THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS

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Printed in USA.
Copyright © 1988 by ASME

Operating Characteristics of Heavy-Duty Gas Turbines

in Utility Service
WILLIAM I. ROWEN
Member-ASME
Manager-Gas Turbine Control Engineering
Turbine Business Operation
GE Company
Schenectady, New York

ABSTRACT 3.3 THE TEMPERATURE CONTROL SYSTEM

3.3.1 Peaking operation
With the increasing utilization of gas turbines 3.4 START-UP AND SHUTDOWN
in industrial and cogeneration applications, they 3.4.1 Fast start and load
are taking on a greater role in base load service. 3.4.2 Black start
Because of their inherent responsiveness, they also
offer operating characteristics that can enhance
their contribution to utility systems as a generator
4.0 VARIATIONS AND OPTIONAL FEATURES
prime mover. This paper will describe these
characteristics, particularly as they relate to the
4.1 ISOLATED OPERATION
interaction of the gas turbine, the governor, and
4.1.1 Isochronous governing
the temperature control system. Additional
4.1.2 Isochronous load sharing
features, such as load control, variable inlet guide
4.1.3 Dead load pickup
vanes, peaking operation and other unique
4.2 LOAD CONTROL
characteristics are also discussed from this point
of view. 4.2.1 Constant settable droop
4.2.2 Non-linear droop
4.2.3 Auto peaking
INDEX 4.3 VARIABLE INLET GUIDE VANES
4.3.1 Heat Recovery Operation
1.0 NOMENCLATURE
4.4 EMISSIONS CONTROL
4.4.1 Water injection
2.0 INTRODUCTION 4.4.2 Steam injection
4.4.3 Power augmentation
3.0 BASIC PRINCIPLES
3.1 THE GAS TURBINE
3.2 THE GOVERNOR 5.0 SUMMARY

1.0 NOMENCLATURE
English Units SI Units
IGV = Inlet Guide Vane Angle Degrees Degree
MW = Generator Output
N = Turbine Speed
Nsp = Speed Governor Set Point
Pa = Barometric (Ambient) Pressure In Hg mm Hg
Pcd = Compressor Discharge Pressure PSIA Pa
Torque = Turbine Output Torque
Ta = Ambient Temperature °F °C
Tcd = Compressor Discharge Temperature °F °C
Tti = Turbine Inlet (Firing) Temperature °F °C
Tx = Turbine Exhaust Temperature °F °C
Tr = Rated Exhaust Temperature at ISO °F °C
Tra = Rated Tr at Any Ambient Temperature °F °C
Wf = Fuel Flow
Wci = Compressor Inlet Flow
Wsi = Steam Injection Flow % Wci % Wci
Wwi = Water Injection Flow % Wci % Wci

* Units are % of ISO Base Rating.

Presented at the Gas Turbine and Aeroengine Congress

Amsterdam, The Netherlands—June 6-9, 1988

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 2.0 INTRODUCTION This paper will limit itself to a discussion of
single-shaft gas turbines in generator drive service.
The gas turbines discussed in this paper Aero-derivative turbines are excluded because of
operate on the Brayton Cycle in an open or simple their substantially different features and character-
cycle, utilizing the atmosphere as a heat sink. The istics. Furthermore, with the exception of the
heat source for the cycle is a hydrocarbon-based discussion of start-up and shutdown characteristics,
fuel, in either a gaseous or liquid state, this this treatise is limited to an operating speed range
burned directly in the air stream that forms the of 95 to 107 percent to ensure linearity and
cycle working fluid. The power produced by the gas predictability. The formulae presented are an
turbine is used to drive an alternator to produce extension of those in Ref. 2, and the terminology is
electrical power at frequencies compatible with the compatible.
local network. Additional useful energy can be
recovered from the exhaust gas by using a heat 3.0 BASIC PRINCIPLES
exchanger in a system configuration referred to as a
Combined Cycle, as contrasted to the previously 3.1 THE GAS TURBINE
described Simple Cycle.
The simple-cycle gas turbine draws in atmo-
Recovered exhaust heat is most often used to spheric air, compresses it to the combustor pressure
generate steam, which can be used for a process, as level, adds fuel and raises the temperature level to
in the case of cogeneration, or can be used to the cycle firing temperature, and then expands the
generate additional electrical power in a steam hot gases to atmospheric pressure, producing usable
turbine. In either event, the operating mechanical power in the process. A cycle diagram,
characteristics of the gas turbine will remain and the corresponding temperature-entropy diagram are
essentially the same as in simple-cycle operation, shown in Figs. 2 and 3 respectively. The effects of
except that operation of the gas turbine must real cycle pressure losses, and compressor and
respect the operating limitations of the heat turbine efficiencies are also shown in Fig. 3.
recovery and steam cycle equipment. Where the steam
turbine drives its own generator, an exhaust gas
bypass stack and damper are used to allow greater WN
plant operating flexibility.
. R
The gas turbines discussed in this paper are of
the single-shaft, heavy-duty, industrial design as
shown in Fig. 1. They are aerodynamically and
thermodynamically similar to one another in broad
terms, as the product line has been developed by Nis
scaling both up and down in size. Within a given rJAAR1IAG
power rating a high level of standardization has
VARIABLE INLET
MS5001 AND
been achieved for the basic gas turbine, the GUIDE VANES
MS6001 ONLY
auxiliaries, and the control system. As a result,
the variation in operating characteristics from one NOTE'. 1 INJECTION POINT FOR WATER OR STEAM FOR OPTIONAL NO. CONTROL
2 INJECTION POINT FOR STEAM FOR OPTIONAL POWER AUGMENTATION

application to another, and from one frame size to

the next, is easily predictable. This was initially
Figure 2 - Cycle Diagram
demonstrated with respect to the system dynamics in
the manner described in Ref. 2.

^ I
Im
^il^rrl ..{r01 COMP.
DISCH.
TEMPERATURE TEMP.

Figure 1 - MS7001E Crossection

The fuel control systems for liquid and gaseous

fuels are designed to have similar characteristics,
even though the physics of the two flow control Figure 3 - Normal Temperature-Entropy Diagram
processes are significantly different. This subject
is treated extensively in Ref. 2, which is a com-
panion paper to this one. As a result of the system The amount of power (or torque at constant
design, the same fuel command represents the same speed) produced by a gas turbine of a specific
energy input for either liquid or gas. Therefore, design, and the efficiency of production, are
fuel transfers under load are easily achieved by essentially an instantaneous function of the mass
gradually transitioning the fuel command from one flow of air drawn into the compressor, and the
fuel control system to the other. amount of fuel supplied to the combustor.

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 The amount of mass flow of air drawn into the MW = N x Torque
compressor is greatly affected by the ambient inlet
conditions of temperature and barometric pressure Torque - 1.3 (Wf-23.0)+0.5(100-N)
(as well as inlet guide vane position, which will be
discussed later). Thus the gas turbine is capable Tx = [1/(1+.0027(59-Ta))][Tr-.6(59-Ta)-7(100-Wf)+5.5(100-N)] in °F
of higher output levels during times of colder
ambient temperatures and higher barometers, and
vice-versa. ISO base load capabilities for various Tx = [1/(1+.005(15-Ta))][Tr-.6(15-Ta)-3.9(100-Wf)+3.i(100-N)] in °C
turbine ratings are shown in Table I, with
corrections for ambient temperature and barometer
The operating map of the gas turbine, in terms
identified in the notes.
of exhaust temperature versus fuel flow or load is
The actual output is a function of the heat shown in Fig. 4. This shows the ISO condition part
released in the combustion system, which is a direct load characteristic, which is bounded by base and
and essentially instantaneous function of fuel flow, peak exhaust temperature limits at the top, and
Therefore, full attainment of low ambient maximum and minimum fuel limits on the right and
temperature capability requires a proportional left sides. Minimum fuel represents the fuel flow
increase in fuel flow that is modified only slightly necessary to maintain a flame in the combustor.
by variations in machine efficiency. The expected This value is often referred to as "minimum blowout
output torque and exhaust temperature as functions fuel". Maximum fuel is associated with the "full
of fuel flow may be estimated using the following stroke" capability of the fuel system, and exceeds
equations. Values used in these equations are the values shows in Table I by a nominal amount.
percentages of capabilities shown in Table I, The similarity of this map to the turbine per-
corrected for ambient conditions. formance curves is readily apparent.

Table I - ISO Base Load Performance Characteristics

TURBINE INLET TURBINE OUTPUT FUEL EXHAUST

MODEL SPEED FLOW POWER TORQUE FLOW TEMP.

RPM LB/SEC MW FT-LB BTU/SEC °F

MS5001PA 5100 270 26.3 36,300 88,400 901

MS6001B 5100 301 38.3 52,900 115,700 1003
MS7001E 3600 611 77.3 151,200 229,500 1001
MS7001EA 3600 639 81.7 159,800 240,800 992
MS7001F 3600 888 135.7 265,500 391,600 1101
MS9001E 3000 891 114.7 269,300 334,700 985

RPM KG/SEC MW N-M KJ/SEC °C

MS5001PA 5100 122 26.3 49,200 91,100 483

MS6001B 5100 137 38.3 71,700 122,000 539
MS7001E 3600 271 77.3 205,000 242,100 538
MS7001EA 3600 290 81.7 216,700 254,000 533
MS7001F 3600 403 135.7 360,000 413,200 594
MS9001E 3000 404 114.7 365,200 353,100 529

NOTES TO TABLE I

1. Fuel flow based on lower heating value and gas fuel. Liquid fuel ratings
are normally 2% lower.
2. Packaged unit configuration with allowances made for inlet and exhaust
pressure drops of standard systems.
3. KJ/SEC is unconventional SI measure, but more meaningful than Watts for
fuel flow.
4. Correction for barometer: Multiply power torque, inlet and fuel flow by
(actual inches of mercury)/29.92 or (actual MM of mercury)/760 as
appropriate.
5. Corrections for ambient temperature:

PARAMETER ENGLISH SI

Inlet Flow Multiply By 1 + .0022 (59-Ta) 1 + .0039 (15-Ta)

Power Multiply By ] + .0037 (59-la) 1 + .0066 (15-Ta)

Torque Multiply By 1 + .0037 (59-Ta) 1 + .0066 (15-Ta)

Fuel Flow Multiply By 1 + .0028 (59-Ta) ] + .0051 (15-Ta)

Exhaust Temp. Subtract .6 (59-Ta) .6 (15-Ta)

3 -

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 PEAK TEMPERATURE CONTROL
LIMITS
different operating conditions require different
rates of setpoint change.
BASE

108
ISO
DAY 50% OUTPUT
EXHAUST AT 100 0/o SPEED
TEMPERATURE 106

104
RANGE
OF
TURBINE OPERATING LINE
ADJUSTMENT
CHARACTERISTIC SETTING FOR 4% DROOP
102
ON GOVERNOR
SPEED 2/,
CONTROL
CHANGER ERROR OUTPUT
SETTING 100 SYSTEM
100 125 FREQUENCY
0 25 50 75

MIN NO OUTPUT RATED MAX 98

FUEL LOAD LOAD FUEL

96
Figure 4 - Operating Limits

94
3.2 THE GOVERNOR

The governor, or speed control, alters fuel Figure 5 - Governor Droop Curve
flow to maintain turbine speed at a preselected
value under varying ambient and load conditions.
This is accomplished by comparing actual speed to a
reference or setpoint value, also occasionally
called the "speed changer", which is under the 108
control of the operator. The difference between the
75% OUTPUT
actual and reference value is referred to as the AT 100% SPEED
106
speed error, and the change in fuel flow is a
function of this error.
RANGE 104
OPERATING LINE
In large utility systems, where the frequency OF SETTING FOR 4^/o DROOP
ADJUSTMENT
of the grid is maintained relatively constant, there 102
is essentially no change in turbine speed when SPEED
ERROR
CHANGER
running connected to the grid. Fuel flow, and SETTING OUTPUT-%
SYSTEM
therefore turbine output, is held proportional to 100
125 FREQUENCY
0 25 50 75 100
the speed error, or difference between the actual
and reference values. Therefore, turbine output can 98
be controlled by the operator by changing the error
through raising and lowering the reference value or
96
setpoint.

This type of speed control is referred to as 94

"droop" control, or as a droop governor, because if
the speed were not held constant by the grid, the
speed would "droop" with increasing load at fixed Figure 6 - Response to Set Point Change
setpoint due to the proportionality that exists
between the speed error and fuel flow or load. The
speed-load characteristic of a droop governor is
shown in Fig. 5. The turbine operating line is Table II shows the setpoint rates used with the
shown for four percent droop. This means that the turbine ratings shown in Table I. These rates are
difference, or error between the setpoint, or speed indicative of the normal loading rates for the
changer setting and the actual turbine speed, or designated gas turbines. The synchronizing rate is
system frequency must be four percent to obtain 100 chosen to provide optimum speed control at a no load
percent rated ISO turbine output. Figure 5 shows condition when operating in conjunction with the
the setpoint at 102 percent which results in two automatic synchronizing function. The normal rate
percent error, and sufficient fuel flow to the is used after synchronizing and breaker closure by
turbine to produce 50 percent output at 100 percent the automatic start-up and shutdown sequencing. The
turbine speed. manual rate is provided to the operator during
manual operation, and is faster than the normal
As mentioned previously, turbine output may be rate. Most experienced operators will only use this
changed by the operator by raising or lowering the rate at its maximum when required by system
setpoint. Figure 6 shows the same system as Figure conditions, preferring to change load more slowly by
r but after the operator has raised the setpoint to
, pulsing the setpoint control for normal manual
103 percent, causing the error to increase to three operation. Fast loading rates are provided as an
percent, and the output of the turbine to increase option on some turbines to allow an operator to be
proportionately to 75 percent. Changes to the more responsive to system problems requiring more
setpoint are achieved at predetermined rates which rapid turbine loading. Use of the fast loading
will minimize transient thermal stresses to the hot rate increases the thermal fatigue duty on the hot
gas path components of the turbine. In actuality, gas path parts.

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 Table II - Governor Set Point Rates
SPEED CHANGE - % PER MINUTE

MODEL SYNCHRONIZING NORMAL MANUAL FAST LOAD

MS5001P 2.667 1.00 8.00 8.00

MS6001B 2.667 1.00 8.00 8.00
MS7001E 2.667 0.333 0.667 2.667
MS7001EA 2.667 0.333 0.667 2.667
MS7001F 2.667 0.333 0.667 2.667
MS9001E 2.667 0.333 0.667 2.667

CORRESPONDING LOAD CHANGE AT 4% DROOP - % PER MINUTE

MS5001P 25.0 200.0 200.0

MS6001B 25.0 200.0 200.0
MS7001E NOT 8.33 16.67 66.67
MS7001EA APPLICABLE 8.33 16.67 66.67
MS7001F 8.33 16.67 66.67
MS9001E 8.33 16.67 66.67

If the speed error is affected by the setpoint utility system. Such active response is designed
value, it is also affected by the actual speed, or into the gas turbine, and will occur in the normal
system frequency. A drop in system frequency, at course of events within the limits shown in the
fixed setpoint value, will result in a proportional operating map of Fig. 4, and over a typical speed
increase in turbine output. Such a situation is range of 95 to 107 percent. The former corresponds
illustrated in Fig. 7, which is an extension of to the minimum normal operating speed, and the
Fig. 6, except that system frequency has decayed to latter corresponds to the setpoint level required to
99 percent, causing the speed error to increase to achieve fuel flow corresponding to maximum
four percent, and the turbine output to increase to capability at minimum ambient temperature conditions.
100 percent even though the setpoint value remains
at 103 percent. This type of action in response to Prime movers driving alternators that are
a system frequency change is beneficial from the operated electrically in parallel must have their
standpoint that the system frequency excursion is governors set for droop to share load properly in
caused by an unbalance between existing load and response to variations in system frequency. A droop
existing generation, and that the automatic response setting of four percent has been used throughout the
of the gas turbine is in the direction of reducing foregoing discussion because experience has shown
this unbalance. this value to be appropriate for most utility system
applications. However, it should be noted that the
droop setting is field adjustable over a range of
from 2 to 10 percent. Lower settings result in
108 greater load changes for smaller changes in system
AI 100%
9 OUTPUT
frequency, which is sometimes referred to as a
AT 9Wo SPEED "stiffer" system. If the droop is set too low, (or
too tight), load control stability can become
marginal. Lower droop settings also reduce the
RANGE 104 resolution of the load control, since a given change
OF ^ \ SETTING
ADJUSTMENT OPERATING LINE in setpoint corresponds to a greater change in fuel
FOR 4% DROOP
flow and turbine output. Higher droop settings have
SPEED 102
CHANGER the opposite characteristics, but also result in
ERROR
SETTING less participation by the gas turbine in system
100 frequency regulation.
OUTPUT —
SYSTEM
125 FREQUENCY
0 25 50 75 100
98 3.3 THE TEMPERATURE CONTROL SYSTEM

The primary purpose of the temperature control

96
system is to limit both turbine firing temperature
and turbine exhaust temperature to levels consistent
94 with obtaining acceptable hot gas path parts lives.
This is accomplished by accurately measuring the gas
turbine exhaust temperature, comparing it to a value
Figure 7 - Response to System Frequency Change which has been computed to provide the appropriate
limit, and then comparing the fuel command required
to maintain this temperature with that required to
It should be apparent that fuel and output satisfy the speed, load or startup control. This
increases caused by actual speed variations do not fuel command comparison is accomplished in a low
occur under the same controlled conditions as do value selection process that allows the lowest fuel
those associated with setpoint changes, but are in command requirement to actually control the fuel
direct response to the needs of the connected command signal.

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 Exhaust temperature is used as the measured Careful inspection of Fig. 8 will show that,
variable because it is lower, and therefore allows for constant firing temperature, the allowable
longer thermocouple life, and the exhaust gas is exhaust temperature decreases with increasing output
more completely mixed, causing little variation due at decreasing ambient. This apparent anomaly can be
to measurement location. By contrast, firing explained by examining the temperature-entropy
temperature is defined as the total (or stagnation) diagram shown in Fig. 9. This plot shows two
temperature at the inlet to the first-stage turbine conditions having the same maximum firing
rotor, an area where temperatures are intentionally temperature, but one having a higher compressor
profiled to optimize first-stage bucket temperature discharge pressure as a result of higher air flow,
and stress distribution. which would be the case at a lower ambient
temperature. Because of the higher expansion ratio
The gas turbine will operate on governor to ambient pressure, the turbine temperature drop
control, under part load conditions, until the from constant firing temperature is greater,
computed allowable firing or measured exhaust resulting in a lower allowable exhaust temperature.
temperature is reached. At this point temperature
control acts to limit fuel flow by limiting the fuel
command signal from further increase in response to
the demands of the governor. When these conditions FIRING TEMP.

are reached, the gas turbine output is at maximum COMP.

DISCHARGE / 11
capability for the existing ambient and equipment PRESSURE

conditions.
EXHAUST
TEMP.
If ambient temperature increases, exhaust
COMP,
temperature will tend to increase, and the DISCH.
TEMP.
temperature control system will reduce the fuel TEMPERATURE

command to hold the appropriate level of exhaust

temperature. If the ambient temperature decreases,
the temperature control system will allow a fuel YL4YJd
flow increase by returning control of the fuel
command to the governor. Examination of the ambient
effects equations shown in Table I will show that
these ambient effects can be significant, amounting ENTROPY
to a 15 percent change in output for 40F (22C)
SOLID LINE- ORIGINAL CYCLE
change in ambient temperature. It is for this DOTTED LINE- HIGHER AIR FLOW,
HIGHER PRESSURE RATIO,
reason that the temperature control system is an CONSTANT FIRING TEMP,
LOWER EXHAUST TEMP
active control, rather than a fixed fuel limit.

The relationship between exhaust temperature,

firing temperature and ambient temperature is shown Figure 9 - High Flow Temperature-Entropy Diagram
in Fig. 8. This plot shows allowable turbine firing
and exhaust temperatures as a function of compressor
discharge pressure, which is a measure of the
turbine expansion pressure ratio. The lower solid
The relationship between allowable exhaust
line is the actual computed exhaust temperature temperature and compressor discharge pressure for
limit to achieve the upper line, or firing
constant firing temperature is exponential. The
temperature limit. value of the exponent is affected only by the ratio
of specific heats and the turbine efficiency. Since
both of these vary only slightly in the operating
region where temperature control is effective, the
relationship is essentially fixed. Furthermore,
since the value of the exponent is less than 0.25,
the relationship is also very close to a straight
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE
line, considerably easing the control problem.

FIRING TEMPERATURE

3.3.1 Peaking Operation

TEMPERATURE
Gas turbines have the optional capability of
MAXIMUM operating at power levels in excess of their
ALLOWABLE
continuous base rating shown in Table I. This type
/ EXHAUST of operation is achieved by increasing the exhaust
/ TEMPERATURE
temperature control point by a predetermined amount
/ FUEL CONTROL LINE corresponding to the difference between base and
peak firing temperature. Peaking operation results
50 ' in reduced hot gas path parts lives from those
expected at base load operating temperatures.
Peaking operation is usually selected by the
COMPRESSOR DISCHARGE PRESSURE operator, but can be selected automatically as
described under "Auto-peaking, which follows. The
turbine performance characteristics for ISO peak
operation are shown in Table III. The notes from
Figure 8 - Exhaust Temperature Control Curve Table I also apply.

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Table III - Peak Load Performance Characteristics

TURBINE OUTPUT FUEL EXHAUST

MODEL POWER TORQUE FLOW TEMP.

MW FT-LB BTU/SEC °F

MS5001PA 28.1 38,900 91,700 947

MS6001B 41.4 57,200 124,000 1006
MS7001E 83.7 163,800 247,400 1064
MS7001EA 88.2 172,600 259,200 1055
MS9001E 126.1 296,100 360,000 1047

MW N-M K3/SEC °c

MS5001PA 28.1 52,700 96,800 508

MS6001B 41.4 77,600 130,800 574
MS7001E 83.7 222,100 260,900 573
MS7001EA 88.2 234,000 273,500 568
MS9001E 126.1 401,500 379,800 564

NOTES TO TABLE III

Speed and airflow are the same as Table I.

2. All notes from Table I apply.

3.4 START-UP AND SHUTDOWN

SPEED -'I,
too r
The gas turbine is an internal combustion
engine in which the fuel is burned directly in the
working fluid. Therefore, the gas turbine, like any y

internal combustion engine, is not self starting and

requires an external source of cranking power for 60 START 1 MIN. IGV - DEGREES

startup. This is most usually a diesel engine or AUXILIARIES &

DIESEL WA RMUP 7x - °F/10
electric motor combined with a torque converter, but J
PURGE COAST
could also be a steam turbine or gas expander, if 40
--_____
external steam or gas supplies are available. The
torque converter is required to ensure sufficient
20
breakaway torque and to properly match the cranking I- / \ • / _ FSR - %

device speed torque characteristic to the starting

needs of the gas turbine.
rslWSXlIMsflILRZflPdLR

Sufficient cranking power is provided to crank

the unfired gas turbine at 25 to 30 percent speed, Figure 10 - Typical Startup Curves
depending on the ambient, even though ignition speed
is 10 to 15 percent. This extra cranking power is
used for gas path purging prior to ignition, When purging is completed, the torque converter
compressor water washing, and accelerated cool- output is reduced to allow the turbine rotor to
down. Starting devices are rated for intermittent decelerate to ignition speed, which is between 10 and
duty, and are therefore operated at power levels 15 percent. This speed has been found to be optimum
higher than the continuous duty rating. from the standpoints of both thermal fatigue damage
to hot gas path components as well as reliable
A typical automatic starting sequence is shown ignition and crossfiring of the combustors. The
in Fig. 10. After automatic system checks have been ignition sequence consists of turning on ignition
successfully completed and lube-oil pressure power to the spark plugs and then firing fuel flow.
established, the cranking device is started, and for When flame is detected by the flame detectors, which
diesel engines, allowed to warmup. The torque are on the opposite side of the turbine from the
converter is then filled and the turbine rotor spark plugs, ignition and crossfiring are complete,
starts to turn. When the turbine reaches purge and fuel is reduced to the warmup value for one
speed, this speed is held, by modulating the torque minute, while the torque converter output is brought
converter, for the necessary purge period. This to maximum.
time period is determined by the enclosed volume of
the exhaust system. Three to five volume changes After completion of the warmup period, fuel
are required to ensure the evacuation of any flow is allowed to increase, and the gas turbine
stagnant pockets of combustible gases. Purge times begins to accelerate faster. At a speed of about 30
will vary from one minute or less to as long as ten to 50 percent, the gas turbine reaches an accelera-
minutes in some heat recovery applications. tion rate where fuel is reduced to follow a pre-

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 determined program of acceleration rates, slower to full-speed no-load are shown in Table IV.
initially, and higher just before reaching running Appropriate loading rates are shown in Table II.
speed. The purpose of this is to reduce the thermal
fatigue duty associated with the start-up. Normal shutdown is initiated by the operator,
and is reversible until the breaker opens. The
At about 40 to 50 percent speed, turbine shutdown sequence begins with automatic unloading of
efficiency has increased sufficiently so that the the unit at the normal rates shown in Table II. The
gas turbine becomes self-sustaining, and overruns
main generator breaker is opened by the reverse
the starting device, which is then allowed to cool power relay at about five percent negative power,
down prior to shutdown. At about 80 to 90 percent corresponding to about 99.8 percent speed set
the compressor inlet guide vanes, which were closed
point. This ensures that the breaker is not opened
during start-up to prevent compressor surge, are with positive power on the train. (Unlike steam
opened to the full-speed, no-load position. As
turbines, working fluid in the gas turbine is always
mentioned previously, speed-sensitive events, such flowing, allowing continuous dissipation of windage
as attainment of acceleration control and self sus- losses. Furthermore, there are no bucket resonances
taining conditions are sensitive to existing ambient of concern.) Opening of the breaker drives the gas
temperature, since they are really a function of air turbine fuel flow to a minimum value sufficient to
flow. maintain flame, but not unit speed.
As the turbine approaches running speed, the
next step of the start-up, synchronizing to the The gas turbine then decelerates to about 40
running bus, is begun. This is a two-step process percent speed, where fuel is completely shut off.
that consists of matching turbine generator speed to Again, the purpose of this fired shutdown sequence
the bus, then closing the breaker at the point where is to reduce the thermal fatigue duty imposed on the
the two are in phase within predetermined limits. hot gas path parts. A typical fired shutdown
Turbine speed is matched to line frequency with a sequence, from breaker opening through fuel cutoff,
small positive differential, about 0.3 percent, to is shown in Fig. 11.
ensure a small positive load pickup, (about 7.5
percent of rated load for four percent droop), to Subsequent to the shutoff of fuel, the gas
prevent the generator breaker from tripping on turbine coasts down to a point where the cool-down
reverse power at breaker closure. Microprocessor- turning system can be effective. The rotor must be
based synchronizing methods are used to predict zero turned periodically to prevent bowing and resultant
phase-angle difference and compensate for breaker vibration on subsequent start-ups. This is
closing time to provide true zero phase-angle accomplished via the torque converter output wheel,
closure. operating from the auxiliary lube-oil pump on the
larger turbines, or a rotor turning device on the
The final step in the starting sequence smaller units. Normal (unaccelerated) cool-down
consists of automatic loading of the gas turbine periods vary from five hours on the smaller turbines
generator at either a normal or fast rate, as shown to twenty-four hours on the larger units. Cool-down
in Table II, to either a preselected intermediate sequences may be interrupted at any point for a
load or base or peak load. Typical starting times restart if desired.

Table IV - Package Power Plant Starting Times

DIESEL TURBINE TIME TO

WARMUP STARTING FULL SPEED
MODEL TYPE OF STARTING TIME TIME NO LOAD FUEL USED
SERIES START DEVICE MINUTES MINUTES MINUTES 106 BTU

MS5001P Normal Diesel 2 7.17 9.17 3.9

Fast
Load Diesel 1/2 7.17 7.67 3.9

Emergency Big 1/2 4.0 4.5 2.5

Diesel

MS60018 Normal Diesel 2 10.0 12.0 5.7

Fast
Load Diesel 1/2 6.67 7.17 4.2

MS7001EA
Normal Motor N.A. 7.5 7.5 11.0

MS9001E Normal Motor N.A. 8.17 8.17 15.4

NOTES:
1. Times and fuel consumptions shown are for ISO conditions.
2. Appropriate loading time from lower half of Table II should be added to
reach ISO base load.
3. Fuel used for fired shutdown equals 15% of normal startup fuel
consumption.
4. Listed diesel starting devices may be replaced with motors. Please
delete diesel warmup times.
5. Purge, coastdown and gas turbine warmup periods are eliminated for
emergency start.

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 4.1 ISOLATED OPERATION
10
The preceding discussion is based on the
existence of a firm utility tie, and essentially
fixed system frequency. This is the normal operating
environment in the United States and most developed
countries, but system upsets can result in occasional
TX
system breakup and subsequent "islanding" of gener-
ation centers. To operate under these circumstances,
sN generators must be capable of satisfactory and stable
K^ operation in an isolated mode. This implies that the
LL^ FSR
gas turbine generator governor should be capable of
=LL maintaining connected system frequency within rea-
wo sonable limits. In an isolated mode, there is true
TNH
I- w
x k
speed control, but no load control, since the gas
turbine generator must carry whatever load is
C(,

=o connected to the system.

z,
IGV Under these abnormal operating conditions it
should be remembered that either the governor or the
temperature control system, but not both, will
control fuel flow and power output. Therefore, it
is important to ensure that the gas turbine is
operated at load levels within its rated capability
for the existing ambient and machine conditions. In
essence, the single-shaft gas turbine cannot operate
on temperature control when isolated, because there
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 is no speed control function. The resultant
variations in turbine speed, usually in the
TIME-SECONDS
decreasing direction, will reduce cycle airflow, and
Figure 11 - Fired Shutdown Curves turbine capability.

4.1.1 Isochronous Governing

When operating isolated with a droop governor,

3.4.1 Fast Start
the speed will vary in accordance with the droop
setting. This will amount to four percent for a
The small gas turbines are capable of faster
starting in the event of a system emergency, however, load range of 0 to 100 percent with a droop setting
thermal fatigue duty for these faster starts is of four percent, and clearly can be objectionable,
substantially higher. Therefore, selection of a even under emergency conditions. The problem can be
fast or emergency start is by operator action, with addressed by operator action, using the speed
the normal start being the default case. changer (or governor set point) to compensate for the
isolated system load variations. Reducing the droop
to two percent will cut the speed variation in half,
3.4.2 Black Start but will not eliminate it.

Gas turbine generators that are equipped with An alternative approach is to utilize an iso-
diesel engine starting devices are also optionally chronous governor. As the name implies, this is a
capable of starting in a blacked-out condition, true constant speed governor that will maintain a
without outside electrical power. Lube oil for constant system frequency regardless of the applied
starting is supplied by the DC emergency pump, load, up to the gas turbine capability. It is a
powered from the unit battery, which also provides "zero droop" governor. In technical terms, it is
power to the DC fuel forwarding pump for black referred to as a proportional plus reset, or
starts on distillate. (The turbine and generator integrating speed control. This can be contrasted
control panels are always powered from the battery to the droop governor, which is referred to as a
on all units.) Power for the cooling system fans is straight proportional speed control. The reset fea-
obtained from the main generator through the power ture of the isochronous governor allows it to
potential transformer after the generator field is integrate out any steady-state speed error, with
flashed from the battery at about 20 percent speed. time, to a zero error condition. This ensures that
The black start option utilizes a DC battery- the actual running speed will equal the reference
operated turning device for rotor cool-down to speed or set point.
ensure the integrity of the black start capability. The isochronous governor set point is fixed at
100 percent speed. Any deviation, regardless of how
4.0 VARIATIONS AND OPTIONAL FEATURES small, will cause the isochronous governor to
integrate the fuel command in the direction of
As can be seen from the foregoing discussion of making the error exactly zero. If another governor
basic principles, the gas turbine-driven generator is is attempting to hold a slightly different speed,
an extremely flexible, versatile and responsive con- the isochronous governor will respond by integrating
tributor to utility system generation requirements. to one end or the other of its operating range,
Optional features which have been developed over the either temperature control or minimum fuel. The
past thirty years can further enhance this contri- implication of this is that any system, or group of
bution. The balance of this paper will discuss connected prime movers, can have only one
these features, and their application to the utility isochronous governor, with the remainder being droop
generation environment. governors.

s:s

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 of connected prime movers, can have only one
isochronous governor, with the remainder being droop 120 \

governors. \ ISOCHRONOUS
\ GOVERNOR

In such a multi-unit system, the unit with the 110 ^ \

isochronous governor will have responsibility for
maintaining system frequency by absorbing the system
load changes. The units that are on droop governor
\
will change load only in proportion to changes in 100

their governor setpoints, so long as the unit with CAPABILITY - \ 4% DROOP GOVERNOR
the isochronous governor is operating within its % OF ISO RATING \ WITH 104% DIGITAL SET POINT

range. 90

4.1.2 Isochronous Load Shari

There are occasions where the potential load 80 / \

change can exceed the rating of the largest unit on 4% DROOP GOVERNOR
WITH 100% DIGITAL SET POINT
the system. In these cases, the normal approach of
designating the largest unit as the isochronous
70
machine in the event of separation from the system, 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

will not prove adequate for frequency control when AMBIENT TEMPERATURE - ^F
islanded or separated. The alternative is to employ
a technique referred to as "Isochronous Load Figure 12 - Dead Load Pickup Capability Curve
Sharing".
4.2 LOAD CONTROL
Isochronous load sharing is a technique that
works equally well with small systems that will not
Load, or generator output control is now
be interconnected, as well as with installations
commonly fitted to most gas turbine generators, and
that are exposed to being isolated. In this system,
is utilized in the droop governing mode. This mode
all participating units are interconnected by a
of control is accomplished by measuring generator
signal representing the average system load being
output with a "watts transducer", comparing it to a
carried as a percentage of participating unit
reference which is controlled from the governor
ratings. This signal is compared with the actual
raise/lower function, and altering the speed control
percent load by each unit governor. Any deviation
set point to make the difference between actual and
from the system average causes a signal to be added
reference power output zero. A typical predeter-
to, or subtracted from, the isochronous speed
mined "load" reference is "preselected load", which
reference.
is typically set for 50-60 percent load. On
Since any system load unbalance is transiently startup, the gas turbine will automatically
represented by a corresponding system frequency synchronize and load up to the preselected load
integrating error, the system automatically compen- point. A second start signal will cause the turbine
sates for the unbalance to restore the system to to load up to either base or peak temperature
equilibrium at the speed reference value. Provisions control, whichever has been selected by the operator.
are made for incoming units to automatically align
themselves with the system average load prior to Continuous load control is sometimes desirable,
participating in isochronous load sharing. and can be implemented as an operator selectable
option from the control panel. It is important to
remember that the load control will work through the
4.1.3 Dead Load Pickup
normal governor function, by varying the set point at
the normal set point rates. Therefore the gas tur-
The ability to close the generator breaker on
bine will not participate in system frequency regu-
de-energized system, thereby accepting a step change
lation, except on a very short term basis, since the
in load torque, is another advantage of the gas tur-
speed governor set point will always be pulsed up or
bine as a prime mover. It is attributable to the
down to correct the load back to the equivalent load
direct combustion process and the inherently rapid
set point.
response of any internal combustion engine. Since
the system is de-energized, the gas turbine will be
4.2.1 Constant Settable Droop
an isolated source of generation after breaker
closure, and as described above, the gas turbine
The droop setting is important because it
cannot be operated on temperature control, as this
determines how various prime movers on a system will
precludes normal speed governing.
share load in proportion to variations in system
frequency. This proportionality is determined by the
However, if the bus is known to be dead, for droop setting, typically four percent. Unfor-
instance by the absence of voltage to synchronize tunately, the energy input as a function of the fuel
with, the droop governor set point can be stepped to flow command is subject to the vagaries of fuel
104 percent speed with breaker closure. This will temperature, heating value, and such peripheral
effectively increase fuel to the turbine faster than functions as steam or water injection flow rates.
the load will be applied, maintaining speed at or
better than rated, and thus maintaining dead load Fortunately, the gas turbine generator makes an
pickup capability equal to turbine capability or ISO excellent calorimeter. If any of the aforementioned
rating, whichever is less. Dead load pickup capa- parameters change while at steady fuel flow command,
bility is shown in Fig. 12. This type of operation the generator output will reflect the change. This
increases the thermal fatigue duty on the hot gas characteristic provides the solution to the problem
path parts. of load sharing being subject to fuel, fuel supply

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 and injection variations. The option that
accomplishes this is called "constant settable
droop". This approach uses a settable fractional ME
feedback of generator output power in place of the
traditional fuel flow feedback. If a signal propor-
tional to four percent of the generator output is fed _ _ UPPER

LIMIT
back to the governor in place of the fuel flow feed-
a % DROOP 75% NOMINAL LOAD
back, the result is a four percent proportional droop 50% NOMINAL
LOAD
system that will maintain this proportionality SPEED — ^/n
independently of fuel or injection conditions.
— LOA D - % — — — — — — —

LOWER

Gas turbine participation in system frequency J LIMIT

regulation will continue in a normal droop governor 1% DROOP _
fashion since variations in the feedback only com-
pensate for variations in fuel and injection condi- 99 F CURVES SHOWN FOR 4% DROOP BETWEEN UPPER AND LOWER LIMITS, WITH 1% DROOP
I OUTSIDE UPPER AND LOWER LIMITS.
tions. A block diagram comparison of conventional
droop governing and constant settable droop governing
is shown in Fig. 13. The location of the speed (or Figure 14 - Non-linear Droop Control Curve
system frequency) feedback, relative to the load or
fuel feedback signals, will ensure governor and
turbine response to speed variations. 4.2.3 Auto-peaking

A gas turbine operating at rated base load, on

W
temperature control provides no operating reserve
margin for the connected system, even though it may
have a peak rating. This is because standard control
oFE TEN procedures require that the operator select the
peaking mode, since peaking operation accelerates the
expenditure of available hot gas path parts lives.

An optional feature for the standard control

will allow operation on base temperature control, yet
still provide reserve margin in an amount equal to
the difference between base and peak capability for
the prevailing ambient and machine conditions to
assist in recovery from system upsets. This option
utilizes a speed or frequency detector to automatic-
ally ramp the temperature control set point from the
base to peak settings if system frequency drops below
the detector setting. This action returns control of
fuel flow to the speed governor, which then increases
fuel in response to the system frequency deviation.
Resolution of the speed or frequency detector set-
tings is easily achievable down to 0.01 Hertz.
Figure 13 - Droop Governing Comparison
Return of the gas turbine to base load temper-
ature control occurs at an adjustable time interval
4.2.2 Non-Linear Droop after recovery of system frequency, as indicated by
the detector. Manual selection of peak will inhibit
In today's world of digitally-implemented the automatic return to base temperature control. A
turbine control, it is now feasible to incorporate comparator compares actual exhaust temperature to the
many operating features that would be extremely base temperature control set point, and records
difficult, if not impossible, using analog systems. fired hours on the appropriate base or peak meters.
A case in point is the implementation of non-linear
droop. This feature allows normal droop operation Naturally, this feature requires that the gas
for proper load sharing over the normally expected turbine have a peak rating. In cogeneration or heat
range of frequency deviation. recovery operations, consideration should be given to
the expected temperatures to be encountered during
the selection of downstream heat recovery equipment.
However, if the system frequency error signal
exceeds a predetermined (and field settable) level,
either positive or negative, the operating droop is 4.3 VARIABLE INLET GUIDE VANES
reduced to a predetermined (also field settable)
degree. This results in the gas turbine generator Variable inlet guide vanes (IGV's) are supplied
loading or unloading more rapidly in response to on most gas turbines to control air flow during
frequency deviation, increasing the gas turbine startup to avoid compressor surge as described in the
contribution to reducing system frequency deviations section on turbine startup. In addition, IGV's are
in response to load variations. A typical positioned at minimum full-speed operating level on
non-linear droop curve is shown in Fig. 14. This is gas-fired turbines under light load conditions to
most effective on relatively small systems where the decrease the compressor discharge pressure, and
gas turbines are a significant portion of the system thereby increase the fuel nozzle pressure ratio, as a
generation. means of minimizing the potential for combustor

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 resonance. The startup IGV setting is 34 degrees, The operating characteristics of the gas tur-
and the minimum full-speed operating level is 57 bine under modulating IGV operation can be approxi-
degrees, while maximum IGV angle is 84 degrees, mately described as follows. Since the turbine
corresponding to rated compressor inlet flow for the efficiency is relatively flat, the torque equation of
conditions shown in Table I. Section 3.1 remains essentially unchanged. However,
the exhaust temperature equations must be
4.3.1 Heat Recovery Operation compensated by the ratio of rated air flow to actual
air flow, corrected for ambient conditions.
The IGV's have the ability to control compres-
sor inlet flow, under normal operating conditions, The dynamic load pickup capability of the gas
over a range of between 75 and 85 percent to 100 turbine, after reaching IGV control, is limited by
percent, depending on prevailing ambient and machine the differential in temperature between the IGV set
conditions. This provides increased exhaust temper- point and the fuel temperature control set point,
atures at part load, relative to full air flow cond- resulting in reduced response to decreasing system
itions, and can substantially increase the amount of frequency. Response to the slower change of the
exhaust energy that is recoverable, since higher governor set point, and increasing system frequency
exhaust temperature at reduced flow provides more remain essentially the same as the simple cycle gas
effective heat transfer in the HRSG than higher flow turbine. In cases where fast response is required,
at reduced temperature. It should be noted that, an internal control signal is utilized to fully open
under the postulated conditions of rated firing the inlet guide vanes more rapidly, and thus allow
temperature, the turbine efficiency as a function of more rapid load pickup.
flow is relatively flat, varying only as a second
order function of pressure ratio. The net result is The application of exhaust heat recovery
that overall part-load combined-cycle efficiencies equipment results in an increase in the exhaust sys-
are higher at reduced IGV settings. tem pressure drop which adversely affects gas turbine
performance as alluded to in Tables I and III. The
For this reason, virtually all gas turbines net effect is a reduction in turbine output of
installed for heat recovery operation utilize modu- approxi- mately 0.5 percent for each four inches
lating IGV's to maximize cycle part-load thermal (100 mm) water-gage increase in turbine back
efficiencies. The control scheme employs the tem- pressure. In addition, the reduced turbine pressure
perature control system to hold the IGV's closed, at ratio, at constant firing temperature, results in an
the 57 degree setting, until the turbine exhaust increase in turbine exhaust temperature of 2.2F
temperature reaches a settable differential below (1.2C) for each four-inch increase in back
that at which fuel limiting will occur. Further pressure. There is no corresponding change in fuel
increases of fuel in response to governor action flow, since air flow and firing temperature are
cause the inlet guide vanes to open, since the constant.
exhaust temperature now transiently exceeds the IGV
control set point, increasing air flow, fuel flow, 4.4 EMISSIONS CONTROL
and gas turbine output. This process continues until
the IGV's are fully open, whereupon further increases Gas turbine emissions of nitrogen oxides can be
in fuel flow cause the exhaust temperature to reduced to meet EPA requirements by injecting water
increase, putting the turbine on temperature control or steam into the primary combustion zone to lower
of fuel flow. This combined temperature control flame temperatures. This increases the turbine mass
characteristic is shown in Fig. 15. flow, pressure ratio, and working fluid properties in
a manner which substantially alters the gas turbine
performance characteristics in comparison to the
LIUIIXIi4UI t8U1'CI8 "dry" condition. The amount of water or steam to be
injected is highly sensitive to site conditions, fuel

Z
composition and applicable local codes. Therefore,
/ this paper will only address broad concepts, couched
/
/ in terms of a typical gas turbine at ISO conditions,
, burning natural gas or distillate, and meeting EPA
ISO CONDITIONS HEAVY LINE INDICATES
57° IGV AN GLE // \

TYPICAL TRAJECTORY requirements.
FROM PART LOAD TO
FULL LOAD .

/
/ ISO CONDITIONS
84° IGV ANGLE
4.4.1 Water Injection
TEMPERATURE /
Water injection is the method of choice for
/ MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE
controlling nitrogen oxide emissions from simple-
EXHAUSTTEMPERATURE cycle gas turbines. Typical water injection curves
for gas and distillate fuels are shown in Fig. 16.
The practicalities of instrument resolution and EPA
requirements for accuracy dictate the shape of the
low-flow portion of the curve, which is designed to
FUEL CONTROL LINE
ISO CONDITIONS ensure meeting minimum injection requirements, while
84° IGV ANGLE / \^
maintaining achievable minimum flow feedback signal
levels. Fast acting shutoff valves are used to
reduce injection flow in the event of load rejection
/ \
/ IGV CONTROL LINE \ to prevent combustor flameout. Failure to maintain
required water to fuel ratios will cause an alarm in
accordance with EPA reporting requirements, but will
not result in a turbine shutdown. The effect of
COMPRESSOR DISCHARGE PRESSURE
water injection on turbine performance is shown in
Figure 15 - VIGV Temperature Speed/Load Curve Table V.

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 availability of excess steam at many cogeneration
2.0
sites, has led to the consideration of steam
injection, beyond levels required for emissions
control, as a means of augmenting turbine output.
However, there is a limit to the amount of steam
injection into the gas turbine in general, and into
1.5 the primary zone of the combustor in particular.
The latter limit is set by the flameout
3
0
J
characteristics of the combustor, while the former
is set by mechanical considerations and compressor

o
LL
a
W
pressure ratio limitations.

oca 1.0
The maximum allowable total steam injection to
U the gas turbine is approximately five percent of
3N
¢
existing air flow depending on model series, and
0 prevailing ambient and machine conditions. This must
be divided between emissions control steam injection
into the combustor, and power augmentation steam
.5 injected into the compressor discharge, as indicated
in Fig. 2.

In most cases, control of augmentation steam is

achieved as an extension of the normal turbine
governing characteristic in a technique referred to
0 as "dual governing", which allows the governor to
0 50 100 150
control turbine output beyond the point where fuel
FUEL FLOW - % OF ISO RATED
is limited by the temperature control system. Where
excess steam is usually available, it is also pos-
Figure 16 - Emissions Control Water to Fuel Ratio Curves sible to base load the augmentation steam, and allow
the gas turbine governor to alter output using fuel
flow while below rated exhaust temperature. Since
4.4.2 Steam Injection some of the augmentation steam goes through the
primary zone of the combustor, the algorithms that
Steam injection is the method of choice for calculate the two flows are very complex. Exhaust
controlling emissions from gas turbines applied to temperature control curves are also compensated for
cogeneration and combined-cycle systems because of the effects of steam injection when the steam
the availability of steam at appropriate conditions, injection is in use.
and because of the substantial improvement in gas
turbine heat rate that is achievable. Steam flow 5.0 SUMMARY
requirements are nominally 1.4 times those shown for
water injection. The effect of steam injection on The heavy-duty gas turbine is a very flexible
turbine performance is also shown in Table V. prime mover for driving generators in utility ser-
vice. This paper has described the basic operating
characteristics of the gas turbine and its controls
Table V - Performance Characteristics with Injection and optional features from the viewpoint of utility
applications. Emphasis has been placed on the inter-
EFFECT SHOWN IS FOR EACH 1% INJECTION action of the equipment with the connected system,
and is based on experience with over 2500 gas
MODEL POWER INCREASE - % FUEL FLOW INCREASE - %
turbines in generator service.
* Water Injection
REFERENCES
MS5001PA 3.5 5.5
MS6001B 3.0 4.8 1. C.R. St. Pierre - "Impact Loading of Isolated
MS7001E
MS7001EA
2.9
2.9
3.0
4 9 . Generators", IEEE Transactions on Industry
4.9 Applications, Vol. IA-17, No. 6, November/December
MS9001E
1981, Page 557.

* Steam Injection 2. W.I. Rowen - "Simplified Mathematical

Representations of Heavy-Duty Gas Turbines", ASME
MS5001PA 3.3 1.5
2.9 1.5 Journal of Engineering for Power, October 1983,
MS60018
MS7001E 2.8 1.5 Page 865.
MS7001EA 2.8 1.5
MS9001E 2.8 1.5 3. R.L. Doughty, et al - "Electrical Studies For An
Industrial Gas Turbine Cogeneration Facility", IEEE
NOTES TO TABLE V
Paper #IAS 32-034, Presented in Denver, Colorado,
1. Injection is defined as a % of inlet flow in Table I. October, 1986.

2. Values shown are for ISO base load conditions.

4.4.3 Power Augmentation

The improvement in gas turbine performance

achievable with steam injection, coupled with the

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