| and ( +a) Draw the circutt Afogram of a halpwave scectiffer erplatn tts So | | Rectifters , frlters and Spectal purpose devices | Operation with the help of waveforms. | Alin hatpwave vrectiffer, rectifying element conducts ont durfag the | positive thalf cycle of faput ae Supply + The negative hap cycles of Oc Supply are eliminated fon the. Output- ro eatin etic | i + ] | Re . | f Eo. wy, . eR. von HLS. | tg i- haty wave rectiffer thts rectiffer cfreutt consists of resistive load » rectifying element, f¢y PO genction dfode cand the Source of a-¢ aoete all connected fr series. The efreatt Afogeam f shown fo fiqure- The transformer decides the peak value of the Secondary voltage. SF the sfowmn P | Ny are primary number of turns and Na are Sei Number of turns and Epm fs the peak value oF es, i then, No N22 Esm Ni Epm where Esen fs the peak value OF the ay -c Voltage As the Mature of Esm fs Sthusofdal the mstantaneous Vatue writ be, es = Egm Sint Wo = ont F = Supply freqyens tet Ry represents the forward resistance of the dfode. Assume that) Unde feverse biased condftfon , the difode acts as Open cfreuit- |Operation of the treat i Durty the. pustttve half cydte of Séenntary cscwuoltoges Fermteal A ie mes paitive with respect to termfnal (B). The dtede tS forward tesed And current flows fn clock ustse dfrectton » The current wlll How for | Jatmost futt postive hau cycle Ths current fs also slowing through load| the load current. | | jreststance R.- hence denoted aStr» | ral (A) 7s. negative with respect Bartn negative atpeycte when terme KD termfnal (B) » dtode betomes reverse bi fn the cfreuft . thus the cfrcuft current, vobfch 1 fo the form oF hat sinusoidal pulses. raged Hence no current {lows 5 also the load current, Secondars 7 coca vy % load : cuitent iy é loo vere = epg = average value wt Tom 1 tg aod current and toad voltage waveforms for halpucave rectifier the dic outpat waveform fs expected tO be hatpusave rectifier gives output fo the form of postive Sinusofdal pulses: Hence. the output %& canted pulsating dic. Tt ts discontinous fn nature. b) Determine the a stragght tne but the expressfons for onesnae Oc current , Averag 2 De votteg Rus vole of current » DC power output and Ac power fnput of a halt |- wave rectiffer- 7A) Average Oc current + the owerage or de value of atternatt Ing current 6 obtafned i % f 1 ntegrdi a by integrdtion a |i= Dmsiawt for oLwteT ° for TW wk 22tt ny an Toe = Cf tiduat) = i [aastauneraewe a @ MO carvent fleus durtog peqotive hay cycle of ac fnput voltage i.e, between} wee tO wt= oT v * pe + d [ Imsincustydewt) ° Toe = TM. — average value ey a w jertying Kiichoff's voltage law use can write, Im = Esm REERLT Re Average OC voltage :- Epe = Toe Re Fon + Img, = Hm __.q i CRFREARS TT The usinding ‘resistance Rg And foward resistance Ry are. partiaty very Smati compared © Re- Ene = Esm Tf RerRs [ RL “] Enc = sm TORE Rs ote negiesteg) RHs vatue Of current: f _ ; = Waa § Cimstnots*atests a 7 \ a T cad srt ate) . ° Tres+ |@) Draw the cércutt dtagram of a full wave rectiffer and usith the hetp | eJ AF C-cosatest yaw) =a e 7 LD | m 16 (2 | beng = Em | 3 D.c power output + | | | Poe = EneToe = Toe Re 2 > TR Re (J Ree ae Por = Imp, 72 Tro = _Esm , Ret RstRr Poe = Esto Re TC Ree Ree RL) Arc power input Phe = Teens (Ret Ry tRe] / Dems = In z fac = Ee (Rr Ret Rey Of waveforms destitbe tts Operatfon. LA) the full usove rectier conducts during both posttive and negative half cycles of foput ac Supply. In order to rectify ‘both the halt cyetes Of auc tnput, tw Afodes ore used fo thts Chrcult. The diodes feed) | * 0. conprmon (00d R. with the hetp of a centre tap transformer. for the proper Operatfon of the cfreutt , a Center—tap on the sSecondar toindtog of the transformer %6 essential. dor iu s etna | | wat op Ly Ewe a oT £ | — AcSuppy 5 | © o fig full wave rectiffer Operation | Of the céreutt Consider the positive hatg cycle Of ac. Input eee fr which termtinal CA) fs positive and terminal (8) negative. the dtodd 0, wttt be forward blased and hence ustl conduct whtle dfade 0 willl be reverse biased and will act Os open cfrcute “and wfll not! conduct q il ® The diode Di Supplies the load ceurrent i= igi: Thfs current ts flowtag tho whfle the tower half oF Secondar a4 upper haip of Secondary windir oF the transformer cartes no Current Since Afocle Dy ts veverse biased ar ackS OS open cfreatt- - Sh the next half cyele OF ac volta becomes negative and te) Posttfve: The diode Da conducts » belo forward basd while Dy does mot, being reverse biased . ec» —— reverses and terminal CA) The diode Ds Suppifes the load current, fey TL = faa» Now the lower, half of the Secondary solnging Carrters: the current but the upper aig does not.4) Secomdary Gain voltage cone Half) tay > ee or je De ctotent, Average DC voltage, ) 1 Rms value of current, De power output and AC power Input OF @ full Dekermine the expressfons: for Averon toove rectiffer. . Average pe Current > TL=fmSinwt OLweL TT = -Tmsfowk cwreot ot tedlwe) or * a fe [amstneot desot * s insta Loe) | 2) wo [ T sfewt stot) — i ee + Ten [(-tosustdy — cea vd = Tra [-cosm + coso+ cosa cost) S cost =-1 = dm fc -tayj= Um aT fenstat tay i D s 2 Ao = zim. for full wave ‘vectifferaverage De toad voltage: ij 2Tme2u W Epc Toc Ru = | Epes _2Esm Re TERA RSV RUD FD Er | ties Re LLRL hence REARS p> | Re Eo, = 26m 7 Rms toad current 3 Tens = Jt, J dtu ° F Fems = | 2. Jerinstewdae7> am | 3 = Im * {cost} iene) ewe) L [ewes - | = Ton | hemo) = Sms co pes = Sto. ee ee qe Epc Doe = Sox Re Poe = Tec in[4c pouscr Gps ——— : Phe = Thnng UR¢HPst PLD | ~ (Ey emp reeren Pre = Tea CRpTREARLD | 2 Pac = Ae = Sm ____- 1 (Q¢ 454 RL) (RpEFRerRUy > Poc = Eds 2DURE+ REAR SOUL Supply with a a) A halt wane rectfffer ts Supplied from a 830%) to a ceststtue load of LOK: The dtode foward | Step-down rratfo of 3:1 | Yesigtarce ($ 45SL uohtle transformer Seco jowerage , Rug values of current , Oc output voltage , [and ~fpple factor. Given values Rg =F5D, Re=tOKD, Rs= 10 the ae supply voltages ane et FNS Vales Nu = Ep (Rms) = 280s 4 naar fs tote calculate moantonun, egtctency of recktftcattor Ni” €p A = €slrrns) a 230 Es( RNS) = 46,066V Eom = Vaestens) = V2 ¥ 76-669 = (08.423 Tem = Sm a Tsm = 8 ayy Ree RARE q. 02: U2 dey = eee = 1l0.A5mA eee lo4 954 10%10>b) = 1045 2 5.395mA fa Epe = Tye xRe = 3.492 tb? x10 10" = Bu22V Poc= Ene-Tpe = 3y.22x3.a00K10" = O-aLw Pow = Id eRe ae = Cto-45 x07) s10 x10 1 = OH Ww Pac = Derm (Ry tRetRed = (5.345 ¥153) (1O4AS+1OXI07) = 9-213 elon = PP x10 = ONAL e100 0.2 = YO “The sfipple actor ts constant for half wave, veckiHer fs 1-21 Veto A full wove vectifier cfreuit is fed from a transformer having a center- topped Setondary winding .-the sms vol from efther end of Second to center tap fS 30v. Te the dtode foruurd resistance fs 2 and that of half Sexonslory is 82) for a Load of K-21, Calculate De Power “Clelfvered to the load ; Cbfctency OF rectification and TOF & econo: | |A) Given | Es=20V, & =252, Rg = BVA =WK Es = Eams=30V Esme EgVa = 30¥3 V = 42-426 Im= _Esm ~ 20ND yg Re FRSA RL 24100048 = uama toc = ZIm=2674rA Q) powen delivered De Ry = C26 FU HIDPURMD = 0-FI5W ©) vo» = Pepe Fe fem = x20 = 24v Voc: full load = Boe RL = O6-FuMAIIKD) = 26-44 Regulation = YNLIVEL xi99 VEL © PAT REG yt00 = 0-470 26-44 9 eipftery = D-Coutput “AC input 1 = 1 ee et Te Ty RptRs Tm 14 48) Re 000 = 0.802 ey 80-2) A) Transformer Secondary ne = Save * Shine = 30% We | “ | = O-faN s1u0-£ = 0-C power output | | | Nec vate i = O-AIS a | 0° eq | = 0-802t/a) with neat cfreutt cfagram and waveforms , tilustrate the, —— emt) Land working of Brfetge rect fer. : eae Peet A) the bridge “rectfffer ctyeutls manly used as a) & power rectiffer creat for Converting cic Power to dle power and System tn rectifter type ac meters , Such as ac voltmeter boa recite fh which the ac Voltage under measurement fs first converted fate de ard measured vofth conventfonal meter. cthe brtdge rectfffer efreutt ( essenttatly a full-wave rectiffer ctreutty using jour atodes, formtog the four arms of an electrical bridge. 10 one < f$ appited through a transformer ff mecessary , and the recttffed cte voltage fs taken from. the other dfagonal <. oF thts cfreutt Ts that tt does not Tey atogonal of the bridge, the ac voll of the brtdge. The main advan rulre acenter tap on the onal Lotndtng, of the transformer. | rs ®@ a | [Operation of the cfreuft + | | Consider the posttive Half of ac Input voltage. the point A of min | ] | | the dfodes 0, and Dz will be forward biased , while [becomes posftive the two diodes 0) ANd Dz conduct In Serfes with) land Dy reverse bfased. |the load and the Cetrrent flows OS Shown tn Sfgare.1 In the next half cycle, when the polatty of ac vottoge veuerees . hence point B becomes pastifve dfares py anc Py ave forward blased ,-whtle Dy a Dy vewerse based. Now the Afodes Oy anc Oy Conduct ts serfes wlth the Joacl and the Cunent flows as Showa | | : | | ae os | ey | by A SKA load fs fed from a brfelge rectiffer connected across a transforms Secondary whose primary ts connected to U8OV, 5HZ Supply, The ratio Of Number of Primary turns to secondary twins 1s 251, catcutate de loack curr: vents vtpple voltage and pry rating Of cifodle. A) R= SKA = 5x08, Ny ingts 211 | Ep = W60Vpms value Ese bX Ep - 230v Esm = VOE, = 230%V2. = 395.260 Ese Re Poe = 2fsm , 2x 325-268 TRE xs KtDd Toe = 2Tm WT = aeUimA Dc toad votlage Epe = Tock Re = Uhal xis 2x 5x03 | * Q04-072V Ripple aie ® Ripple. fecelor & Vp¢ | = ©-489. 4209-092 = Qa.evParv iating of each dfode = Fem for rte cecttfter oh | = 395-24 5.1) Draw the cfreutt Atapvam of full wove recttfter with feduetor filter and tlustrate fs operation. also derfve the expressfon for ripple foctor A) when the output of the recttffer passes through an trductor, tt blorks the ae Component and cillows only the de component FO reach the Load: in this type Of Hlter an (nductor® choke) TS connected tn Serfes WIth Load. [Te fs known that the ‘tnductor Opposes change Qn the current. Operation of the clrcults- Sin the positive half cycle Of the separa Voltage of the transformer , the latede Dy ts forwond based . Hence ENE Current Flows Hough Or» Land R jwhite fn the megative hay cycles the dfode Dy tS veverse braced while | dtode D, ts fowwand blased. Hence the current -flows through DasLand Re Hence , v0e get untdtrectfonal current through Ree Derfuatfon of Ripple factor for fnductor filter ~ for foward biased the toad current fs qve. fntercns of fourter Series | | a8, Le Im [2 -Loo =e be i= Im {2 He tosauok ~ > costs j—0 Neptettiog nape order terms , we qtbel tpoae hr = 2M ~ Um eocowt —?O) v mr Negtecting Res Re and restetance: of choke, the Ce component of current ts 2m - 2Vm —+s(3) 5 1 TRE [iam e while the 2% barmonte components tepresents AC Component OF rfpple presef and can be wnritten as, Tey = Yoo fox Ac component —a(u) Zz | where ze Ri4foxL 3G) | SF ReaD UP 30) | (and ¢ = tari! [ 201 [ al —®) | the wWpple present fs the 24 harmonte eomponent having Frequency 20 | =< Vm | VRE eG | $iom eqns) fL = vm GQ. Xm egsawt —y €9) TRE 3m Pro The vippte factor fs — w) ee " P Tyme = 1m a rms, a of Ac Component G + (2m) mi ela HG ae) 0 | Th. = OM | 70 = Re 7) | | J: ( avn BON Vea aD 2 TIREVe uve oy oe BOT Rew? IN eh | Tea. >t) ae Pwr RP & load condition Rp—> a and hence qu ~~ = Ripple factel = 2 =o. Pple Joc Re row eae 3Na Gwe Re Vee RE | Ax aa Gre 3% Awe ee, BYBOL SF RL ts sma, 7 fs also smaott j ed Inthe Inductor filter be | ak 60Hz to provide & dc uty. | 4 | b Calculate the vdlue of Inductance tO be us [comected toa futi wave rectifier operattog suk with Ge vipple fora “(00-2 toad. AY we Know that the vipple factor for fnductor filer T= &__ 1 BYawL | 0-04 = 180 = 010625 | BYE OT XCOxL) ( L = 0;0698 . seas 0-04 le | ; | 6.2) with neat dfagram and waveforms, discuss the Operatfon Of full wave | | rexttffer votth capactor gilter and determine the cxpresson for Tks vipple | | which | factory. LD An Toexpenstue filter Jor ‘te connected cifrectly across the load thé proper | thot {bE attowss of Cornponent anc blocks the de component wthe operation) |of a capactioy fier ts to Shott the ripple to ground but leave te dc *0 appear at the output when Tt fs connected across o pulsating Ifgnt loads fs found tn the capacitor ffiter of a capacitor fiter f ac songs: Diode cusent Operation of the cireuft:- | Burtog the posttive half cycle, the capacttor charges Of the transformer Secondary roltage » Ven ANd to mafntafn this value as the fait wave faput drops to zero. The capacttor eof aan through RL slowly until the svansformer secondary voltage agatn tncreases to a eater than the Capacttor voltage . the dade conducts {ot a period apacttor ee, the dtode will Conduct eshen the | up to the peak voltage) [vatue (eohich, depends on the “transformer Secondary voltage becomes amore than the cut tn woltage ofdia “the diode Stops conducting when the Eansformer wottage becomes tess than “the dfode voltage - This fs Calted cut in woutoge | “Dertuatfon of Ripple factor | nthe pple voltage waveform can be assumed as trfangalar . ftom the cat | ‘to voltage to the cut-out Pont, wlhatever chare the capacitor acquires | [fs equal to the charge the capacttor has lost daving the periad of Santo | |- action. | | wef fea ay | Lee Th be the tne for haif-cyele of AC tp voltage -exntng Cae oa UT the diode fs cane and copacitor ts eg charged. During the time Interval T, the dtode fs not conducting and atscharaes | DRL. let Ve" be the peak to peak ripple wattage The RHS value of ‘tanputar voavejorn 1S Me Mims = = 1) | a3 The charge lost %y the capacitor (5, =, OQ) : | Bur f= da | dt T | B= (tdt = ToS >) | ° Sub eq fn eq@) Tpyete = evr ; | Pouaen Nee Toc 5 iw) ="h | Sror0 qrern ys, tee, es) | Norcoatiy » TT Ty = Ta Where T= Up } Sub 5) 190(H Wr = Soe (x) > “Bet Cc ~ oc Vie 3 5 afc Buk To, = Foe ca) Re Sub (A) io (6) Ny = Ee yeey DCR 7 Nees, ppl tor P=. mse, Ripple Fac! Eo 3s _ BCR ae 2 Eefor Fue, | Veto > U0) | UB FeRe | for HWR, DVB FCRE TE cts tnereases , ¥ 15 decreases of capacitance tO be used Ta Cc Capacitor filter ratiog at astandard afreragt power | ye —-— un | | b) catrutette the value connected tO a Full Woe rectifier Ope frequency Of YOOHZ, Tf the ripple factor fs (o°l. for laad of 5005L. A) We Know that the ripple factor for capacitor filter 1 | Te | ANB FER | oo =! a 0-422 | 4V3BXUOO KC XSOO c =e Cc = OFF 22K10 242-2 MF | | F.aDemonstrate the wong the expression for Tks ripple factor. 7 oe 0-01 | | i | | | | | | | Prfnctple OF Lc filter toith Neat Aegean ond don | L-gectton filter of Le filler 5 obtained by connacti ee be [ { | the Output rectifier | 0 the fmductarce {n Seriec and capacttor f sao | TO parallel. “his combination of band c ane used to fenprove the performance Of titer chreutt by ae ting maxtor cfpples fiorn Ihe vedtfied output. The Inductor fn series | allows con de component and blocks ac Component . Suppose if there is Q Smatl Ac Component , t ben We ooill b cath DF allowed by the capacitor whichf mete [ts connected fh peorattel 19 the ground as cagncitor attous Only ae componnk and blocks de component Thus, maximure ac components Get Hllereel by ve grits FO Whe Inductor filter, the ripple factor ts. oeeuty Proportional to the ec ary capacdtor filer, the pple factor fs foversty propartionat to Ry «there fore , Tf these two fers ANE combined as Le filter or L-ection filter. Whe vatue of fductance ts Froreased , te WtU frcrease the tre Of conduction At Some efvefttect! Value of foductance , one didde either Di Or Dy In Full save rectifier» wit otwoags be a The baste requtrement of this filter 1s that the cuvctent trough the tedluctor must be continous and not intemupted An interrupted cusment through the fhductor mney develop a Lerge back eng which may be fn excess of pry rotted OF the diades throvgh a capadtorc. “hus bis back emf (s bomful to thetifodes and capacitor — Derwation OF Ripple factor:- By soning fourler expansions of olp current, Bo = Wm - We ogre —> «ry uw au lathe RHe value of Olp current fs 1 Tims = t . Im 50) Bt Ten= YO. 5 13) Ze and » Tp SE MH 4% WRE-7 HD qe ond RL is veg big ince, capoularce 1S ver vel RL =e Cr xo> xe)and XL =2wk pwc NOW) the ripple facror Y= Yeens 7 Voc Ok Vpe = 2Nen W | | Poe Wente BWWEAL av _ 2 | Vis Wihte \ SHER 2h Vor Dke BOK | P= puy 3 GQwntUn GSU LC | | Y= 7) | LVeL ond VL hy Tocreasing the vatuce Li ¢ the ripple factor is C3 minimised. b), ptscuss the construction and usovklng principle of CLC OY T Section filter along with derivation for tts rpple factor. Al cre cory--section filter | pee OT Ais ts 0 Copadtor ftiter followed by a Lesection filter. The ripple rejection capatiity Oo T filer ts very good, Te ts Shown tm fg. fond twWO capacitors Crand Ca: the filter ctreute ts fed f1om fal wave | sy conslets of an Tocluclance L and wstth a cic winding reststance as Px |reckifter. Eyenerally two capacttors ane flecked equat. This ctreuit % cq it iS basicaut acopattor input Jfler Stace the ffrst_ element Looting from the cam side ts a capatiion. All the features » advantages » disadvantages discussed previously for the capacitor typut (titer usted single capadtor are applicable equally to the W filler, The vecttfter Carpal {s qve 10 the cerpacitor C This capadtor offers very Jou reactarme of a-¢ component ut blocks dic Component» Here capacitor Cr toy Passes most of the a-¢ Component - he dc Component then reaches tO the Le The choke t olf ers Verd high reactance to aC component and Low ¢eacko- Th BockS AC Component aNd does not allow it to reath to toad the capacitor C2 NOW alloxs choke ence tod.c. SO wohile He allows ac component to pass through It to pass remaining ac component and atmnost pure cic Component reathes £0 ae load. Derivation of _ ripple sector gor T-section filter: | | The output voltage fs qner*d Ene = Esm ~ Me ~ Toe Ry VY 2 wahete vy = peak £0 peak ripple Voltage Razpe resistance of choke From tc! filter dertvattve WOT ; | | aa Vee SPC soy full wove —7 akc | | ond yy, | FOC for haty wove —73) Se the ripple factor is } | Ae WG) \ et Foe cfrore the cfrcutt afogram » hq opp ng voltage Veangy 2 VEINS) te ——— ts) XU Xey Vecrms) division le, _N#ams) = “Ke- Ams) Wome = We uae) by Vy ANS) Atevms) * Raw MS)» to) X wy , age ts gwen Ys sthe mms value of atc harmonic pee V9! q a \ = NeCOP cay Wa Nrcims) vrcp-py © SBC Ly ca) hey Nree-8) © oe 2x Sxg at watp-p) = 0s Toe —y ea) wa Sub eq@ @ | veemey = WHE? Roe 5 foe | Ww WAX YS WE NET ce veers = 240c___ VEN Toe _ HOW) vE-cown) Neves = V2. Toe XCF 7 U0) Sub (10) fn tb) VE cums) * 7 WaT ocke Gut Toe * FOC RL vrurms) = ¥C3, G So a BE wy ¥L Ru Sabu) inl) = Viylvens), Coe en Me aS Seeaee see bee— i | wveg Xo. WO 9) a Re | pedo (+ tbe calculated 294 hay 7 . | 1 = 35 [othe reactarce Must be umonic Frequency 9 Xep = DWE | | Rippte Factor a2 6 (500 Vas) OwidCRL) | ” > ___ guy | BweLGGRe | a. @ -______ CaM EOP CEIKIDS LCs KIOMLYBL) 9 = 5300 eee UO RE Where Cr and C2. cocin HE — ay) ~ Lifn henertes & RL in ohms Jay write motes 00 Lega crystal Display “Tilustrate dynamic Sensterty Lep and field effece LCD with neat eter A.) tequid crystal display CUD) The lequtd crystals are one of the nos Sasctootin matertal oysters tavthe nakune, having properties yal refers to the Fock kat these compounds ‘hone @ enysrauine axa of quids as Well as of a Solid crystal. The *#1T | itquid. crys agement of molecules, yer Amey flow ike a uuquid- the crystal t ‘mace Up of ongjanic molecules which are fod like fo Shape with Length of -20°A — “\oo’A. “The orentation of rod WKke motecules defines the 4 divector “ of the quid ean: Le Smectfe Qs Nematic 3+ Cholesterfe Smectic i Ih this structure the rod like molecules are aurranged 40 loyerss and wpcrtten eoth layer there 1S orentational order over o& tong range » Thus to ager, layer» He rods are all i = Ortented in the Same direction.Aa | | yyura Hyyyuyy ViiRert laa fihabebdtal reyes flidrer | Meal Puvavair a Petey lea]. Vryly ua ae ie) Ptyritas aera rt | Vyriayt Va | aA Neeser eels Litt | Lv | Se Q) Smectic lo) Nematic ce) Cholesteric Nematte :- cIn the nematic structure the posttfonal order between Laer of motecules | | {5 \ost, ut the orentation order tS mnafntained. chdlesteric:- “Th these crystals the rod \ike mo rent le within each layer. Ortentation order is matnrained fn, each \ayer- rol fe. retatedt t0 the nematic crystal, with the differe Lecules &n each layer ane orfented fn aadiffer} | | the cholesterte quid ery | once. betng the twist of the raplecules as. eed fiorn one, layer pnaron [aihere ase two HYPes OF Leds according to the teeny of operation. ve Dynamic Scattering Leb a fretd effec LCD: ; : | 1 mic: Scnttert )_teDs Tk consists of a loyer of vtquta cryst ith trangparent metal filno ¢tectrod tam To oxide (TTD) ON each Surface, acts as an electrode al moterfal Sarceofched between ' TCA lass sheets wil es. usualy a0 op! "l thin layer of fad ro alow a ve to be held across the celt. lager of aaa ratertal * reatectal dodture He Itqutd crystal Ontde ag electrode Glassoe | When the cet & Mot activated , the wqutd erystal fs transparent. when tk ts ot: rated the Molecular turbulence causes the Utont to be Scattered TO att directions | So that the gf activated areas appear bitgnt Te crm ’ 1. cad -Off caffons ‘ihe erniiter Yottaye Ve ts lessthan Vp and the p-ngunet Me revere blourd, A Lea omounl” of veuerse saturatton current Teo s10%s | h the device, whith fs ne ‘ Senatt Of the order Of AA THIS eee ord| eee @ | conaition rernains tilt the pecs point | | Qo. Negative resistance regfon inen the ennitter voltage Ne becomes equal | ive wep oe. fowvard bfased and fe starts Slousteg thé \ ° . ment across the device decreases In this, veffons eae the Current through the device Increases. Mente the reqton ts cated pe fesfstance Mow this vedfon continous tll voted peta. 3, Saturation regfons ‘Therease 19 Te Surtber =| pofnt eurrent Sv drives the outa fn the saturation region. “the vottoge ebrresponding to Vang point {> called Valley pornt voll le .ckenoted as Vy. In this “ge Seamer decre- -ase fm voltage does mot take place. the characteristic (Ss simtlar to that ofa Semiconductor? dfade , 10 thts fon. As the Vee, Increases , the exit Np corresponding to peak point will Increase b) expiafo wlth dfagram the construction , Gead and appltcattons of Solar cell: “Ae Solow cell = : the solar cells that we See on calculators and sateltities are photovoitare jeetts or Modules Cmedules are Stenply en OF cells era connected: jerd ed tn frame). rep wage uvtxes The baste construction of Solar cell. AS Shown On the top Mew, every effort {5 monde to ensure that the surface area perpendicular [btn so that Uegint: ¢cen penetrate td the Junction. the nfekel —plated rin | feround the p-type rmatertal is the postive output termtnal, ard the plaitti lok the bottom of the N-type Maattertal fs the Megpattee eutput terentoal - |* the Sunt martmumn. “the Surface layer of P-type matertal ts extremel when tepe strikes the cell, Certafo portton of tt fS absorbed within the ~ | Semfconductor moaterfal. This means that the nity OF the abSorbed gre ts transfered 40 the Semtconductor. This proton Mgnt cvergy colltdes witha valence election and Irqparts yo Th Suyytefent energy t0 leave the parent arom. This results Yn the ieee Of free electrons and holes.@ € inne Pheromenon will occur ON cach Side of the fucttfon. In the p-type \ | mater. * | [tal the newly ‘generated Electrons are entoortty carrters and will move ~rather femtion a6 explafoed for the baste pun furefon. A stenflar freely across the x the Holes generated fy the n-type materfal. the result Afecussfon 15 Wue fo fs an fnetease (9 Ihe oo carifer flow. which fs oppostte fodtreetton to apn {ancton. Hl abe conventtal foward Current OF » 4 dd 2— Glass eel P-ngunction i. ireutfon of election flow Direction of hole How of § nickel platted (are Pontact) (a) conghudtion of Solar cell Applications of solar cells seceae k mony OUI Gano | # Satellites & Automated strect light |x calculators ie Emergerey qn