.43
6 41.00 5.04 41.00 4.03 41.00 4.03 41.00 3.86 41.00 3.36 41.00 3.36
4 25.90 4.77 25.90 3.82 25.90 3.82 25.90 3.65 25.90 3.18 25.90 3.18
3 20.50 4.58 20.50 3.66 20.50 3.66 20.50 3.50 20.50 3.05 20.50 3.05
2 16.40 4.49 16.40 3.59 16.20 3.59 16.40 3.44 16.40 2.99 16.20 2.99
1 13.03 4.58 13.03 3.66 12.90 3.66 13.03 3.50 13.03 3.05 12.90 3.05
1/0 10.40 4.46 10.40 3.56 10.20 3.56 10.40 3.41 10.40 2.97 10.20 2.97
2/0 8.35 4.35 8.35 3.48 8.12 3.48 8.35 3.33 8.35 2.90 8.12 2.90
3/0 6.68 4.22 6.68 3.37 6.43 3.37 6.68 3.23 6.68 2.81 6.43 2.81
4/0 5.34 4.14 5.34 3.31 5.11 3.31 5.34 3.17 5.34 2.76 5.11 2.76
250 4.57 4.23 4.57 3.38 4.33 3.38 4.57 3.24 4.57 2.82 4.33 2.82
300 3.85 4.14 3.85 3.31 3.62 3.31 3.85 3.16 3.85 2.76 3.62 2.76
350 3.33 4.07 3.33 3.25 3.11 3.25 3.33 3.09 3.33 2.71 3.11 2.71
400 2.97 4.04 2.97 3.23 2.73 3.23 2.97 3.05 2.97 2.69 2.73 2.69
500 2.44 3.96 2.44 3.17 2.20 3.17 2.44 2.96 2.44 2.64 2.20 2.64
600 2.09 4.01 2.09 3.21 1.85 3.21 2.09 2.97 2.09 2.68 1.85 2.68
750 1.74 3.94 1.74 3.15 1.50 3.15 1.74 2.88 1.74 2.63 1.50 2.63
1000 1.40 3.86 1.40 3.09 1.15 3.09 1.40 2.74 1.40 2.57 1.15 2.57

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Formulas for Motor Short Circuit Calculations:

Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

Where SCAm is the motor's short circuit current

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Fundamental Formulas for Calculating Short-Circuit Currents at a Given

Point in a System

Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

where:

kVASC = Three-phase first-cycle short-circuit rms symmetrical kilovolt-amperes

(also denoted as SCKVA)

ISC = Three-phase first-cycle short-circuit rms symmetrical current amperes

(also denoted as SCA)

VLL = Line-to-line volts

kVLL = Line-to-line neutral volts

Z = Impedance in ohms, on a line-to-neutral basis

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Fundamental Formulas for Calculation of Impedance, Reactance, and Resistance that are
Derived from the Right Triangle Relationship (Pythagorean Theorem)

Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

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Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

where:

R = Resistance in ohms, on a line-to-neutral basis

X = Reactance in ohms, on a line-to-neutral basis

Z = Impedance in ohms, on a line-to-neutral basis

X ratio = Reactance divided by resistance

R

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Formulas for Calculating Per-Unit Values

Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

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Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

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Formulas for Calculating Series and Parallel Resistance and Reactance

Parallel Circuits:

view Macintosh picture.

Series Circuits:

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WORK AID 2: DATA FOR DETERMINING THE APPROPRIATE TYPES AND

SETTINGS DEVICES FOR PROTECTION OF ELECTRICAL
SYSTEMS

The Work Aid is designed to help the Participants to perform Exercise 2.

Formulas for Calculating Motor Short-Circuit Currents:

Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

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Locked Rotor kVA Code Letter Multiples

Letter Multiple Letter Multiple

A 3.15 L 10.0
B 3.55 M 11.2
C 4.0 N 12.5
D 4.5 P 14.0
E 5.0 R 16.0
F 5.6 S 18.0
G 6.3 T 20.0
H 7.1 U 22.4
J 8.0 V Over 22.4
K 9.0

Formulas for Calculating Transformer Primary and Secondary Amperes

Use Word 6.0c or later to

view Macintosh picture.

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Formulas for Determining Protective Device Settings

Protective Device Settings:

Motors:

Thermal Overload = 110% of motors full load current

Time Element Range = 115% to 130% of motor's full load

urrent

Instantaneous Element = 1.8 x motor's locked rotor current or

SCAm
of Motor's Full Load Current

Transformers:

Primary Protection = 150% x rated amperes

Secondary Protection (Short Time) = 2.5 x secondary amperes

Secondary Protection (Long Time) = 1.24 x secondary amperes

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GLOSSARY

arctangent (arctan) The trigonometric function that is the inverse of the tangent
trigonometric function.

fault current Any current that flows from one conductor to ground or to another
conductor due to an abnormal connection between the two
conductors or between the conductor and ground.

impedance The ratio of the phasor equivalent of a steady-state sine-wave

voltage or voltagelike quantity (driving force) to the phasor
equivalent of a steady-state sine-wave current or current-like
quantity.

MCC An abbreviation for Motor Control Center.

MCM An abbreviation for thousands of circular mils. This abbreviation is

used by the American Wire Gauge system to size electrical wires.

impedance percent The percent of rated alternating-current winding voltage that is

required to circulate a current that is equivalent to the rated line
kilovolt-amperes in the alternating-current winding, with all direct
current windings short-circuited.

per unit (pu) The reference unit that is established as a calculating convenience
for the expression of all power system electrical parameters on a
common reference base.

power factor The ratio of the total watts in a circuit to the total root-mean-square
(RMS) volt-amperes.

reactance The reactive or the imaginary portion of impedance.

relay overtravel The amount of continued movement of the relay after the input is
changed to a value that is below the pickup value.

resistance The real portion of impedance.

substransient The reactance of a fault-current source at the initiation of a fault.

reactance

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current symmetrical A periodic alternating current in which points that are one-half a
period apart are equal in magnitude and opposite in polarity.

synchronous The reactance of a fault-current source after a fault has occurred and
reactance the fault has reached steady-state conditions.

tangent The trigonometric function that for an acute angle is the ratio
between the leg that is opposite to the angle and the leg that is
adjacent to the angle.

reactance transient The reactance of a fault-current source after a fault has occurred and
before the fault has reached steady-state conditions.

X/R Ratio Ratio of Reactance to Resistance

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