3.4.2.

Conservative Forces (gravitational and spring force)

and Potential Energy
The work done by a force F=F(x):

W   F ( x)dx
xf
xi
U  -W   xi F ( x)dx
xf

a. Gravitational Potential Energy

U  -W    (mg)dy  mg(y f  yi )
yf
yi
At a certain height y: U  U  U i  mg(y  yi )
If we take Ui to be the gravitational PE of the system when it is in
a reference configuration in which the object is at a reference point
yi and Ui=0 and yi=0, we have:

U(y)  mgy (gravitational potential energy)

 U(y) depends only on the vertical position y of the object relative
to the reference point y=0.
b. Elastic Potential Energy
1 2 1 2
U    xf
xi (kx)dx  kx f  kxi
2 2
If we choose the reference configuration to be when the spring at
its relaxed length, xi=0 and Ui=0:

1 2
U  kx (elastic potential energy)
2
3.5. Conservation of Mechanical Energy
The mechanical energy of a system = its PE U + the kinetic energy K
of all objects of the system:

E mec  K  U
If we only consider conservative forces that cause energy transfers
within the system and assume that the system is isolated (i.e., no
external forces):
K  W
U   W
 K  U
K 2 - K1  -(U2 - U1 )
K 2  U 2  K1  U1
In an isolated system, the kinetic energy and potential energy can
change but the mechanical energy of the system is a constant.
E mec  K  U  0
3.6. Work Done on a System by an External Force.
Conservation of Energy
3.6.1. Work Done on a System by an External Force
Recall: Work is energy is transferred to or from an object by means
of a force acting on the object.
For a system: Work is energy is transferred to or from a system by
means of an external force acting on that system.

a. No friction involved:
W  ΔE mechanical  ΔK  ΔU
the work done by an external
force on a system is equal to the
change in the mechanical energy
of the system.
b. Friction involved:
W  ΔE mechanical  ΔE thermal
where
ΔE thermal  f k d (increase in thermal energy by friction)
fk: the frictional force

Positive work done on the block-floor system = A change in the block’s

mechanical energy + A change in the thermal energy of the block and floor.
Example: A block of mass 1.0 kg is released from rest and slides down
a rough track of radius R = 1.0 m (Figure 1). If the speed of the
block at the bottom of the track is 3.0 m/s, what is the work done by
the frictional force acting on the block? (Final exam, June 2014)

W  ΔE mechanical  ΔE thermal
R=1m
W: work done by external (applied) forces
In this case: W = 0

Wfriction  ΔEthermal  ΔEmechanical

v = 3 m/s

ΔEmechanical  ΔK  ΔU  E mechanical , bottom  E mechanical , top

 1 2
ΔE mechanical   0  mv   mgh  0 (We choose Ubottom = 0)
 2 
1 2 1 2
Wfriction  mgh  mv  1.0(9.8 1.0   3 )  5.3 (J)
2 2
3.6.2. Conservation of Energy
The law of conservation of energy:
The total energy E of a system can change only by amounts of
energy that are transferred to or from the system.

W  ΔE mechanical  ΔE thermal  ΔE internal

Isolated systems:
No energy transfer to or from the systems.

ΔE mechanical  ΔE thermal  ΔE internal  0

If an external force acts on the system but does
no work, i.e. no energy transfer to the system,
the force can change the KE or PE of the system.

Her KE increases due to internal transfers

from the biochemical energy in her muscles
 Chapter 4 Linear Momentum and Collisions

4.1. The Center of Mass. Newton’s Second Law for

a System of Particles
4.2. Linear Momentum and Its Conservation
4.3. Collision and Impulse
4.4. Momentum and Kinetic Energy in Collisions
4.1. The Center of Mass. Newton’s Second Law for
a System of Particles
4.1.1. The center of mass
a. Systems of Particles
•Consider a system of 2 particles of masses m1
and m2 separated by distance d:
m2
xcom  d
m1  m2
•If m1 at x1 and m2 at x2:

m1 x1  m2 x2 m1 x1  m2 x2
xcom  
m1  m2 M
where M is the total mass of the system
•If the system has n particles that are strung out along the x axis:
m1 x1  m2 x2  ...  mn xn 1 n
xcom 
M

M
m x
i 1
i i
•If the n particles are distributed in three dimensions:
n n n
1 1 1
xcom 
M
m x ,
i 1
i i ycom 
M
m y ,
i 1
i i zcom 
M
m z
i 1
i i

•If the position of particle i is given by a vector:


ri  xi iˆ  yi ˆj  zi kˆ

rcom  xcomiˆ  yxom ˆj  zcomkˆ
•The center of mass of the system is determined by:

 1 n

rcom 
M
 mi ri
i 1
b. Solid Bodies
1 1 1
xcom 
M  xdm, ycom 
M  ydm, zcom 
M  zdm

where M is the mass of the object

•For uniform objects, their density are:
dm M
 
dV V
M 
 dm   dV
V 
1 1 1
xcom   xdV , ycom   ydV , zcom   zdV
V V V
Sample Problem (p. 204)
Determine the center of mass of the plate

mS xS  mP xP
xS  P  0
mS  mP

mS
x P   xS
mP
mS  S thicknessS areaS R 2 1
    
mP  P thicknessP area P  (2 R)  R
2 2
3

xS   R

1
 xP  R
3
4.1.2. Newton’s Second Law for a System of Particles
 
Fnet  Macom (1)

Fnet : the net force of all external forces

acom : the accelerati on of the center of mass of the system
M : the total mass of the system
Fnet , x  Macom, x Fnet , y  Macom, y Fnet , z  Macom, z
Proof of Equation (1):
 n

Mrcom   mi ri
i 1
n  
 n
  n

 Mvcom   mi vi ; Macom   mi ai   Fi  Fnet
i 1 i 1 i 1
4.2. Linear Momentum and Its Conservation
a. Linear Momentum

The linear momentum of a particle is a vector quantity pdefined as:
 
p  mv (Unit: kg m/s)

where m and v are the mass and the velocity of the particle, respective ly.
Newton’s second law is expressed in terms of momentum:

 
dp
Fnet 
 dt
where Fnet is the net external force on the particle.
Checkpoint 3 (p. 210)
(a) rank the magnitude of forces
(b) in which region is the particle
slowing?

1, 3, 2, 4; 3
•For a system of particles:
      
P  p1  p2  ...  pn  m1v1  m2v2  ...  mnvn
 
P  Mvcom
The linear momentum of a system of particles is equal to the
product of the total mass M of the system and the velocity of the
center of mass.  
dP dvcom 
 M  Macom
dt dt

 dP
Fnet 
dt
b. Conservation of Linear Momentum:
If the net external force acting on a system of particles is zero,
 
Fnet  0
P  constant
If Fnet , X  0 (X  x, y, or z) :
PX  constant
Question: Why do we need momentum?

Because momentum provides us a tool for studying collision

of 2 or more objects.
4.3. Collision and Impulse
• Consider a collision between a bat and a ball:
The change in the ball’s momentum is:
 
dp  F (t )dt
from a time ti to a time tf:
tf  tf 

ti
dp   F (t )dt
ti
• The impulse of the collision is defined by:
 tf 
J   F (t )dt (Unit: kg m/s)
ti

 
p  J the impulse of
the object
the change in the object’s momentum
If we do not know the F(t) function, we can use:

J  Favg t
Examples:
1. A 0.70 kg ball is moving horizontally with a speed of 5.0 m/s when
it strikes a vertical wall. The ball rebounds with a speed of 2.0 m/s.
What is the magnitude of the change in linear momentum of the ball?
   
p  mv ; p  mv
Since the ball is moving horizontally, therefore, this is one dimensional
motion:
 
vi vf
px  mvx
x
px  m vx  m (v f  vi )
v f  2 m/s; vi  5 m/s : p x  0.7  (-2 - 5)  4.9 (kg m/s)
 
p  mv  (4.9 kg.m/s) iˆ
2. A 1500-kg car travelling at a speed of 5.0 m/s makes a 900 turn in
a time of 3.0 s and emerges from this turn with a speed of 3.0 m/s:
(a) What is the magnitude of the impulse that acts on the car during
this turn? Draw the impulse vector.
(b) What is the magnitude of the average force on the car during this
turn? (Final exam, June 2014)  
J  p  
(a)     pf vf
J  p  p f  pi

pi
J  p 2f  pi2  8746 (kg m/s )

(b) vi
J 8746
Favg    2915 (N)
t 3
Homework: 24, 56 (pages 191-194);
2, 5, 13, 14, 22, 25, 38 (pages 230-233)