Assignment of the Social Psychology:

a. Define social psychology. Discuss about the subfields and basic

assumption of social psychology.

Ans: Social Psychology: Social psychology is the scientific study of how the thoughts, feelings,

and behaviors of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, and implied presence of
others. In this definition, scientific refers to empirical investigation using the scientific method,
while the terms thoughts, feelings, and behaviors refer to the psychological variables that can be
measured in humans. Imagined and implied presences refer to the internalized social norms that
humans are influenced by even when alone

Baron, Byrne & Suls (1989) define social psychology as ....'the scientific field that seeks to
understand the nature and causes of individual behavior in social situations' (p. 6).

Social psychology is;

 the study of the manner in which the personality, attitudes, motivations, and behavior of the
individual influence and are influenced by social groups.
 Branch of psychology concerned with the personality, attitudes, motivations, and behaviour
of the individual or group in the context of social interaction.
 In psychology, social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings,
and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others the
study of the manner in which the personality, attitudes, motivations, and behavior of the
individual influence and are influenced by social groups

Social psychologists therefore deal with the factors that lead us to behave in a given way in the
presence of others, and look at the conditions under which certain behavior/actions and feelings
occur. Social psychology is to do with the way these feelings, thoughts, beliefs, intentions and
goals are constructed and how such psychological factors, in turn, influence our interactions with
others.

Assumptions of Social Psychology

• We construct our social reality

• Our social intuitions are often powerful but sometimes hazardous
• Personal attitudes and characters also shape behavior
• Social behavior is biologically rooted.
• Social psychology’s principles are applicable to everyday life and other disciplines
• Social influences shape our behavior
• All behavior occurs in a social context, even when nobody else is physically present
• A major influence on people's behavior, thought processes and emotions are other people
and the society they have created
• Social Psychology Focuses on the Behaviour of Individuals:
• Social Psychology is Study of the Causes of Social Behaviour and Thought
Sub-fields of Social Psychology:
Like all scientific fields, social psychology has a number of subfields in which researchers conduct
experiments. Three popular subfields include the study of attitudes, the idea of self-concept and
group dynamics.

Attitudes

Social psychologists define an 'attitude' as a learned expression of like or dislike, such as a

preference for one brand of laundry detergent over another. Social psychologists are interested in
the social factors that form and change attitudes. They also explore the relationship between
attitudes and behavior. Professionals in this field also study unconscious attitudes, which are
preferences that individuals aren't aware they possess but express through their behavior. There
have been many studies of unconscious attitudes relating to bias and discrimination.

Self-Concept

A person's self-concept is how they view themselves. Social psychologists study which external
factors affect one's self-concept, including the thoughts and actions of others.

Group Dynamics

Social psychologists are concerned with how individuals operate within groups. In a group, each
person's role and self-concept is influenced by the attitudes and behaviors of others in the group.
Group dynamics also encompasses areas of social psychology like crowd behavior and groupthink.

Define social psychology. Discuss the scope of Social Psychology.

Ans: Social psychology is the scientific study of how the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of

individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, and implied presence of others.

Scope of Social Psychology:

a. Social Psychology Applies Scientific Methods of Study

Social psychology is scientific in nature. It applies the scientific method of systematic observation,
description and measurement to the study ofthe human behaviour in social context. Social
psychological studies refer to the data being collected through direct observation or experiment.
Such experiments and observation are carried out carefully and reported in detail so that other
investigators can repeat and verify the work.
The scientific socialpsychology carries out three major activities: description, explanation and
prediction ofsocial behaviours. Social psychology provides a scientific account of social behaviour
based on direct observation rather than on common beliefs. Social psychology also attempts to
explain why people behave in a particular way in a particular social situation. Such interconnected
explanations ofsocial behaviours lead to formation oftheories which help in predicting social
behaviours and managing them in a desirable direction.
b. Social Psychology Studies Individuals' Thought, Feeling and Behaviour
The varied issues of the field of social psychology include- individuals' thought, feeling and
behaviour. Cognition is referred as the manner in which people process information. Social
psychology studies cognition that relates to social activities and that helps us in understanding and
predicting our social behaviours. Social psychology also studies the feelings we experience as an
individual in our social lives. What we think or feel in the social context is finally expressed
through our behaviours in social interactions. Social psychology studies these behaviours in the
forms of cooperation, helping behaviour, conflict, aggression, etc.
c. Social Psychology Studies Individuals' Behaviour in Social Contexts
Social psychology studies individuals' thoughts, feelings and behaviours in the social contexts.
This component ofsocial psychology refers that our behaviour is influenced by the presence
ofother people and we also influence other people's behaviour. The social context referred to in the
definition ofsocial psychology does not have to be real or present. Even the implied or imagined
presence ofothers can have important effects on individuals (GordonAllport, 1985). However, in
order to establish general principles ofhuman social behaviour, social psychologists sometimes
examine non-social factors also.
In Kurt Lewin’s (1951) famous heuristic formula, behaviour can be viewed as a function of the
person and the environment, B = f (P, E), i.e. behaviour is a function of person and environment.
Consider the following questions: Why do people help others? What is jealousy? What are its main
causes and effects?
The first question is about the overt behaviour i.e. the behaviour that can be directly observed.
The second is about an emotional state. Social psychology studies both the observable behaviours;
and emotions and thoughts which cannot be observed directly. For these behaviours the stimulus
situation can be Individuals: two person situation (dyadic)
d. Causes of Social Behaviour and Thought

Social psychology studies the behaviour of individual as well as theorises about the causes and
factors that might lie behind a particular behaviour and phenomena. The following five factors that
affect social interaction have been most studied (Baron and Byron 1995)

l The action and characteristics of others.

l Basic cognitive processes: memory, reasoning, belief, ideas, judgements about others.
l Ecological Variables: direct and indirect influences of the physical environment
l The cultural context: cultural norms, membership in various groups.
l Biological aspects of human behaviour and genetic inheritance relevant to social behaviour.

Social psychology focuses on understanding the causes of social behaviour and on identifying
factors that shape our feelings, behaviour and thought in social situations. The basic assumption
 behind is: “Accurate and useful information about even the most complex aspects of social
behavior and social thought can be acquired through the use of basic methods of science” (Baron
& Byron 1995; 13).
Define social psychology. Discuss the history and origin of Social Psychology.
Ans: Social psychology is the scientific study of how the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of
individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, and implied presence of others.

The history of Social Psychology can be explained in terms of following periods:

1. Dawn of Social Psychology (1964 – 1934)

2. Early stage of Social Psychology (1935 - 1945)
3. Expansion stage of Social Psychology (1946 – 1984)
4. Modern stage of Social Psychology (1985 – onwards)
DAWN OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (1962 – 1934)

The German Psychologist, Wilhelm Wundt (1832 – 1921) is viewed as the founder of Psychology.
He was the first Psychologist to propose in 1862 that one of the branches of Psychology should be
Social Psychology. He published many articles under the title of ‘Social Psychology’ to explain
that apart from mental processes and psychological factors, there are also social factors which
shape human behavior. In spite of his widely accepted efforts for establishing the discipline of
Social Psychology, his ideas had a little influence on American Social thinker because his literary
works were not translated into English.
1898: Norman Triplet conducted the first laboratory experiment to understand the mutual impact
of actions individuals and published the results which were later on known as social facilitation.

1900: Wilhelm Wundt published the first volume to explain social behavior which later on became
a significant theory of Social Psychology (Volkerpsychologie).

1908: The textbooks of Social Psychology were published by William McDougal, a Psychologist
and Edward Ross, a Sociologist.

1920: The first Institute of Social Psychology was founded by Willy Hellpach in Germany which
later on closed in 1933 in the realm of Hitler’s power.

1924: The third volume of Social Psychology was published by Floyd Allport which covers the
important areas of modern Social Psychology.

1925: The Social-Distance Scale was developed by Edward Bogardus to measure individual’s or
group’s attitude toward another ethnic group. This scale was further advanced by Louis
Thurstone in 1928 and Rensis Likert in 1932.

1934: The known book ‘Mind, Self & Society’ was published by G.H Mead which focused on the

interaction of self and others.

EARLY STAGE OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (1935 – 1945)

This early stage of Social Psychology is explained as follows:

1936: The Psychology of Social Norms was published by Muzaffar Sherif.

1938: The frustration-aggression hypothesis was introduced by John Dollard to understand the
nature of frustration leading to aggression in social interactions.

1941 to 1945: U.S government recruited many Social Psychologist to help the victims of world
war and to understand the sociopsychological factors leading to and controlling wars.
EXPANSION STAGE OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (1946 – 1984)

This expansion stage of Social Psychology is explained as follows:

1949: An experiment on attitude change and persuasion, the important areas of Social Psychology,
was conducted and findings were published by Car Hovland.

1954: Prejudice is an important topic of Social Psychology which was explored and published by
Gordon Allport.

1957: The theory of Cognitive Dissonance was published by Leon Festinger. The theory of
Cognitive Dissonance is an important area of the subject-matter of Social Psychology.

1958: ‘The Psychology of Interpersonal Relationships’ as a base for attribution theory was
published by Fritz Heider.

1963: The research findings to explore ‘the phenomena of obedience towards authoritative
individuals’ were published by Stanley Milgram.

1965: ‘The Society of Experimental Social Psychology’ was founded.

1966: ‘The European Association of Experimental Social Psychology’ was founded.

1968: Bibb Latane & John Darley presented the ‘Bystander Intervention Model’ to explain why an
individual may not help in an emergency.

1968: ‘The Society for Personality & Social Psychology’ (SPSP) was founded.

1981: A study with the title ‘The meta-analysis of gender disparities in behavior’ was conducted
by Alice Eagly along with her collaborators.

1985: Shelly Taylor & Susan Fiske published ‘Social Cognition Theory’ to elaborate cognitive

perspectives of Social Psychology.

MODERN STAGE OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (1985 – onwards)

This modern stage of Social Psychology is explained as follows:

1986: The theory of ‘Communication & Persuasion – Central & Peripheral Routes’ was published
by John Cacioppo and Richard Petty.
It explains the two dimensions of Persuasion for attitude change in Social Psychology.
1989: An article with the title of ‘Social Stigma & Self Esteem’ was published by Brenda and
Jennifer Crocker. It focuses on how an individual responds to being a target of stigmatization
and discrimination.
1991: An article on the important area of Social Psychology ‘How culture shapes the self’ was
published by Shinobu Kitayama and Hazel Markus.

1995: An article with the title of ‘Stereotype Threat & Intellectual-Test Performance’ was
published by Joshua Aronson & Claude Steele. It explains how a negative stereotype shapes
intellectual performance and identity.

Discuss the relationship between psychology and sociology.

Psychology and Sociology:
Psychology deals with the behaviour pattern of an individual in relation to the environment which
is physical as well as social. The external world or light, sound, taste, smell, heat, cold, etc.,
constitute the physical environment. Parents, relatives, friends, enemies, playmates, companions
and all the people with whom an individual comes into contact and interacts constitute his social
environment.

The individual mind grows and develops through interaction with the society. He develops his
personality through social intercourse. There is constant interaction between the individual and the
society.

Sociology deals with the nature, origin, and development of society. It investigates into manners,
customs and institutions of a society in all its stages of development from the savage to the
civilized state. Hence, psychology is intimately related to sociology.

Sociology is primarily concerned with the study of the interrelationships between human
personalities in social groups. It is concerned with the study of the bonds which inter-relate
individuals in society. The nature of inter-personal relationships has become quite intelligible
through investigations in the field of psychology.

It is obvious, then, that there is considerable overlapping between the provinces of psychology and
sociology. However, in spite of the fact that there is close relation between psychology and
sociology there are certain points of difference between the two.

Psychology is primarily concerned with the experience and behaviour of an individual. Sociology,
on the other hand, is concerned with the role that an individual plays in society.

Social psychology deals with the collective behaviour. It investigates the peculiar characteristics of
the individuals which they acquire as members of groups. It studies the behaviour of the crowd and
the mob. It studies the psychological principles of social organisation. It is the meeting ground of
psychology and sociology.
Psychology, sociology and social psychology are the various branches of social science.
Psychology and sociology are concerned with the study of behaviour of individuals in social
setting. They study behaviour from different points of view.

Define Psychology. Discuss about the major subfields of Psychology. 

Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior, according to the American
Psychological Association. Psychology is a multifaceted discipline and includes many sub-fields
of study such areas as human development, sports, health, clinical, social behavior and cognitive
processes. Psychology is the science of the mind and behavior. The word "psychology" comes from
the Greek word psyche meaning "breath, spirit, soul", and the Greek word logia meaning the
study of something.

Sub-fields of Psychology:
Biopsychology

This area of psychology is known for several titles, including behavioural neuroscience,
psychobiology, and neuropsychology. Biopsychologists study the relationship between the brain
and behaviour, such as how the brain and the nervous system impact our thoughts, feelings, and
moods. This field can be thought of as a combination of psychology and basic neuroscience.

Clinical psychology

Clinical psychology is the major speciality area in psychology. These psychologists apply research
and psychological principles to evaluate, diagnose, and treat patients with mental and emotional
illnesses.

Doctors often work in private practices, but many also work in public centres or universities and
colleges.

Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychologists study the physical and cognitive development that occurs throughout
life. These psychologists generally specialize in infant, toddler, adolescent, or geriatric
development, while others may study the effects of developmental delays.

In this psychological field, specialists focus on trying to explain the growth and development of
life, along with the thoughts, behaviours and feelings that people can obtain throughout their
existence.

Forensic psychology

Forensic psychologists apply psychological principles to legal questions. This may include
studying criminal conduct and treatment or working directly in the court system.

Forensic psychologists often conduct evaluations or testify in court proceedings.

Industrial-Organizational Psychology

Psychologists in this field apply psychological principles to research on problems such as

productivity and behaviour.

Some psychologists in this fieldwork in areas such as human factors, ergonomics, and human-
computer interaction.

Research in this field is known as applied research as it tries to solve real-world problems.

Personality psychology

Personality psychologists study the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours
that make each person unique. These psychologists often work in academic settings as professors
or researchers.

Social psychology

Social psychologists study social behaviours, including how the individual’s image and behaviour
are affected by interactions with others. Psychologists often research academic settings, but others
work in areas such as advertising and government.

School psychology

School psychologists work within the educational system to help children with emotional, social,
and academic problems. These psychologists collaborate with teachers, parents, and students to
find solutions to academic, social, and emotional problems.

 Most school psychologists work in primary and secondary schools, but others work in private
clinics, hospitals, state agencies, and universities. Some go to private practice and serve as
consultants, especially those with a doctoral degree in school psychology.

Other subfields of psychology

 Behavioural genetics studies the inheritance of traits related to behaviour.

 Behavioural neuroscience examines the biological foundations of behaviour.

 Cognitive psychology focuses on the study of higher mental processes.

 Intercultural psychology investigates the similarities and differences in psychological

functioning in and between various cultures and ethnic groups.

 Educational psychology has to do with teaching and learning processes, such as the
relationship between motivation and school performance.

 Environmental psychology considers the relationship between people and their physical
environment.
  Evolutionary psychology considers the influence exerted by the genetic inheritance of the
ancestors on our behaviour.

 Experimental psychology studies the processes of feeling, perception, learning and

thinking about the world.

 Health psychology explores the relationship between psychological factors and physical
ailments or illnesses.

Discuss about the development of social psychology in global context with its
scope.
Ans: Social Psychology emerged as a new discipline in the 19th century. The theory of Social
Psychology is a product of the scholastic contributions of the Psychologists and Sociologists. This
is the reason that Social Psychology is viewed as a sub-discipline of both Psychology and
Sociology. The Psychologists have always been focused on understanding the underlying
psychological factors of human behavior such as memories, learning, unique experiences,
emotions, cognitions, attitudes and feelings. The Sociologists have always been focused on
understanding social factors of human behavior such as social experience, norms, values, customs,
social dynamics, social interactions, social influence of others and environment. Hence, the
growing focus of social scientists to understand the sociopsychological dimensions under the
umbrella of a single discipline led to the emergence of Social Psychology.
Early Years of Social Psychology
Formational Years of Social Psychology
During the 1940s and 1950s, Kurt Lewin and Leon Festinger argued for a scientifically rigorous
social psychology. Lewin, known as 'the father of social psychologÿ', developed many of the
important ideas of the discipline, including a focus on the dynamic interactions
among people. In 1954, Festinger edited a book called Research Methods in the Behavioral
Sciences, which stressed the need of scientific measurement and to use laboratory experiments to
systematically test research hypotheses about social behaviour. He also noted that for factual
results in these experiments the participants may be kept blind about the purpose of the research.
During the time of World War Il, the studies on conformity were conducted by Muzafir
Sherif(1936) and Solomon Asch (1952). Studies on obedience were conducted by Stanley
Milgram (1974) and Philip Zimbardo (Haney, Banks, & Zimbardo, 1973).
Expansion of Social Psychology
Social psychology further expanded on other topics. John Darley and Bibb Latané (1968)
developed a model to explain the context when people do and do not help others in need. Leonard
Berkowitz (1962) started the study of human aggression. Many other social psychologists focused
on the process of decision making in group (Janis, 1972). Still other social psychologists, including
Gordon Allport and Muzafir Sherif, focused on intergroup relations with the goal of understanding
and potentially reducing the occurrence of stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination.
In late 20th century social psychology expanded into the field of attitudes and significance of
cognitive processes in attitudes. Social psychologists also started studying the process of
persuasion by which advertisers and other people could present their messages to make them most
effective and persuasive (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993; Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1963). They focused
on the cognitive processes that people use when evaluating messages. Relationship between
attitudes and behaviour was also an important aspect which was extensively studied during this
period. Leon Festinger 's important cognitive dissonance theory was developed during this time
and became a model for later researches (Festinger, 1957).
In late 20th century, due to advances in information technology focus of social psychology on
cognitive process was further substantiated (Fiske & Taylor, 2008). The social cognition approach
has been focused on understanding of how our knowledge about our social worlds develops and
how it influences our social thinking and behaviours.
Furthermore, the extent to which humans' decision making could be flawed due to both cognitive
and motivational processes that were documented (Kahneman, Slovic, & Tversky, 1982).
Social Psychology in 21 st Century
Social psychology has been still expanding into varied areas of social behaviour. Social
psychologists have studied impact of social situations on our health and happiness, important roles
of evolutionary experiences and cultures on our behaviour. The field of social neuroscience has
also emerged, which studies that how our social behaviour, both influences and is influenced by
the activities of our brain (Lieberman, 2010). Social psychologists are consistently searching new
methods to measure and understand social behaviour and the field continues to evolve.
What are the functions of self? Clarify the concept of self esteem and its type.
Selft:
It refers to how someone thins about, evaluates or perceives themselves. It is the ideas we have
about who we are- physically, emotionally, socially and spiritually.
Factors Affecting Self
 Altered Health Status
 Experience
 Developmental considerations
 Culture
 Internal and external resources
 History of success and failure
 Crisis or life stressors
 Aging, illness, or trauma
Self-Esteem (How well do I like myself)
It refers to the extent to which we like or approve ourselves or how much we value ourselves.
Types of Self-Esteem:
a. High Self Esteem i.e. we have a positive view of ourselves. This tends to lead to
◦ Confidence in our own abilities
◦ Self acceptance
◦ Not worrying about what others think
◦ Optimism
b. Low Self Esteem i.e. we have a negative view of ourselves. This tends to lead to
◦ Lack of confidence
◦ Want to be/look like someone else
◦ Always worrying what others might think
◦ Pessimism
Argyle (2008) believes there are 4 major factors that influence self esteem.
1) The Reaction of Others. If people admire us, flatter us, seek out our company, listen
attentively and agree with us we tend to develop a positive self-image. If they avoid us,
 neglect us, tell us things about ourselves that we don’t want to hear we develop a negative
self-image.
2) Comparison with Others. If the people we compare ourselves with (our reference
group) appear to be more successful, happier, richer, better looking than ourselves we tend
to develop a negative self image BUT if they are less successful than us our image will be
positive.
3) Social Roles. Some social roles carry prestige e.g. doctor, airline pilot, TV. presenter,
premiership footballer and this promotes self-esteem. Other roles carry stigma. E.g.
prisoner, mental hospital patient, refuse collector or unemployed person.
4) Identification. Roles aren’t just “out there.” They also become part of our personality
i.e. we identity with the positions we occupy, the roles we play and the groups we belong
to.
Define nonverbal communication? Briefly discuss the types of nonverbal
communication.
Non-Verbal Communication:
Nonverbal communication is the process of communication through sending and receiving
wordless (mostly visual) signals between people. Nonverbal communication encompasses of
voice (paralanguage), touch, distance (proxemics), and physical environments/appearance.
When the other person or group is absorbing the message, they are focused on the entire
environment around them, meaning the other person uses all five senses in the interaction: 83%
sight, 11% hearing, 3% smell, 2% touch and 1% taste.
Types of Non-Verbal Communication:
a. First Impression
It is the way a person portrays themselves on the first encounter to the observer. It takes just one-
tenth of a second for someone to judge and make their first impression. First impressions are
lasting impressions. There can be positive and negative impressions.
b. Posture
It refers to the position of the body by itself and in relation to others. There are many different
types of body positioning to portray certain postures, including slouching, towering, legs
spread, jaw thrust, shoulders forward, and arm crossing. Posture can be used to determine a
participant's degree of attention or involvement, the difference in status between
communicators, and the level of fondness a person has for the other communicator, depending
on body "openness".
c. Clothing
It is the items worn on the body. The types of clothing that an individual wears conveys
nonverbal cues about his or her personality, background and financial status, and how others
will respond to them. An individual's clothing style can demonstrate their culture, mood, level
of confidence, interests, age, authority, values/beliefs, and their sexual identity.
d. Gesture
It is the movement of the head, limbs, eyes, face. Gestures can also be categorized as either speech
independent or speech related.
1. Speech-independent gestures are dependent upon culturally accepted interpretation and
have a direct verbal translation. Eg: A wave or a peace sign
2. Speech-related gestures are used in parallel with verbal speech; this form of nonverbal
communication is used to emphasize the message that is being communicated. Speech-
related gestures are intended to provide supplemental information to a verbal message such
as pointing to an object of discussion.
 e. Distance:
It refers to the amount of space we maintain between ourselves and the persons with whom we
are communicating. It expresses the degree of intimacy and individual’s acceptance.
f. Eye Contact
It is the direction and focus of the person’s eyes. It is the primary nonverbal way of indicating
engagement, interest, attention and involvement. Studies have found that people use their eyes
to indicate interest.
Define social cognition. Discuss about the types of schema with examples.
Social cognition is a sub-topic of social psychology that focuses on how people process, store,
and apply information about other people and social situations. It focuses on the role that
cognitive processes play in our social interactions.

Social cognition involves:

 The processes involved in perceiving other people and how we come to know about the
people in the world around us.
 The study of the mental processes that are involved in perceiving, remembering, thinking
about, and attending to the other people in our social world.
 The reasons we attend to certain information about the social world, how this information
is stored in memory, and how it is then used to interact with other people.

Using a social-cognitive perspective, researchers can study a wide range of topics including
attitudes, person-perception, prejudice, stereotypes, self-concept, discrimination,
persuasion, decision-making, and other areas.
Examples

Imagine that you are getting ready to go on a blind date. Not only do you worry about the
impression and signals that you are sending to the other person, but you are also concerned with
interpreting the signals given by your date. How do you form an impression of this person? What
meaning do you read into the other person's behavior?

Schemas:

It can be defined as:

a. A cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information. 
b.  A cognitive structure that serves as a framework for one’s knowledge about people, places,
objects, and events. 
Examples of Schemas

For example, when a child is young, they may develop a schema for a dog. They know a dog
walks on four legs, is hairy, and has a tail. When the child goes to the zoo for the first time and
sees a tiger, they may initially think the tiger is a dog as well. From the child’s perspective, the
tiger fits their schema for a dog.

The child’s parents may explain that this is a tiger, a wild animal. It is not a dog because it doesn’t
bark, it doesn’t live in people's houses, and it hunts for its food. After learning the differences
between a tiger and a dog, the child will modify their existing dog schema and create a new tiger
schema.
As the child grows older and learns more about animals, they will develop more animal schemas.
At the same time, their existing schemas for animals like dogs, birds, and cats will be modified to
accommodate any new information they learn about animals. This is a process that continues into
adulthood for all kinds of knowledge.

Types of Schemas

There are many kinds of schemas that assist us in understanding the world around us, the people
we interact with, and even ourselves. Types of schemas include:

 Object schemas: It can be defined as the type of schema which helps to understand and
interpret non-living objects, including what different objects are and how they work. For
example, we have a schema for what a door is and how to use it. Our door schema may also
include subcategories like sliding doors, screen doors, and revolving doors.
 Person schemas: It can be defined as the type of schema which helps us to understand
specific people. For example: one’s schema for their significant other will include the way
the individual looks, the way they act, what they like and don’t like, and their personality
traits.
 Social schemas: It can be defined as the type of schema which helps us understand how to
behave in different social situations. For example, if an individual plans to see a movie,
their movie schema provides them with a general understanding of the type of social
situation to expect when they go to the movie theater.
 Event schemas: It can be defined as the type of schemas which encompasses the sequence
of actions and behaviors one expects during a given event. For example, when an
individual goes to see a movie, they anticipate going to the theater, buying their ticket,
selecting a seat, silencing their mobile phone, watching the movie, and then exiting the
theater.
 Self-schemas: It can be defined as the type of schemas which helps us to understand
ourselves. They focus on what we know about who we are now, who we were in the past,
and who we could be in the future.
 Role schemas: It can be defined as the type of schemas which encompass our expectations
of how a person in a specific social role will behave. For example, we expect a waiter to be
warm and welcoming. While not all waiters will act that way, our schema sets our
expectations of each waiter we interact with.

Define heuristic. Explain about the types of heuristic with real examples of
practical world.
Heuristics
A heuristic is a mental shortcut that allows people to solve problems and make judgments quickly
and efficiently with little mental efforts. 
Heuristics are created due to previous experiences, and people often give these mental reflexes
names such as common sense, intuition, or prejudice. 
Types of Heuristics

Some common heuristics include the availability heuristic and the representativeness heuristic.

Availability Heuristics

It is defined as mental shortcut that occurs when people make judgments about the probability of
events by the ease with which examples come to mind.
The availability heuristic involves making decisions based upon how easy it is to bring something
to mind. When you are trying to make a decision, you might quickly remember a number of
relevant examples. Since these are more readily available in your memory, you will likely judge
these outcomes as being more common or frequently-occurring.

For example, if you are thinking of flying and suddenly think of a number of recent airline
accidents, you might feel like air travel is too dangerous and decide to travel by car instead.
Because those examples of air disasters came to mind so easily, the availability heuristic leads you
to think that plane crashes are more common than they really are.

Representative Heuristics

It is defined as the mental shortcut used when judging a situation based on how similar the
scenarios are to the prototypes the person holds in his or her mind.

The representativeness heuristic involves making a decision by comparing the present situation to

the most representative mental prototype. When you are trying to decide if someone is trustworthy,
you might compare aspects of the individual to other mental examples you hold. A sweet older
woman might remind you of your grandmother, so you might immediately assume that she is kind,
gentle and trustworthy.

If you meet someone who is into yoga, spiritual healing and aromatherapy you might immediately
assume that she works as a holistic healer rather than something like a school teacher or nurse.
Because her traits match up to your mental prototype of a holistic healer, the representativeness
heuristic causes you to classify her as more likely to work in that profession.

Affect Heuristics

It can be defined as the mental shortcut which uses emotion to influence the decision. 

The affect heuristic involves making choices that are influenced by the emotions that an individual
is experiencing at that moment. For example, research has shown that people are more likely to see
decisions as having benefits and lower risks when they are in a positive mood. Negative emotions,
on the other hand, lead people to focus on the potential downsides of a decision rather than the
possible benefits

Discuss on components, types and nature of attitude with examples. Also show
the relation between attitude and behavior.

Attitude:

It can be defined as:

 Set of emotions, beliefs, and behaviors toward a particular object, person, thing, or event. 

 Evaluations of ideas, events, objects, or people.

For example, you may hold a positive attitude toward recycling. This attitude should result in
positive feelings toward recycling (such as “It makes me feel good to recycle” or “I enjoy knowing
that I make a small difference in reducing the amount of waste that ends up in landfills”).
Certainly, this attitude should be reflected in our behavior: You actually recycle as often as you
can. Finally, this attitude will be reflected in favorable thoughts (for example, “Recycling is good
for the environment” or “Recycling is the responsible thing to do”).

Attitudes are often the result of experience or upbringing, and they can have a powerful influence
over behavior. Attitudes are generally positive or negative, but they can also be uncertain at times.
It is a generalized tendency to think or act in a certain way in respect of some object or situation,
often accompanied by feelings. It is a learned predisposition to respond in a consistent manner
with respect to a given object.

Structure of Attitudes

Attitudes structure can be described in terms of three components.

o Affective component: this involves a person’s feelings / emotions about the attitude object.
For example: “I am scared of spiders”.

o Behavioral (or conative) component: the way the attitude we have influences on how we
act or behave. For example: “I will avoid spiders and scream if I see one”.

o Cognitive component: this involves a person’s belief / knowledge about an attitude object.

For example: “I believe spiders are dangerous”.

This model is known as the ABC model of attitudes.

Affective component The affective component of attitudes refers to your feelings or emotions
linked to an attitude object. It deals with feelings or emotions that are brought to the surface about
something, such as fear or hate. Affective responses influence attitudes in a number of ways. It is
related to the statement which affects another person.Using the above example, someone might
have the attitude that they love all babies because they are cute or that they hate smoking because
it is harmful to health. For example, many people are afraid/scared of spiders. So this negative
affective response is likely to cause you to have a negative attitude towards spiders.

Behavioral component The behavioral component of attitudes refers to the way the attitude we
have influences how we act or behave. Behavior component of an attitude consists of a person’s
tendencies to behave’ in a particular way toward an object. It refers to that part of attitude which
reflects the intention of a person in the short-run or long run.

Using the above example, the behavioral attitude maybe- ‘I cannot wait to kiss the baby’, or ‘we
better keep those smokers out of the library, etc.

Cognitive component The cognitive component of attitudes refers to the beliefs, thoughts, and
attributes that we would associate with an object. Many times a person's attitude might be based on
the negative and positive attributes they associate with an object. It is the opinion or belief segment
of an attitude. It refers to that part of attitude which is related in general knowledge of a person.
Typically these come to light in generalities or stereotypes, such as ‘all babies are cute’, ‘smoking
is harmful to health’ etc.

Functions of Attitude:
Daniel Katz outlines 4 functions of attitudes;

2. Adjustment Function.

3. Ego-Defensive Function.

4. Value-Expressive Function.

5. Knowledge Function.

1. Adjustment Function

The adjustment function directs people toward pleasurable or rewarding objects and away from
unpleasant, undesirable ones. It serves the utilitarian concept of maximizing reward and
minimizing punishment. We develop attitudes towards things that aid or reward us. We are more
likely to change our attitudes if doing so allows us to fulfill our goals or avoid undesirable
consequences. For eg: We favor political parties that advance our economic a lot and if we are
businessmen we favor that party which keeps taxes low.
2. Ego-Defensive Function

The ego-defensive function refers to holding attitudes that protect our self-esteem or that justify
actions that make us feel guilty.

This function involves psychoanalytic principles where people use defense mechanisms to protect
themselves from psychological harm.

Mechanisms include denial, repression, projection, rationalization, etc.

For example, one way children might defend themselves against the feelings of humiliation they
have experienced in P.E. lessons is to adopt a strongly negative attitude to all sports.
People whose pride has suffered following a defeat in sport might similarly adopt a defensive
attitude: “I’m not bothered, I’m sick of rugby anyway…”.  This function has psychiatric
overtones.  Positive attitudes towards ourselves, for example, have a protective function (i.e. an
ego-defensive role) in helping us reserve our self-image.
The basic idea behind the functional approach is that attitudes help a person to mediate between
their own inner needs (expression, defense) and the outside world (adaptive and knowledge).
3. Value-Expressive Function

Whereas ego defensive attitudes are formed to protect a person’s self-image, value-expressive
attitudes enable the expression of the person’s centrally held values.

Central values tend to establish our identity and gain us social approval thereby showing us who
we are, and what we stand for.

Therefore consumers adopt certain attitudes to translate their values into something more tangible
and easily expressed.

Our value-expressive attitudes are closely related to our self-concept.

One whose central value is freedom, the individual may express very positive attitudes towards the
decentralization of authority in the organization, flexible work schedules, and relaxation of dress
standards.

3. Knowledge Function

Attitudes provide meaning (knowledge) for life.  The knowledge function refers to our need for a
world which is consistent and relatively stable. 
This allows us to predict what is likely to happen, and so gives us a sense of control. Attitudes can
help us organize and structure our experience. 
Knowing a person’s attitude helps us predict their behavior. For example, knowing that a person is
religious we can predict they will go to Church.
The knowledge function refers to our need which is consistent and relatively stable.

This allows us to predict what is likely to happen, and so gives us a sense of control.

Some attitudes are useful because they help to make the world more understandable.

They help people ascribe causes to events and direct attention towards features of people or
situations that are likely to be useful in making sense of them.

Consequently, they help to make the world more understandable, predictable, and knowable.
Knowing a person’s attitude helps us predict their behavior.

For example- people who are not familiar with nuclear energy may develop an attitude that is
dangerous and should not be used as an energy source.

Stereotyping is another example.

In the absence of knowledge about a person, we may use a stereotyped attitude for judging the
person.

Characteristics of Attitude:

1. Attitudes are the complex combination of things we call personality, beliefs, values,
behaviors, and motivations.

2. It can fall anywhere along a continuum from very favorable to very unfavorable.

3. All people, irrespective of their status or intelligence, hold attitudes.

4. An attitude exists in every person’s mind. It helps to define our identity, guide our actions,
and influence how we judge people.

5. Although the feeling and belief components of attitude are internal to a person, we can
view a person’s attitude from their resulting behavior.

6. Attitude helps us define how we see situations and define how we behave toward the
situation or object.
 7. It provides us with internal cognitions or beliefs and thoughts about people and objects.

8. It can also be explicit and implicit. Explicit attitude is those that we are consciously aware
of an implicit attitude is unconscious, but still, affect our behaviors.

9. Attitudes cause us to behave in a particular way toward an object or person.

10. An attitude is a summary of a person’s experience; thus, an attitude is grounded in direct

experience predicts future behavior more accurately.

11. It includes certain aspects of personality as interests, appreciation, and social conduct.

12. It indicates the total of a man’s inclinations and feelings.

13. An attitude is a point of view, substantiated or otherwise, true or false, which one holds
towards an idea, object, or person.

14. It has aspects such as direction, intensity, generality, or specificity.

15. It refers to one’s readiness for doing Work.

16. It may be positive or negative and may be affected by age, position, and education.

17. Types of Attitude:

18. Positive Attitude

19. Individuals who have a positive attitude will pay attention to the good, rather than bad in
people, situations, events.
20. A simple example of a positive attitude; when you are having a very bad run of luck but
you still say “Good Morning” rather than “What’s so good about this morning”.
21. Well, Good news; you have a positive attitude.
22. Negative Attitude

23. People with a negative attitude ignore the good and pay attention to the bad in people,
situations, events, etc.
24. For example; when a guy has so much power, wealth, and influences with great luck; but
still complains and goes on a rant; well that person has a negative attitude.
25. Does it remind you of someone?
26. Differences between Positive and Negative Attitudes

27. Let’s take a look in the real world; what differs a positive attitude from a negative attitude
and how to identify them.

Positive Attitude Negative Attitude

Individuals who have a positive attitude People with a negative attitude ignore the good and
will pay attention to the good, rather pay attention to the bad in people, situations, events,
than bad in people, situations, events,
etc. etc.

Positive attitudes are rewarded. It means Negative attitudes are punished to discourage the
the individual is encouraged to do die the same action in the future.
same thing in the future.

If we think positive thoughts we will If we think negative thoughts we will have negative
surely experience such emotions as joy, feelings such as anger, disappointment, irritation,
love, gratitude, peace, and hope. envy, etc.

Having a “positive attitude” means a A person with a “negatives attitude” tends to believe
person believes everything happens for their best days are in the past. There is nothing to
the best in the end. “look forward to” and considers it a waste of time and
energy.

It is an optimistic approach for a person It is a pessimistic mindset of a person who is not

to achieve good results. capable of handling critical issues.

It can achieve long-term goals easily and It can achieve some initial goals but not the long-term
in time goals

It is a process of solving problems. It is a process of looking for problems.

A person with a positive attitude pays A person with a negative attitude pays attention to
attention to the virtues of others. other people’s shortcomings.

These persons always see opportunities. These persons see only limitations.

Attitude and Behavior:

Difference between Attitude and Behaviour:
• Attitude and behaviour are closely related but they are two different concepts. Following
differences can be observed between both:
• Attitude is internal whereas behaviour is external. In other words, behaviour can very well be
seen by others as it is external whereas attitude is shelled within the mind of the individual and
hence cannot be seen by others immediately.
• Attitude is what you think whereas behavior is what you do. Attitude has to do with the mind
whereas behavior has a lot to do with actions.
• Attitude is thought-oriented whereas behavior is action-oriented. Attitude can shape the behavior
of a person. A person with the right attitude may be with right behavior too. But sometimes people
act in accordance with their attitudes, and other times they act in ways that are quite inconsistent
with their attitudes.
• Attitude is all about the opinion somebody has about something in life. Behavior is about how
one responds to the impulsion and the pulls of the environment. This response can be shaped by
the attitude of the person.
• It is possible to judge one's attitude through one's behavior though attitude is not visible
externally. One can say that someone has a good attitude towards poor. It is evident from the
person's behavior. Hence attitude and behavior are related in some sense though they are two
different concepts.
Is there a relation between attitude and behaviour?
• During the early 1930s, La Piere conducted what has become probably the most widely cited
study of the attitude-behavior relation. While traveling across the western United States in the
company of a Chinese couple, La Piere stopped at more than 200 hotels and restaurants. The
Chinese couple was refused service at only one establishment. Some 6 months later, La Piere
wrote to the proprietor of each of the hotels and restaurants and asked whether the establishment
served Chinese guests. Surprisingly, 92% of those who responded indicated that they did not
accommodate Chinese guests. Thus, there was a startling inconsistency between the attitude
responses to La Here's letter and the actual behavior toward the Chinese couple with whom La
Piere had travelled.
• A very similar study concerning an African American guest, instead of Chinese guests, also
observed much discrepancy between people's reports of their attitudes and their actual behavior.
• Although it cannot be denied that a large number of studies suggest that attitudes do not
influence behavior, sometimes attitudes do predict behavior. For example, studies of voting
behavior consistently have indicated a substantial relation between pre-election attitudes and
voting. Basically, people vote for the candidates they like.
• Research has revealed everything from findings of no relation whatsoever to the nearly perfect
relation observed.
• Thus, the answer to the question "Is there a relation between attitudes and behavior?" is a
resounding "sometimes." Given the range of findings, it becomes apparent that the question of
attitude-behavior consistency has to be approached differently: Rather than asking whether
attitudes relate to behavior, we have to ask, tinder what conditions do what kinds of attitudes of
what kinds of individuals predict what kinds of behavior? We need to treat the strength of the
attitude-behavior relation as we would treat any other dependent variable and determine what
factors affect it.
When do attitudes guide behaviour?
• Strength of the attitude-behavior relation can be studied through qualities of the behavior
qualities of the person, qualities of the situation in which the behavior is exhibited, and qualities of
the attitude itself.
Qualities of the Behavior:
• The behaviors that a social psychologist might be interested in predicting from knowledge of a
person's attitudes can range from the very specific (e.g., will the person attend church services this
week?) to the very general (e.g., how many religious behaviors will the person perform over the
next month?).
• A specific behavior is best predicted by a question that is equivalently specific to the action in
question, the target of the action, the context in which the action is performed, and the time of the
action (e.g., "How do you feel about attending church this Sunday?"). In a study conducted prior to
the mandated use of lead-free gasoline, the actual purchase of lead-free gas was better predicted by
questions asking specifically about buying lead-free gas than by questions assessing more general
attitudes toward ecology.
• In contrast, a general pattern of behavior is best predicted by a general attitude measure. In one
study, participants' global attitude toward "being religious" was used to predict the likelihood that
they performed each of many specific religious behaviors (e.g., praying before or after meals,
donating money to a religious institution) and a general measure of performing religious behaviors
that was a composite measure of the many specific religious behaviors.
Qualities of the Person:
• Some kinds of people typically display greater attitude-behavior consistency than do others. In
general, two classes of individuals have been considered: those who are aware of and guided by
their internal feelings and those who tend to rely heavily on cues in the situation to decide how to
behave. In general, people who are aware of their feelings display greater attitude-behavior
consistency than do people who rely on situational cues.
• Any given behavior of an individual can be guided both by the individual's internal feelings and
by external cues. Yet a number of personality dimensions have been developed and used
successfully to assess whether a given person tends to rely more heavily on one type of cue or the
other. Following are two personality dimensions:
a) Level of moral reasoning:
• Level of moral reasoning has been found to affect the relation between attitudes and behavior.
• More advanced moral reasoning is characterized by principled, morally responsible thought
based on people's own general principles of moral action.
• Lower levels of reasoning focus on the general positive or negative consequences of a particular
action or on a feeling of being bound by social or legal rules.
• Individuals who depend on their own feelings and principles to make moral judgments act much
more consistently with their attitudes toward moral issues than do people who rely on external
standards to determine what is moral.
(to) Self-monitoring:
• Individuals who score low on the self-monitoring scale claim to be guided by dispositions (i.e.,
their inner feelings). They agree with statements such as "My behavior is usually an expression of
my true inner feelings, attitudes, and beliefs."
• In contrast, individuals who score high on the self-monitoring scale view their behavior as
stemming typically from a pragmatic concern with what is appropriate in each situation. They
agree with statements such as "In different situations and with different people, I often act like
very different persons." Thus, these individuals are said to monitor the impression that they make
on other people and adjust that impression to fit with others' expectations.
• Low self-monitors behave more consistently with their attitudes than do high self-monitors.
Conclusion:
• People who focus on themselves tend to act more consistently with their attitudes (e.g., people
with high moral reasoning and/or low sell-monitoring).
• On the other hand, people who are guided more by the environment or other external factors
often do not act in a manner that is consistent with their attitudes (e.g., people with low moral
reasoning and/or high self-monitoring).
Qualities of the Situation:
• A number of situational variables also affect the strength of the attitude-behavior relation. These
indude normative factors and time pressure to reach a decision.
(a) The Effect of Norms:
• Norms, or beliefs about how one should or is expected to behave in a given situation, can exert a
powerful influence on behavior. People often behave as they believe others expect them to behave.
• A norm may be so strong and so universally held that virtually everyone in that situation behaves
the same regardless of his or her attitude. For example, you might wish that someone were dead,
but you would very rarely act on this attitude. Hence, attitude-behavior consistency is low.
(b) Time Pressure:
• Individuals are more likely to base their decisions on their attitudes when they are under time
pressure because their attitudes provide a heuristic for making quick decisions. Time pressure
pushes people away from a careful examination of the available information and toward a reliance
on their pre-existing attitudes.
• For example, in one study, participants were asked to consider job applications from both male
and female job candidates. When there was no time pressure, and so participants could consider all
of the details carefully, their personnel decisions were unrelated to their attitudes toward working
women. That is, participants whose earlier reported attitudes indicated some prejudice against
women were just as likely to recommend hiring a female candidate as were those who did not hold
such prejudiced attitudes. In striking contrast, when participants were under time pressure to make
a hiring recommendation, an attitude-behavior relation was apparent. Participants who were
prejudiced against women were less likely to recommend hiring a female candidate.
• Above example also points out that, from a societal perspective, there are some instances when
attitude—behavior consistency is not desirable. In this instance, acting in accordance with an
attitude leads to discrimination against certain groups within our society.
Qualities of the Attitude:
• Some kinds of attitudes appear to be stronger than others. In this context, the word stronger is not
used in the sense of the attitude being more extreme. Instead, stronger refers to the apparent
influence that the attitude has on the individual's behavior. In fact, in all of the research that is
explained earlier, groups of participants with different degrees of attitude strength were compared,
but the distributions of attitude scores (i.e., the extremity of attitudes) in the various groups were
equivalent to one another.
(a) The Role of Direct Experience
• One attitudinal quality is the manner of attitude formation. On the one hand is attitude formation
through direct behavioral experience with the attitude object, and on the other hand is attitude
formation through indirect nonbehavioral experience with the attitude object. For example, a child
may form an attitude toward a toy by playing with the toy (direct experience) or on the basis of a
friend's or an advertisement's description of the toy (indirect experience). • Attitudes based on
direct experience have been found to be more predictive of later behavior than attitudes based on
indirect experience.
(b) Attitude Accessibility
• One thing that differentiates attitudes based on direct experience from those based on indirect
experience is how accessible the attitudes are from memory. Accessibility in this sense refers to
how easily attitudes come to mind. Some attitudes come to mind without any conscious effort on
people's part. When people see a cockroach, the "Yuck!" response probably comes to mind
immediately. This attitude would be highly accessible from memory. But sometimes people have
to deliberate quite extensively about what their attitudes toward some object are. If you are asked
which of several restaurants is the best restaurant, you might have to think extensively about which
one you like the best. This attitude would not be at all accessible from memory.
• As these examples illustrate, one way in which to measure how accessible an attitude is from
memory is by how long it takes people to answer whether they like or dislike something. Attitudes
based on direct experience tend to be more accessible from memory.
• There is also a functional value of such attitudes. Accessible attitudes ease decision making.
Imagine what it would be like if every time you went into a ice-cream parlor, you had to decide
which flavor of ice cream you wanted by reviewing the entire list of offerings and considering the
relative merits of each type of ice cream. You would take a long time to make the decision, and the
decision would probably be stressful. However, if the fact that you really like two flavors, readily
comes to mind, the decision becomes much easier. Because accessible attitudes come to mind
readily, they make the decision-making process that much easier.
• Discussing the functional value of accessible attitudes implies that accessible attitudes perform a
number of useful functions for people, and indeed they do. However, there is a dark side to
accessible attitudes as well. Accessible attitudes may be extremely difficult to change, with the
upshot that people may be rather close-minded concerning topics toward which they have
accessible attitudes.
How do attitude guide behavior?
• Two different mechanisms by which attitudes can influence behavior. The major distinction
between the two mechanisms centers on the extent to which the behavior is thoughtfully planned in
advance of its actual performance as opposed to being a spontaneous reaction to a person's
perception of the immediate situation.
 • In first mechanism, the individual may reflect and deliberate about a behavioral plan and may
decide how he or she intends to behave. In so doing, the person may consciously consider the
implications of his or her attitude. For example, when buying a car or deciding which college to
attend, a person will extensively deliberate about the decision and consider all of the advantages
and disadvantages before making a behavioral decision.
• Alternatively, in second mechanism, the individual might not actively reflect on his or her
attitude, but that attitude may influence how the person interprets the event that is occurring and, in
that way, may affect the behavior. When choosing between a vanilla ice cream and a chocolate
one, a person will rarely analyze the positive and negative features of each flavor. Instead, the
individual's attitudes toward the different flavors determine which flavor looks better at that
moment in time.
• The former type of process is the essence of Theory of reasoned action. The latter is depicted in
Model of the attitude-to-behavior process.
(a) Theory of Reasoned Action:
• The theory of reasoned action assumes that people deliberate about the wisdom of a given course
of action.
• According to this theory an individual's behavioral intention is the single best predictor of his or
her eventual behavior. There are factors that an individual considers in forming a behavioral
intention. The person considers, weighs, and combines (a) his or her attitude toward the behavior
in question and (b) subjective norms regarding the behavior.
• The second component, subjective norms, involves both the person's beliefs about what
important others think he or she should do and the person's motivation to comply with the wishes
of these others. In deciding whether to attend college, an individual may consider what his or her
friends and parents think about attending college as well as how important it is to comply with the
wishes of his or her friends and parents. Displaying imgll.jpg
(b) Model of the attitude-to-behavior process:
• The theory of reasoned action assumes that attitudes guide behavior through conscious
consideration of and deliberation about a person's attitude and its implications for a given course of
action. In contrast, the process model suggests that attitudes can guide a person's behavior even
when the person does not actively reflect and deliberate about the attitude.
• When someone sees a cockroach, he or she probably does not consider the beliefs about how
unsanitary cockroaches are, nor is the person likely to reason about what other people think of
smashing the cockroach. If people did engage in such extensive thinking, the cockroach would
disappear before anyone had a chance to decide how to react. Instead, the process model argues
that the individual's attitude toward cockroaches would define this situation as an unpleasant one
and that the person would act on this feeling or impulse.
Define of Social Influence. Discuss the factors influencing compliance.
Social influence is the change in behavior that one person causes in another, intentionally or
unintentionally, as a result of the way the changed person perceives themselves in relationship to
the influencer, other people and society in general.

Factors Influencing Compliance

Factors that influence compliance include the following:

 Group strength: The more important the group is to an individual, the more likely the
individual is to comply with social influence. For instance, an individual is more
likely to comply with the requests of her sorority than her biology classmates.
 Immediacy: The proximity of the group makes an individual more likely to comply
with group pressures. Pressure to comply is strongest when the group is closer to the
individual and made of up people the individual cares about. For example,
compliance with parents’ wishes is more likely if they live in the same city than it is
if they live in another state or country.
 Number: Compliance increases as the number of people in a group increases.
Importantly, the influence of adding people starts to decrease as the group gets
larger. For example, adding one person to a large group (from 60 to 61) is less
influential than adding one person to a small group (from three to four).
 Similarity: Perceived shared characteristics cause an individual to be more likely to
comply with a request, particularly when the shared feature is perceived as
unplanned and rare (such as a shared birthday).
Define obedience. What are the factors influencing Obedience? Discuss.
Obedience:
Can be defined as:
Obedience is a type of social influence where a person follows an order from another person who
is usually an authority figure.

Obedience is a form of social influence that occurs when a person yields to explicit instructions or
orders from an authority figure.

Obedience, in human behavior, is a form of social influence. It occurs when a person yields to
explicit instructions or orders from an authority figure. Obedience is generally distinguished
from compliance (behavior influenced by peers) and conformity (behavior intended to match that
of the majority). Following the Second World War—and in particular the Holocaust—
psychologists set out to investigate the phenomenon of human obedience. Early attempts to explain
the Holocaust had focused on the idea that there was something distinctive about German culture
that had allowed the Holocaust to take place. They quickly found that the majority of humans are
surprisingly obedient to authority. The Holocaust resulted in the extermination of millions of Jews,
Gypsies, and communists; it has prompted us to take a closer look at the roots of obedience—in
part, so that tragedies such as this may never happen again.

Factors Influencing Obedience

After running these experiments, Milgram and Zimbardo concluded that the following factors
affect obedience:

 Proximity to the authority figure: Proximity indicates physical closeness; the closer
the authority figure is, the more obedience is demonstrated. In the Milgram
experiment, the experimenter was in the same room as the participant, likely eliciting
a more obedient response.
 Prestige of the experimenter: Something as simple as wearing a lab coat or not
wearing a lab coat can affect levels of obedience; authority figures with more
prestige elicit more obedience; both researchers have suggested that the prestige
associated with Yale and Stanford respectively may have influenced obedience in
their experiments.
 Expertise: A subject who has neither the ability nor the expertise to make decisions,
especially in a crisis, will leave decision making to the group and its hierarchy.
 Deindividuation: The essence of obedience consists in the fact that people come to
view themselves not as individuals but as instruments for carrying out others’ wishes,
and thus no longer see themselves as responsible for their actions.
Researchers have found that most individuals will readily accept the authority of another person,
and they’ll respond to that authority through acts of obedience — even if this means harming
someone else:

 Relationship between doctors and nurses. Studies have shown that often nurses will obey
the orders of the attending physician, even if the nurse has reason to believe that doing so
might harm the patient.
 Milgram experiment. The Milgram experiment is a famous experiment in which study
participants obeyed an order to administer an electric shock to a test subject. In reality these
shocks were faked, but study participants thought they were doing real bodily harm.
 Adolf Eichmann. Adolf Eichmann was a Nazi who excused his involvement in the
Holocaust on the grounds that he was just submitting to authority.
Define conformity. What are the factors influencing compliance? Discuss.
Conformity is a type of social influence involving a change in behavior, belief or thinking to align
with those of others or to align with normative standards. It is the most common and pervasive
form of social influence.

Factors affecting Confirmity:

A number of factors are known to increase the likelihood of conformity within a group. Some of
these are as follows:

 Group size—larger groups are more likely to conform to similar behaviors and
thoughts than smaller ones. A meta-analysis suggests that conformity pressures in
Asch's experiment peak once the majority reaches about four or five in number.
Moreover, a study suggests that the effects of group size depend on the type of social
influence operating. This means that in situations where the group is clearly wrong,
conformity will be motivated by normative influence; the participants will conform
in order to be accepted by the group. A participant may not feel much pressure to
conform when the first person gives an incorrect response. However, conformity
pressure will increase as each additional group member also gives the same incorrect
response.
 Unanimity—individuals are more likely to conform to group decisions when the rest
of the group’s response is unanimous.
 Cohesion—groups that possess bonds linking them to one another and to the group as
a whole tend to display more conformity than groups that do not have those bonds.
 Status—individuals are more likely to conform with high-status groups.
 Culture—cultures that are collectivist exhibit a higher degree of conformity than
individualistic cultures. Stanley Milgram found that individuals in Norway (from a
collectivistic culture) exhibited a higher degree of conformity than individuals in
France (from an individualistic culture).
 Gender—women are more likely to conform than men in situations involving
surveillance, but less likely when there is no surveillance. Societal norms establish
gender differences that affect the ways in which men and women conform to social
influence. For example, Alice Eagly and Linda Carli performed a meta-analysis of
148 studies of influenceability. They found that women are more persuadable and
more conforming than men in group pressure situations that involve surveillance.
Eagly has proposed that this sex difference may be due to different sex roles in
society. Women are generally taught to be more agreeable whereas men are taught to
be more independent.
 Age—younger individuals are more likely to conform than older individuals, perhaps
due to lack of experience and status. For example, research with Australian children
and adolescents ages 3 to 17 discovered that conformity decreases with age. Another
study examined individuals that were ranged from ages 18 to 91. The results revealed
a similar trend – older participants displayed less conformity when compared to
younger participants.
 Importance of stimuli—individuals may conform less frequently when the task is
considered important. This was suggested by a study where participants were told
that their responses would be used in the design of aircraft safety signals, and
conformity decreased. In 1961 Stanley Milgram published a study in which he
utilized Asch's conformity paradigm using audio tones instead of lines; he conducted
his study in Norway and France. He found substantially higher levels of conformity
 than Asch, with participants conforming 50% of the time in France and 62% of the
time in Norway during critical trials. Milgram also conducted the same experiment
once more, but told participants that the results of the study would be applied to the
design of aircraft safety signals. His conformity estimates were 56% in Norway and
46% in France, suggesting that individuals conformed slightly less when the task was
linked to an important issue. Stanley Milgram's study demonstrated that Asch's study
could be replicated with other stimuli, and that in the case of tones, there was a high
degree of conformity.
 Minority influence—minority factions within larger groups tend to have influence on
overall group decisions. This influence is primarily informational and depends on
consistent adherence to a position, the degree of defection from the majority, and the
status and self-confidence of the minority members.

Define aggression. Briefly explain the theoretical perspective on aggression.

Aggression:

The term aggression comes from the Latin word aggressio, meaning attack. A psychological sense
of "hostile or destructive behavior" dates back to a 1912 English translation of Sigmund Freud's
writing. Aggression is an action or response by an individual that delivers something unpleasant to
another person. Social psychologists define aggression as behavior that is intended to harm
another individual who does not wish to be harmed (Baron & Richardson, 1994). Because it
involves the perception of intent, what looks like aggression from one point of view may not look
that way from another, and the same harmful behavior may or may not be aggressive depending on
its intent.

Theoretical Perspective on Aggression:

Instinct Theory of Aggression:

The instinct theory of aggression was advanced by Sigmund Freud (1927). In his earlier writings,
Freud viewed that all human behaviour originates either directly or indirectly from ‘EROS’, the
life instinct, which helps in reproduction of life.

In this back ground aggression was considered simply as a reaction to the blocking of libidinal
impulses. Thus, it was neither an automatic nor an inevitable part of life.

But in course of psychoanalysis and particularly after the second world war Freud recognized the
presence of two basic urges such as Eros and Thantos or life instinct and death instinct instead of
one instinct (Life instinct) held earlier.

Freud with experience and analysis gradually came to adopt the nature of human aggression, and
proposed a second major instinct named the Thantos, the force of death or destruction whose
energy in directed towards the destruction or termination of life, towards hatred, anger and
violence and towards all sorts of aggressive feelings, actions, dealings and behaviours.

He thus held that all human behaviour including aggressive behaviour stems from the complex
interaction between the instinct of Eros and Thantos and the constant tension between them.
Freud held that the death instinct is uncontrolled and results in self destruction. So he indicated that
through other mechanisms like displacement, the energy of Thantos i.e. aggression is redirected
outward and serves as the basis for aggression against others instead of destructing the self.

Thus in Freud’s view aggression originates primarily from the redirection of self destructive death
instinct away from the person towards others. The instinct theory of aggression was not much
developed by Freud in the beginning. But later on, he and his associates worked on it and
attempted to explain it in detail.

The instinct theory of aggression originates from the instinct of death or destruction.
Physiologically the death instinct represents the force which tend to destroy the organic life and to
lead organic matter back to the inorganic state.

Psychologically the death instinct gives rise to hostile and aggressive behaviour, to aggressive
sexual activity or to self and race destruction. Thus love and hatred, pleasure and pain, life and
death instincts go side by side. The death instinct otherwise known as the instinct of aggression is
also expressed in destructive and aggressive intellectual activities such as criticism, satire and
taunts.

According to the instinct theory of aggression, aggression is a global instinctive, steam boiler like
force which Freud and his associates argue is urgently required and basically inevitable for self
preservation as well as reproduction. McDougall has also denoted the phenomenon of aggression
in the instinct of combat on the basis of the instinct theory of aggression first postulated by Freud,
Miller, Dollard and others.

According to Freud when we analyze the desire for love we also find some desire for aggression.
Thus the best loved friend becomes the bitterest enemy when both fall out. In our hence attitude
towards every stimulus there is the desire for love as well as aggression.

The instinct theory of aggression holds that aggression is inherited and biological in nature and is
expressed overtly and covertly i.e., outwardly and internally. Subsequently Freud had decided
there is no use in trying to get rid of man’s aggressive inclinations.

His positive social proposals were to break up human societies in to small communities through
which the aggressive instinct can find an outlet in enmity towards those outside the group in a
conveniently and relatively harmless form.

Freud holds that life and death instincts are primary instincts and all other instincts are derived
from these. But recently Freud’s concept of aggressive instinct or death instinct, which he said is
the basis for conflict between human groups, has been discarded.
The instinct theory of Freud (1927) is said to be the starting point but not the corner stone of
psychoanalysis. Psychologists working in the area of frustration and aggression have in fact found
that aggression in not instinctive, but it develops as a reaction to frustration of basic urges
experienced during early childhood period.

According to Alexander “Fear of the consequences of losing love because of jealousy gives rise
to aggression. No matter whether love or hate are instinctual or early acquired, they are
always with us. The facts of love and hate are psychological data independent of the theory.”
The two instincts advanced by Freud are not mutually opposed to each other. Behaviour originated
by life instinct may have strong components of death instinct and behaviour mainly motivated by
death instinct may have strong components of life instinct. Same psychologists object to the death
instinct advanced by Freud.

They say death instinct is a part of life instinct and hence it not justified to introduce it as a
separate instinct. Some biologists also go against the aggressive instinct advanced by Freud. They
argue that life instinct motivates an organism to live and to do whatever is possible for the sake of
living. It is due to this that we are organisms. If we wish death, how could we be called organisms?

Social learning and imitation also induce aggression. Aggression may occur due to some hormonal
and biological factors, but it is not instinctive as Freud held.

According to Berkowitz (1962) Research findings offer little support for Freud’s reasoning. He
held that the view of an innate drive for destruction can be attacked both factually and logically.

The group for advancement of psychiatry (1964) formally rejected the instinct theory of aggression
advanced by Freud and held “war is a social institution; it is not inevitably rooted in the nature
of man.” These conclusions are supported by studies during Second World War.
The great majority of soldiers reported that their reason for fighting was to get the job done or the
desire not to let their outfits down. Only 2 percent said that they fought out of anger, revenge or
fighting spirit. Another 3percent gave replies that might be interpreted as aggressive such as
crushing or cutting the aggressor piece by piece.

Lornez’s View:
Observations of animals in their natural habitats led some psychologists to view that aggressive
drive has an innate, biological or instinctive basis. In the opinion of Konrad Lorenz, aggression
which causes physical harm to others starts from a fighting instinct that human beings share with
other organisms. The energy associated with this instinct is spontaneously produced in individuals
at a more or less constant rate.
The probability of aggression increases as a function of the amount of stored energy and the
presence and strength of aggression releasing stimuli. According to him aggression is inevitable
and at times spontaneous outbursts of powerful feelings occur like volcanic irruption.

Lorenz considers aggression as a “true, primarily species preserving instinct”, in humans as

well as in animals. Though observation of animal behaviour suggests that the innate instinct of
aggression drives animals to aggressive behaviour, the same should not be generalized in case of
human beings, and such generalization if made by anybody is highly questionable.
There are in fact major differences between human aggression and animal aggression. While
animal aggression can be controlled and regulated by immediate changes in the stimulus, human
aggression can be maintained by mediating cognitive structures and to a much smaller degree
stimulus bound. (Feshbach)

Thus the issue of biological basis of aggression is a controversial one and needs further debate. But
according to Mussen, Conger & Kagan there is strong possibility that constitutional factors play a
significant role in human aggression. They further view that sex differences in aggressive
behaviour most likely have a biological basis.

It is found that experimental administration of hormone of male monkeys, pigs to female rat’s pigs
and monkey makes them much more aggressive in their approaches to others. Further it is seen that
activity level of a person is connected with his constitution. An active child is more found to be
involved in aggressive encounters.

2. Frustration Aggression Hypothesis:

Miller and Dollard defined frustration as “that condition which exists when a goal response
suffers interference.” Frustrating events are those which block the individual’s goal oriented
behaviour, threaten his sell’ esteem or deprive him of the opportunity to gratify his important
motives and immediate goals.
When an event or situation disturbs or upsets the child or the adult, it is considered frustrating. But
a situation which is considered frustrating for one person may not be frustrating for another person.
Here parental training, social class, economic status and early childhood training for frustration
tolerance play their role.

Freud probably for the first time gave the term frustration a scientific basis. Frustration in simple
terms may be defined as that state in the organism which exists as a consequence of interference in
the goal oriented behaviour and gives rise to a number of maladaptive or substituted reactions.

A person who fails to marry his sweet heart because of parental rejection and social restrictions is
said to be suffering from severe frustration.
Frustration during childhood may arise from several sources because of his helplessness at birth.
The famous German psycholosist Ottorank held that birth cry indicates the greatest frustration in
human life. The pangs of separation from the mother acts as a tremendous source of frustration.

Minor interferences however may bring mild and brief reactions of aggression. The view of Freud
and his followers that aggression is an instinct and innate drive has been rejected by later
psychologists like Miller; Bollard and many others. They have proposed that it is a frustration
instigated drive.

The Frustration-Aggression hypothesis proposed by Miller Bollard and others (1939) is a

significant contribution is tracing the causes of aggression. This hypothesis states that aggression is
always a consequence of frustration. Miller applied this hypothesis to the Negroes of U.S.A. to
study their reaction as a consequence to the frustration imposed by the white groups.

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis postulates the following:

1. A thwarting person’s efforts to reach a goal induces an aggressive drive in him which in turn
triggers off a behaviour to injure or destroy the person or object which has caused the frustration.

2. The expression of aggression reduces the desire for it.

The key aspect of the hypothesis is that aggression is the measure and fundamental reaction to
frustration though other responses like regression, withdrawal, reaction formation and
displacement etc. may occur.

According to this hypothesis aggression is not inborn but is a learned behaviour. Since frustration
is found universally aggression is also found universally, they say, and hence frustration may be
considered as a drive.

Marke and Ervin (1970) further view that even though the presence of some genetic or biological
factors in aggression cannot be ruled out in case of human beings, these mechanism are under the
cognitive control of man. A person with a particular brain injury may react aggressively to
situations which may not give rise to any aggressive response in case of a normal person without
brain injury.

This indicates that a normal person has cognitive control capacity where as a brain injured person
lacks this. In normal persons the frequency with which the aggressive behaviour is expressed, the
form it takes and the situations in which it is displayed are determined greatly by learning and
socio-cultural factors.

The proponents of the Frustration Aggression hypothesis advocate that aggression is always a
consequence of frustration of some sort.
This hypothesis by far is said to be most influential model for intergroup prejudice and aggression.
This theory briefly holds that frustration produces aggression which acts as a drive or motive to
react, combat or make attacks.

Supporting the frustration—aggression hypothesis or drive theory of aggression, Newcomb

opines “Frustration always induces motivation of some kind of aggression and if no
aggression occurs, it has been inhibited.”
If the frustration is produced by a powerful person like the employer, or the boss, the teacher, the
husband or in laws, the parents, the aggressive reaction is inhibited. My grandson Anuraag when
wants to view cartoon net work in television his father objects strongly.

Anuraag inhibits his aggression towards his father and withdraws from the Television. But when
the maid servant asks him not to see cartoon net work, immediately he shouts at her and sometimes
gives her a kick. Thus members of the out group who are considered less powerful become suitable
targets of aggression and hence become the scapegoats for the frustrated members of the more
powerful groups.

Hence, in line with Freudian energy model, (Instinct theory), the aggression is stored and
compounded with each new frustration ready to be released on a powerless or less powerful
stimulus. According to Freudians the expression of aggression is desirable as it would drain off the
accumulation of aggressive urges.

Inhibition of aggressive urges on the other hand will lead to psychological complications during
the subsequent stages of personality development. At least the child should be allowed to vent his
aggression on his toys and dolls or in painting and drawings. He should be allowed to play and run
to release the suppressed energy.

Another theory based on Freudian theory postulates that repeated frustrations and severe harsh
treatment in early child hood produce subsequently an authoritarian personality which is rigid,
unfriendly, undemocratic and prejudiced towards the out groups and hence prone to violence. Such
frustrated persons lack good social relationship and fail to undertake successful social interactions.

They are moody, irritative and get excited all of a sudden on some very trivial or minor issues.
With slightest provocation they start quarrelling, combating and make counter arguments in an
agitated manner as if aggression is deep rooted in their personality. Such people are not liked by
the society.

From these two theories which are interred related the following conclusions can be made:
1. Aggression is not an inevitable response to frustration. In both animal and human studies
frustration has produced different other reactions like submission, regression, repression,
projection, displacement, withdrawal reaction and other defence mechanisms or forgetting about
the episode.

2. Many aggressive acts are not instigated by frustration. Ber Kowitz’s research (1962) led to the
undisputed conclusion that there are some aggressive acts that are not necessarily instigated by
frustration. For example, killing and destruction during an operation or war is a policy decision and
this need not be considered as reactions of frustrated individuals.

3. The most frustrated people are not necessarily the most aggressive. Women are highly frustrated
in societies throughout the world, but they are relatively less aggressive than males perhaps
because of biological reasons and social learning.

Sherif (1953) in this connection holds “with a society divided by hatred and violence among its
groups, the direction of prejudice and hostility is typically from the dominants and mighty
groups downward to the down trodden and deprived.”
Comparison between different societies and cultures do not prove that the most frustrated are
necessarily the most aggressive.

As Klinberg rightly points out at the time when lynching negroes’ was not uncommon in the
southern United States, White Brazilians were by and large much more frustrated in their attempts
to maintain a subsistence level of life and were similarly subjected to the ups and downs of
economic conditions.

But they were not lynching the Brazilian Negroes. The Indian soldiers in the Jammu and Kasmir
border and near the P.O.K are being killed mercilessly and subjected to terrorists attack daily. But
they are not lynching the enemies or making henius terrorist attacks.

4. The scape goat theory does not explain the targets of aggression. This theory holds that the most
likely targets would be the people most helpless and most likely to retaliate. BerKowitz (1962)
found that the most helpless groups are not always the objects of hatred and not the only ones.

He therefore reached at the conclusion that the scape goat theory as usually formulated is
incomplete. In studying juvenile gangs of Chicago in 1927 Thraser observed that the height of
solidarity and mutual trust among members frequently accompanied their most intense conflicts
with other groups.

Considering the limitations of the famous frustration-aggression hypotheses, later psychologists

challenged it and tried to bring modifications. They hold that aggression is a consequence of
frustration but it is not the only or sole reaction to frustration. G.K Morton, in “A note on the
Frustration—Aggression theory of Dollard and his associates” criticised as follows.
“The view of Miller, Dollard that frustration leads to some sort of aggression is equal to the falacy
which was popular 20 years back i.e., if you suppress your sexual urges a complex will set in and
therefore people let themselves go…perhaps the frustration aggression is roughly equivalent in
validity to this view on sex.”

When exposed to severe frustration many people become depressed rather than aggressive.
Aggression does not always originate from frustration.

In-spite of the controversies the Frustration— Aggression hypothesis advanced by Dollard et.al.
(1939) still stands the test of time. That aggression is the fundamental reaction to frustration,
though not the only one, nobody can deny.

This theory is still considered as an excellent theory which explains how frustration produces
aggression and if frustration is minimized aggression, violence and crime can be minimized in the
society if not totally uprooted. In-spite of the criticisms that this hypothesis had to face and in-spite
of its limitations it is undoubtedly the starting point of all researches in the area of frustration,
aggression and its probable reactions.

3. Social Learning Theory:

Subsequent research works in the area of frustration and aggression give the impression that
Frustration— Aggression hypothesis should be modified. From such researches originate the
Social Learning Theory.

Bandura, Berkowitz and others, the proponents of social learning theory view that an awakening
results from frustration does not necessarily lead to aggression, but only creates a condition for a
readiness to cope with a threatening situation.

It can cause different kinds of responses depending upon the kind of responses an individual has
learned to cope with the frustrating situations in the earlier period of life.

Thus, he may become aggressive, may become regressive and cry or may withdraw from the
situation, may remain silent, may displace his aggression on others or may seek the help of others.
That response which has been most successful in the past in relieving his frustration will be
repeated.

Bandura (1965) has demonstrated that aggressive responses can be learned by reinforcement or by
imitation or by modeling which come under social learning theory. In a study on nursery school
children it was observed that when an adult showed various forms of aggressive responses towards
a large doll, the children showed similar aggressive responses through imitation.
There after they were shown film versions of aggressive modeling using dolls as cartoons. Results
showed that the children who had observed life cartoon characters exhibited greater aggressive
behaviour. It was also noticed from follow up studies that children remembered these aggressive
reactions even after eight months.

Crime and violence shown in television and films now a day’s help increase of aggressive
behaviour, crime and hostility to enormous extent. This proves that aggressive behaviour in mostly
learnt and imitated from the environment is which the child lives.

Julian Rotter (1954, 1982) another, contributor to Social Learning Theory suggests that the
likelihood that a given behaviour will occur in a specific situation depends upon the learning and
imitation of the organism in a social situation, the expectancies concerning the outcome of a
behaviour will produce and the reinforcement value they attach to such out conies i.e. the degree to
which they prefer one reinforce to another.

Social learning theory relies on the role of modeling, identification and human interactions.
According to Bandura a person can learn by imitating and observing the behaviour of another
person. But at the same time personal factors also play a role in determining one’s identification
with and imitation of other persons.

If the model is not liked, appreciated or respected by the person, then his behaviour may not be
imitated only when a person identifies with another person and likes him, he accepts him as a
model and imitates him.

A child imitates his parents because he likes and respects them as they take care of him, provide
him security, confidence, love and affection. In course of parenting he observes their behaviour
and imitates them. Social learning through observation is also called imitation learning. Social
learning theorists combine operant and classical conditioning theories.

How? Although observation of models is a major factor in the learning process of social learning
theory, it is important that-imitation of model must be rewarded and reinforced if the person has to
identify with the person and accept his qualities as his own quality. He not only accepts the
qualities of his model, he also learns to behave like them under similar situation.

Alfred Bandura is a major proponent of Social Learning School; According to him behaviour
occurs as a result of the interplay between cognitive and environmental factors, a concept known
as reciprocal determinism. When children or other persons learn by observing others either
incidentally or intentionally, this process is called Modeling or Learning through imitation.

But choice of a model depends upon so many factors like age, sex, status, similarity to oneself,
whether he likes or dislikes him, whether he respects or dis-respects him etc. usually it is found
that that because of sex role identification a son accepts his father as his model and a daughter
usually accepts her mother as a model and they imitate their parents accordingly.

But suppose due to some reasons the boy does not like his father but loves his mother most then he
may accept his mother as a model and imitate her behaviour, likes and dislikes dress, emotion etc.

If the mother shows aggressive reaction towards the cook, the child will learn to show the same
reaction. If the mother does not like a particular food, the child will not like the same. Sometimes
children are found to accept their teachers as model and imitate their behaviour.

If the model selected by the child is normal, less aggressive, reflects healthy values and norms the
child develops socially acceptable qualities. On the other-hand an aggressive model helps in the
development of aggressive reactions. Normal and socially acceptable behaviour of the model
develops the capacity to adapt to normal everyday life and various threatening, dangerous
situations in day to day life.

Even abnormal and maladaptive behaviour learnt from un-favourable role models can be
eliminated through behaviour modification technique (operant conditioning).

Through behaviour therapy a person can learn alternate behaviour from other role models who
show normal and society acceptable models. It is true that an aggressive and maladaptive model
helps in the development of aggressive and maladaptive behaviour. As children grow older they
acquire the knowledge of sex category through social learning.

Social learning theory emphasizes the impact of modeling and operant conditioning learning on
acquisition of different behaviors. According to social learning theory children are rewarded with
verbal praise when they behave in accordance with gender roles and gender stereotypes i.e., when
they show the behaviour as boys or girls sanctioned and expected by the society.

For example a boy learns to be dressed like his father or brother and he plays games decided for
the boys or the games which other boys play.

If a boy is dressed like a girl he is ridiculed by the society and this activity is not reinforced or
rewarded. So he gives up being dressed like a girl and starts wearing the dresses meant for boys.
Similarly a girl learns to help her mother in house hold works as society expects a girl to do so.

Here the approval of parents and sanction of society acts as rein-forcer for the child, so he imitates
such activities. On the contrary, punishment eliminates certain learning and behaviour not
approved by the society and culture. When a boy imitates the male members of his family and a
girl imitates the female members of the family they tend to adopt the behaviour shown by their
same sex models.
Bandura’s social learning theory suggests that people can learn by observing others and events in
the environment as well as by participating them. In several recent studies Bandura, Bandura and
Walters et.al, demonstrated the usefulness of observational learning in children.

They have also provided great deal of information regarding factors that influence the likelihood of
a subject’s subsequently imitating responses acquired through observation. In a typical experiment
a child is exposed to a real life or filmed model who is either a child or an adult.

The model then performs various activities and the child observes them. There after it is examined
how far the child has imitated the actions displayed by the models. Changes that occur in the
behaviour of the child after observing models and imitating them are not always positive in nature.
Very often people are likely to acquire bad habits as good ones.

A child of 3 years Atul went to a neighbor’s place to play with his friend Babloo. When he reached
there he saw Babloo was rolling on the floor, crying and crying and showing tantrums as his
mother did not give him money to buy ice-cream. Atul observed this vividly and next day he was
found showing the same tantrums and aggressive actions when his mother refused to give him
money to buy chocolates.

In another incident a boy named Raju saw his friend Bittoo spitting on his maid servant as she did
not allow her to go out and play with his friend in the absence of his mother who was a working
woman. Next day Raju was found spitting on his servant boy’s face as he broke his Spiderman.
These are all learned aggressive behaviour coming under social learning.

Social learning theory suggests that through observation and imitation of models a lot of behaviour
is learnt. Even by observing “Saktiman”, “Spiderman” and other serials, in television many
children learn to show similar kinds of aggressive actions. Due to hero-worship many boys are
found to run, jump, kick and beat.
However, in case of girls such actions are less found probably because of discouragement by
parents and lack of reinforcement by society. Many experiments on children prove the concept of
social learning theory through observational learning and imitation.

A very famous study on learning to show aggression was conducted by Bandura and Ross and
Ross (1963). The study indicates how children learn to be aggressive by observing an adult
aggressive model.

In this study they took two groups of nursery school children as samples. The control group was
exposed to a quiet non-aggressive amiable adult model. But the experimental group was exposed
to an aggressive adult model that kicked a big inflated Bobo Doll, scolded and insulted it.
The adult model in the experimental group knocked the doll down, sat on it, pushed it, insulted
verbally and threw it several times in the air, punched it repeatedly in the nose.

Later the children of both the groups were allowed to play in a room with several toys including a
Bobo Doll. Careful observation of their behaviour revealed that those who had seen the aggressive
adult model often imitated his behaviour. They too punched the toy, sat on it and often uttered
verbal comments similar to those of the model.

On the contrary children of the control group rarely if ever demonstrated such actions of violence
and aggression. The findings of this study prove that children acquire new ways of aggressing
through exposure to violent television programmes, movies and aggressive behaviour of his
parents, grand-parents and teachers.

Social scientists explain the in-disciplined aggressive and ruthless behaviour of many modern
youths as a consequence of imitating the same from the above agencies. All learned aggressive
behaviour come under social learning.

The ability to learn by observing the activities of others in the family or society is due to the
cognitive influence of learning. Even Tolman’s experiment on rats learning to run mazes
substantiates the fact that simple creatures can learn from experience to form internal models to
guide later behaviour.

Social learning theory emphasizes the role of learning, especially impact of modeling and operant
conditioning techniques of learning. According to this theory children are rewarded for behaving
in accordance with gender stereotypes and gender roles.

“I act like my Papa so I am a boy” “I act like my Mummy so I am a girl”, they say. In this manner
their ideas about sex role and sex stereotypes develop. Children usually identify with their own sex
models.

Rotter who has also contributed to social learning theory is of view that those individuals who
strongly believe that they can make and change their own personalities, own destinies they are
known as Internals. On the other hand those who believe that their destiny and personality is an
outcome of the forces in their outside or external environment and they have no control upon them,
they are known as Externals.

Internals are often happy people and are better adjusted because they try to shape their career and
future. The externals throw all the responsibilities on the outside environment and hardly make any
attempt to build their character, personality and future.
According to Rotter, “internal factors such as subjective estimates concerning the likelihood of
various outcomes, subjective reactions to those out comes and generalized expectancies of
personal control all combine to influence behaviour”.
These suggestions of Rotter definitely contrast very sharply with the view stated in early learning
approach to personality that only external reinforcement contingencies should be taken in the
account.

Internals:
In Rotters Social Learning theory “Internals” are those individuals who believe that they exert
sufficient control over the outcomes they experiences.

Externals:
Externals are those individuals who believe that they have little control over the outcomes they
experience. The social learning theory advocates that people benefit from the exposures to others.
Many people who came to psychologists for help appear to have inadequate basic social skills of
communication and social relations.

They do not know how interact with others in an effective manner. They do not know how to make
a request without sounding pusliy or how to refuse one request without annoying the requester.

To-day, I went to a bank in some personal work. There I found that one customer was angrily
arguing with one bank employee and they were having very heated discussion over a very small
issue i.e., updating the pass book of the customer. Both the customer and the bank employee I feel
lacked minimum sense of courtesy, patience and the skill to interact successfully.

Such people don’t know how to expose their feelings clearly and how to hold their temper in
check. They lack in emotional intelligence and even how to start, continue and hold an ordinary
conversation. Such individuals experience difficulties in forming friendships and intimate
relationships, they also face difficulties every-where for getting things done. In short, they don’t
know how to behave properly.

They feel helpless, depressed, aggressive and anxious because of their difficulties. Presence of
such qualities makes life hail.

Behaviour therapists have developed techniques to modify such aggressive, undesirable, socially
unacceptable qualities and help people improve their social skills through observational learning.

There techniques of therapy often involve modeling, i.e., showing these people live demonstrations
or video tapes of how people with good social skills behave in different situations. Modeling as a
very successful technique in social learning is often used in “Assertive training” which helps
clients to learn how to express their feeling and desires more clearly.
Women who learn to be unassertive, shy, obedient, submissive and tolerant by observing women
models from the childhood with these qualities, can be made assertive, confident, self supportive
and protective by proper assertive training through alternate models. But assertiveness is not
aggressiveness.

Assertiveness means being able to state one’s preferences, wishes, desires and needs rather than
simply surrendering to others wishes and desires. Pushy persons can be checked through
assertiveness. Sometime we wish to avoid a person or refuse something which we don’t want.

But we cannot do it because of our unassertiveness. This can be achieved by assertiveness training,
women in India and other developing, under developed countries should be given this
assertiveness training.

Appropriate good social models in the view of Bandura can irradiate many aggressive behaviour. It
can also be controlled through social learning of desirable and unaggressive models. Thus the crux
of social learning theory is learning through models.

Write short note on any two of the following.

Child Labor:
The term “child labour” is often defined as work that deprives children of their childhood, their
potential and their dignity, and that is harmful to physical and mental development. It refers
to work that:

 is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful to children; and/or

 interferes with their schooling by: depriving them of the opportunity to attend
school; obliging them to leave school prematurely; or requiring them to attempt to combine
school attendance with excessively long and heavy work.
The worst forms of child labour involves children being enslaved, separated from their families,
exposed to serious hazards and illnesses and/or left to fend for themselves on the streets of large
cities – often at a very early age.
Nearly 1 in 10 children – some 152 million – are in child labour, almost half of whom work in
hazardous conditions. 30 million children live outside their country of birth, increasing their risk of
being trafficked for sexual exploitation and other work. By 2025, an estimated 121 million
children will be in child labour, with 52 million enduring hazardous work.
Worst forms of child labour as defined by Article 3 of ILO Convention No. 182 :
 all forms of slavery or practices similar to slavery, such as the sale and trafficking of
children, debt bondage and serfdom and forced or compulsory labour, including forced or
compulsory recruitment of children for use in armed conflict;
 the use, procuring or offering of a child for prostitution, for the production
of pornography or for pornographic performances;
 the use, procuring or offering of a child for illicit activities, in particular for the production
and trafficking of drugs as defined in the relevant international treaties;
 work which, by its nature or the circumstances in which it is carried out, is likely to harm
the health, safety or morals of children.
Causes of Child Labor

 The major reasons being poverty and overpopulation. These two go hand in hand. Poor

families tend to have more children, and when earnings of a sole person do not suffice,

young children are forced to take up jobs wherever they can. Having too many members

puts a financial burden on poverty-stricken families, and parents are compelled to send

their children to work to get extra income.

 Lack of education among the poorer sections of society is also a leading cause for children

to start working early. Ignorant and illiterate people do not think twice about engaging their

children in manual labor, since they are not aware of the harmful physical and mental

trauma it can inflict on the child. Being poor, they cannot afford a decent education for the

children, nor do they understand the importance of primary education in children’s lives.

 In many developing nations, textile and garment manufacturers use children to make

garments. Factory owners cut back production costs by employing children rather than

adults, who are in turn paid a lot less and forced to work a lot more. Also, there is no risk of

these young laborers coming up against the factory owners by forming unions because they

are unaware of their rights, and hence this practice flourishes on a large-scale.

 Even though countries have laws in place, these are not being implemented, leading to

further exploitation of innocent children. Apathy by the government and the society has

seen an increase in child workers in developing and under-developed countries.

 In some countries, women are denied formal education and are brought up only to

perform household chores since a very young age. Such a society believes that an educated

woman will not fit into the traditional role of a home maker and bear children. This notion

fuels child labor and young girls thus get pushed into doing manual house work from an

early age.

 Families migrating from rural to urban areas in search of better prospects often end up

pushing their children to take up odd, menial jobs. This happens due to lack of proper
 educational resources in the rural areas, as a result of which these people do not find jobs in

cities. So to make ends meet, children bear the brunt while the adults are left unemployed.

 In villages, people under heavy debt “sell off” their children for a small amount of

money or to repay the outstanding amount. This has given rise to the practice of bonded

child labor. As a result, children are thrust into doing very hard work for long durations of

time, that could well extend into their adulthood, till their family is free from the debt.

Effects of Child Labor

 Children who work often face serious health problems because of working incessantly in

perilous conditions. Often the employers do not care at all about underage children who are

almost always malnourished, and continue to work for long hours with little or no respite.

 Their mental health also takes a beating owing to this severe form of exploitation. These

children often face severe mental trauma when they attain adulthood, owing to the constant

threats and ill-treatment they received toiling away as laborers.

 Children who cannot find work to feed large families resort to begging on the streets, and

in many cases, also fall prey to prostitution. At other times, they even turn into thieves just

to make a quick buck on which the family’s survival depends.

 It also has a negative impact on the welfare of a nation. Since these children do not receive

any education, it increases illiteracy, hampering the overall economic growth of the

country, reflecting poor human development.

 Lack of education as children also means that when they turn into adults, finding jobs

becomes tough since these children do not possess the necessary skills and training. This

leads to a sharp hike in unemployment.

 Such children are always underpaid, and that lowers the country’s per capita income,

putting long-term economic development in peril.

Corruption:

Corruption is a form of dishonesty or criminal offense undertaken by a person or organization

entrusted with a position of authority, to acquire illicit benefit or abuse power for one's private
gain. Corruption may include many activities including bribery and embezzlement, though it may
also involve practices that are legal in many countries. According to the Transparency
Organization Corruption is the abuse of entrusted power for private gain.
Corruption and crime are endemic sociological occurrences which appear with regular frequency
in virtually all countries on a global scale in varying degree and proportion. Individual nations
each allocate domestic resources for the control and regulation of corruption and crime. Strategies
to counter corruption are often summarized under the umbrella term anti-corruption. Additionally,
global initiative like the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 16 also has a target to
substantially reduce corruption of all forms.
Corruption erodes trust, weakens democracy, hampers economic development and further
exacerbates inequality, poverty, social division and the environmental crisis.
Corruption can take many forms, and can include behaviours like:
 public servants demanding or taking money or favours in exchange for services,
 politicians misusing public money or granting public jobs or contracts to their sponsors,
friends and families,
 corporations bribing officials to get lucrative deals
Corruption can happen anywhere: in business, government, the courts, the media, and in civil
society, as well as across all sectors from health and education to infrastructure and sports.
Corruption can involve anyone: politicians, government officials, public servants, business people
or members of the public.
Corruption happens in the shadows, often with the help of professional enablers such as bankers,
lawyers, accountants and real estate agents, opaque financial systems and anonymous shell
companies that allow corruption schemes to flourish and the corrupt to launder and hide their illicit
wealth. Corruption adapts to different contexts and changing circumstances. It can evolve in
response to changes in rules, legislation and even technology.
Causes of Corruption:
As Per R. Klitgaard, Corruption will occur if the corrupt gain is greater than the penalty multiplied
by the likelihood of being caught and prosecuted:
Corrupt gain > Penalty × Likelihood of being caught and prosecuted
Klitgaard has also coined a metaphorical formula to illustrate how the amount of corruption
depends on three variables: monopoly (M) on the supply of a good or service, the discretion (D)
enjoyed by suppliers, and the supplier's accountability and transparency (A) to others. The amount
of corruption (C) could be expressed as:
C = M + D – A.
Since a high degree of monopoly and discretion accompanied by a low degree of transparency
does not automatically lead to corruption, a fourth variable of "morality" or "integrity" has been
introduced by others. The moral dimension has an intrinsic component and refers to a "mentality
problem", and an extrinsic component referring to circumstances like poverty, inadequate
remuneration, inappropriate work conditions and inoperable or over-complicated procedures which
demoralize people and let them search for "alternative" solutions. Hence the amended Klitgaard
equation is
Degree of corruption = Monopoly + Discretion – Transparency – Morality
According to a 2017 survey study, the following factors have been attributed as causes of
corruption:

 Greed of money, desires.

 Higher levels of market and political monopolization
 Low levels of democracy, weak civil participation and low political transparency
 Higher levels of bureaucracy and inefficient administrative structures
 Low press freedom
 Low economic freedom
 Large ethnic divisions and high levels of in-group favoritism
 Gender inequality
 Poverty
 Political instability
 Weak property rights
 Contagion from corrupt neighboring countries
 Low levels of education
 Lack of commitment to society
 Extravagant family

Nepal’s Rank: Nepal’s Score: 33/100

2020 Rank
117/180
Effects of Corruption on People and Public Life
Lack of quality in services
In a system with corruption, there is no quality of service. To demand quality, one might need to
pay for it. This is seen in many areas like municipality, electricity, distribution of relief funds, etc.

If a person has to purchase a like medicine due to corruption in education, then the candidate, after
completion of his course, will not like to provide quality health service if there is not enough
remuneration for his service.
Further, candidates who do not have the ability can also get into the same seat by purchasing it. So
though he becomes a medical practitioner, he may not be competent enough.
Lack of proper justice
Corruption in the judiciary system leads to improper justice. And the victims of offense might
suffer. A crime may be proved as a benefit of the doubt due to a lack of evidence or even the
evidence erased. Due to corruption in the police system, the investigation process goes on for
decades.
This lets the culprits roam free and even perform more crimes. There are even chances that
criminals due to old age due to the delayed investigation. So it leads to a sense of “Justice delayed
is justice denied.”
Chances of Unemployment
This we can see with an example. The private education and training institutes are given permits to
start providing education. This permit is given based on the infrastructure and sufficient
recruitment of eligible staff. Here there are good chances of corruption. The institute or college
managements try to bribe the quality inspectors so as to get permits. Though there is no sufficient
eligible staff, these institutes get permission from the inspectors leading to unemployment. Instead
of 10 faculties, a college is run by 5. So, even if well-qualified persons wish to get a job there, they
will not be offered. If there were no corruption by inspectors, then there would be a chance for
more employment.
Poor Health and hygiene
In countries with more corruption, one can notice more health problems among people. There will
be no fresh drinking water, proper roads, quality food grains supply, milk adulteration, etc.
These low-quality services are all done to save money by the contractors and the officials who are
involved. Even the medicine provided in hospitals for the hospitals is of sub-standard quality. So
all these can contribute to the ill health of a common man.
Pollution
Pollution is mostly emitted in the form of water pollution, air pollution, and land pollution. This
pollution is from vehicles and factories. The governments have a monitor on this pollution by
regular check of vehicle emissions and also industrial exhausts.
Corruption in the government department lets the industry people opt to release untreated and
harmful waste into rivers and air. If there is no corruption, there can be fair probes. The industry
personnel will then treat the waste such that it is less toxic and harmless to the environment and
people in it. So we can mean that corruption is also the main cause of pollution.
Accidents
Sanction of driving license without a proper check of driving skills leads to accidents and death.
Due to corruption, there are countries where one can drive a license without any tests.
Failure of genuine research
Research by individuals needs government funding. Some of the funding agencies have corrupt
officers. These people sanction the funds for research to those investigators who are ready to bribe
them.
In doing so, they do not sanction the funds to genuine and hardworking investigators. Thus the
research and development will be lagging. This seems to be not a problem for the common public.
But if we notice the resistance of microbes to drugs, we can know that there were no new
compounds discovered in the past few decades for the efficient treatment of resistant microbes.
Effects of corruption on Society
Disregard for officials
People start disregarding the official involved in corruption by talking negatively about him. But
when they have work with him or her, they again approach them by a thought that the work is done
if some monetary benefits are provided.
Disregard officials will also build distrust. Even lower grade officers will be disrespectful to higher
grade officers. So even he may not obey his orders.
Even incidents where a lower grade police officer kidnapped higher grade officers for not offering
him leave when asked.
Lack of respect for rulers
Rulers of the nation like the president or prime ministers lose respect among the public. Respect is
the main criteria in social life.
People go for voting during the election not only with the desire to improve their living standards
by the election winner but also with respect for the leader.
If the politicians are involved in corruption, people knowing this will lose respect for them and will
not like to cast their vote for such politicians.
Lack of faith and trust in the governments
People vote for a ruler based on their faith in him/ her. But if found to be involved in corruption,
people lose faith in them and may not vote next time.
Aversion for joining the posts linked to corruption
Sincere, honest, and hardworking people develop an aversion for the particular posts deemed
corrupt.
Though they like those jobs, they tend not to opt for them as they believe that they also would have
to be involved in corruption if they get into the post.
Effects of corruption on Economy
A decrease in foreign investment
Many incidents wherein foreign investments that were willing to come to developing countries
have gone back due to heavy corruption in government bodies.
Delay in growth
Due to a desire to mint money and other unlawful benefits, the official who needs to pass the
clearances for projects or industries delays the process. A work which can be done in a few days
may be done in a month.
This leads to delay in investments, the starting of industries, and also growth. Even if they started,
company growth hinders as every work linked to officials get delayed due to the need to provide
bribes or other benefits.
Lack of development
Many new industries willing to get started in a particular region change their plans if the region is
unsuitable.
If there are no proper roads, water, and electricity, the companies do not wish to start up there.
This hinders the economic progress of that region.
Differences in trade ratio’s
Some countries have inefficient standard control institutes. Or in other words, these standard
control institutes are corrupt and can approve low-quality products for sale in their country.
Gender and Generation Gap
Gender and Social Psychology:
The formation of gender is controversial in many scientific fields, including social psychology.
Specifically, researchers and theorists take different perspectives on how much of gender is due to
biological, neurochemical, and evolutionary factors (nature), or is the result of culture and
socialization (nurture). This is known as the nature versus nurture debate. 
Biological Perspective:
Biological differentiation is a fundamental part of human reproduction. Males have two
different sex chromosomes, an X and a Y. Females have two X chromosomes. The Y
chromosome is what determines sexual differentiation. If the Y chromosome is present, growth is
along male lines; it results in the production of testes, which in turn produce testosterone. In
addition to physical effects, this prenatal testosterone increases the likeliness of certain "male"
patterns of behavior after birth, though the exact impact and mechanism are not well understood.
The biological approach states that the distinction between men and women are due to inherent and
hormonal differences. Biological explanations of gender and sexual differences have been
correlated to the work done by Charles Darwin regarding evolution. He suggested that just as wild
animals and plants had physiological differences between sexes, humans did as well. Biological
perspectives on psychological differentiation often place parallels to the physical nature of sexual
differentiation. These parallels include genetic and hormonal factors that create different
individuals, with the main difference being the reproductive function. The brain controls behavior
by individuals, but it is influenced by genes, hormones and evolution. Evidence has shown that the
ways boys and girls become men and women is different, and that there are variations between the
individuals of each sex.
Cognitive perspective
Males are found to have much wider variation than females in areas of quantitative
reasoning, spatial visualization, spelling, and general knowledge than females. Males are found to
be better at the motor skill of aiming, while females excel at the coordination of fine motor skills.
Male chimpanzees, for example, are much more likely to throw stones or clumps of earth than
their corresponding gender.  Females test higher on object location memory and verbal memory
than male. Females have shown to have a higher ability in reading facial and body cues than their
male counterparts. Though studies have found females to have more advanced verbal skills, men
and women in adulthood do not have varied vocabularies. Women tend to have better spelling
capabilities and verbal memory.
Although there is a large collection of information about how men and women differ in cognitive
functioning and the physical differences of each gender's brain, both sets of information have not
been definitely related to each other in research. The biggest difference between the genders are
the sizes of the brains. Men's brains are larger and heavier than women's by 10-15%, though the
ratio of brain to body size in both males and females varies based on body size. Researchers
propose the extra brain weight in males is the reason for the large sex difference in spatial ability.
Women appear to have larger areas of connective fibers between the two hemispheres, called
hemispheric asymmetry.
Social-cultural perspecive
In most cultures, humans are subject from infancy to gender socialization. For example, infant girls
typically wear pink and infant boys typically wear blue. Gender schemas, or gendered cultural
ideals which determine a person's preferences, are also installed into our behaviors beginning at
infancy. Studies show that toddler children are more likely to interact with children of the same sex
than they are to interact with children of the opposite sex or even a mixed group.
As people get older, gender stereotypes become more applied. The social role theory primarily
deals with such stereotypes, more specifically the division of labor and a gender hierarchy. When
this theory is applied in social settings, such as the workplace, it can often lead to sexism. This
theory also applies to certain personality trails, such as men are more typically more assertive and
women more passive. According to this theory, ideally, in most cultures, the woman is to stay and
tend to the house and home while the man works to both better the house itself and increase
finances.
Psychodynamic theory
Psychodynamic theories, following on from Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, focus on
unconscious drives, the relationship of the child and early experiences with the parents (or primary
caregivers). Gender is a core part of personality that rests on the child’s awareness of its anatomy
and its identification with the same-sex parent. The key point in its development is the resolution
of the Oedipus complex for boys and the Electra complex for girls. Both involve resolving an
incestuous desire for the opposite-sex parent and competition with the same-sex parent. Girls view
the same-sex parent as responsible for their loss of a penis. Boys fear that their penis will be taken
away by the same-sex parent. This antagonism is somehow resolved, and the child aligns with the
same-sex parent. For males, fear of the loss of the penis is a more abstract concept, meaning males
must work harder to deal with uncertainty. For females, the loss is already apparent. On this view,
the male role is stronger than is the female. It is not difficult to see the three gender lenses at work
here.

Social learning theory 

Instead of an innate, unconscious and biological basis of gender identity, social learning theory
emphasises the child’s environment and learning experiences. According to this view, gender roles
are learned through a mixture of observing the behaviour of others and modelling (imitation of
same-sex caregivers). Children recognise the differential behaviours of boys and girls, generally,
and the treatment by others in the form of rewards or punishments for appropriate/inappropriate
actions. Children also experience individual differences in treatment, which starts at birth with
physical handling, clothes and toy choices and patterns of speech. Gender-linked behaviours are
observable by age one. Through conditioning, behaviours regularly and consistently rewarded are
most likely to persist, whereas those behaviours that are punished are more apt to cease. 
Although social learning theory offers some explanation of how modelling and reinforcement
interact, it tends to underplay individual differences in development and reactions from others such
as inconsistencies in behavioural reinforcement. While it considers cognitive factors, it also
underplays the agency of children and how they actively make sense of the world. It is also not
clear how children cope with conflicting messages regarding gender.

Cognitive-developmental theory
According to the cognitive-developmental theory, as children we mature and experience the world,
reorganising mental processes as we progress through a series of stages of development.
Children’s development hits various milestones moving from the simple to the complex and from
the concrete to the abstract, including language development. Children are active agents in
acquiring gender roles within development stages that allow for an increasingly sophisticated grasp
of concepts and language. As children mature, discrepancies between their knowledge and their
experiences of the environment cause their ideas to shift accordingly. The acquisition of gender
constancy, stability and consistency can only happen when a child has reached a certain level of
cognitive maturity.
According to this view, gender identity exists at several levels, possibly developing in line with
language. A strong theme that emerges from the literature is that boys, more so than girls, value
their own gender more highly. This offers some support for the psychodynamic view that boys
must try harder. 
Generation Gap and Social Psychology:

The concept of the generation gap is one that has become part of our cultural vernacular.
Reputedly coined by renowned anthropologist Margaret Mead, the simplest definition of the
concept is the differentiation (or gap) of values, attitudes, or behaviors between members of an
older generation and a younger generation. Typically, the concept of the generation gap is used as
an explanation of conflict between parents and children within individual families. The concept
gained  particular  notoriety  during  the  1960s  and 1970s, when numerous articles and books
commented on the differences between baby boomers and their parents.

The gaps between generations can be considered in two particular ways. The first is when
comparisons are made at different times between generations at similar ages, such as comparing a
parent’s high school experiences relative to his or her child’s high school experiences. The classic
example of this is the popular saying by older family members, “when I was in school, I walked a
mile in the snow.” The second approach is to examine across groups at the same point in time. For
example, parents and adult children may experience conflict about child rearing, whereby the gap
may be defined in terms of current differences in child-rearing beliefs between children and their
parents. Most studies from the 1960s and 1970s were based on the latter approach.

Generation gaps emerge out of the differential experiences of what demographers refer to as birth
cohorts. Birth cohorts are groups of individuals born within a similar time, typically 10-or 20-year
intervals. Typically, cohort members have unique experiences that affect their human development
in similar ways. This uniqueness of birth cohorts is linked directly to the level of social change
within a given society. The greater the degree of social change (i.e., immigration, economic
development, political instability), the more unique birth cohorts become. Thus, the characteristics
of birth cohorts influence generation gaps in two key ways. First, they emphasize the
distinctiveness of different birth cohorts. Second, through shared experiences and memories,
members of the same birth cohort form deep bonds with each other, often reinforcing that which
makes them unique to other generations.

Reasons for generation gap

Due to the difference in bringing up, their mental framework differ from each other.
Physciological and behavorial patterns are formed on the basis of circumstances one undergoes.
When the people of the different generations meet each other they often are induced to difference
in opinion, communication gap, conflicts etc.
Due to the difference in mental framework the likes and dislikes also differ from each other. In this
way both the parties cannot live in peace with each other and they are unable to respect the likes
and opinion of each other.
The frequency of thoughts flow from opposite directions in a parallel manner. When the thought
process from the two parties is so different, then love cannot be expressed even if it exists between
the two parties. Both of them are unable to find a proper channel to express their feelings also. in
this way gap creates between the two relationships.

Effects of generation gap

The problem of generation gap creates negative consequences and the two parties already began to
drift with each other emotionally. Generation gap occurs between parents and children or between
in-laws. It also occurs between teachers and students but the degree of gap is less because they do
not spend much time with each other. This problem leads to communication gap and the two
parties are unable to understand the channel for communication.
Due to emotional incompatibility arguments over silly matters and conflicts began to occur often
frequently. The peace in the premises of the house is disturbed.
In the extreme cases the parties even decide to abandon each other. The children decide to leave
the house of the parents due to lack of emotional space constantly. The daughter-in-law may
provoke her husband to abandon her mother-in-law for disability to cope up unreasonable
demands.
Ways to combat the problem

There are no technical solutions to resolve this knotty problem. If you want to resolve the problem
and be at peace then both the parties must be willing to solve the problem. If the party is unable to
accept the changes then the other party should comprise to a greater extent which may not be
possible.
Realization and a high level of understanding is one of the optimal solutions to combat the
problem.
Both the parties should often discuss openly about their childhood and the funny and sad incidents
that took place during their childhood days. This activity not only creates bondage but also opens
the doors for understanding. The two parties can understand the lifestyle of each other. Knowing
the childhood of each other helps the parties understand the physiological patterns formed by each
other also.
Both the parties should not develop a very high feeling about themselves. They should understand
that they both have their limitations since they are human-beings. They should understand that they
both depend upon each other at some point or the other.
They both should realize the peace that can be built by a means of co-operation. When both the
parties are co-operative they can complete the tasks very peacefully. This problem commonly
occurs between mother-in-law and daughter-in-law. The mother-in-law should realize that her
daughter-in-law is customized to the atmosphere of education and profession and hence suddenly
coping up the domestic activities is not an easy task for her. At the same time the daughter-in-law
should also realize that her mother-in-law was not enough lucky to be educated by her parents and
hence she cannot be professionally competent and understand the professional world.
Both the parties should realize the theory of limitations and both of them cannot be satisfied as per
their wants. Nobody in the world is satisfied according to their wants because human wants are
only unlimited. They should realize the easiness of expecting and difficulty of implementing.
Especially in the initial stage when a mother-in-law and daughter-in-law meet each other they
cannot live with peace with each other because both of them meet from the different worlds.
Everybody should develop the attribute of respecting each other. When one learns to respect each
other peace can be established between the two parties. A mother-in-law should realize that the
woman of today struggle with pain to earn bread for their family. The daughter-in-law at the same
time should realize that her mother-in-law once underwent a lot of pain to bring up her family and
she has once undergone many economic and social hardships.
To build a close relationship with each the two parties can enjoy with each other periodically such
as going out for a cinema, restaurants, shopping and many other fun-filled activities. They can also
organize to celebrate the birthday of each other .
Both the parties should purposely spend time with each other whenever they are free. This activity
creates an emotional bondage very quickly.
If both the parties are interested with the topic of spirituality then the formula works wonderfully
because both the parties require spirituality in life to create peace.
Beggary
Begging (also panhandling) is the practice of imploring others to grant a favor, often a gift
of money, with little or no expectation of reciprocation. A person doing such is called
a beggar or panhandler. Beggars may operate in public places such as transport routes, urban
parks, and markets. Besides money, they may also ask for food, drink, cigarettes or other small
items. Beggars differ from religious mendicants in that some mendicants do not ask for money.
Their subsistence is reciprocated by providing society with various forms of religious
service, moral education, and preservation of culture. Beggars have existed in human society since
before the dawn of recorded history. 
Types of Beggars:
There are three kinds of beggars;
a. Traditional beggars: These are who crowd the major shrines of the city and consider
it their right to be given alms, owing to their proclaimed lineage to the saint buried
there. These include the “rat-children”, who are made to wear steel helmets
immediately after birth to produce an artificial deformation in the shape of their
heads. This serves to elicit sympathy from the passers-by and thus better earnings.
b. Second class: These are the professional mendicants who roam the urban locality. T
c. the third type is the people who are genuinely in dire financial straits “but have
dignity, and normally are unable to beg,
Causes of Beggary:
a) Economic causes: The three main economic causes are poverty, loss of employment or under-
employment and lucrative business.
(i) Poverty: One of the main factors which forces people to take to beggary is destitution. Having
no sufficient means to support themselves or their families, many persons resort to begging.
(ii) Loss of employment and Under-employment: But poverty alone cannot be held responsible
because all those who live on poverty line do not take to beggary. A man begs not only when he is
poor but also when he is unemployed or under-employed.
(iii) Lucrative Business: Owing to easy gains and sufficient income from begging many people
make it a profession instead of doing honest labour. Not only that, many make it a business and
exploit others by investing some amount in this business. There are groups operating in big cities,
which force many children to this profession.
b) Social causes: Among the social causes are family disorganization, lack of parental control,
community disorganization, break up of joint family system and social custom.
(i) Family Disorganization: Family is an integral part of our social relationship, which influences
our patterns of behaviour and activities. Any disturbance in our home condition especially in the
case of a poor one leads to a breakdown of family, which in return gives rise to beggary.
(ii) Lack of Parental Control: In the industrial centres parents do not have the required control over
their children, where often the mothers also go to factories for work. The result is that children’s
energies may turn to any direction. If they fall into bad company, they may develop wanderlust,
which may lead to beggary. (iii) Community Disorganization: Disorganization in rural community
may also be responsible for increase in beggary.
(iv) Break-up of Joint Family System: In the past the Hindu joint family supported the
handicapped, orphans, blind etc. But owing to break-up of the joint family system in the present
age, such persons are often thrown in the streets.
(v) Social Custom: Some of the castes and tribes ask for alms only because begging is their
hereditary profession. They are often migratory in character.
c) Biological Causes: Among the biological causes may be mentioned sickness, physical or mental
defects and old age.
(i) Sickness or Disease: The diseases may be curable and preventive in the beginning, but in the
long-run may become chronic and incurable. Diseases like syphilis, T.B., skin diseases and leprosy
turn most people into beggary.
(ii) Physically Disabled or Infirm: The physical defects like blindness, deafness acquired in the
beginning or got later on force many people to beg as the economic condition of their family is not
such as to afford the maintenance of these disabled persons.
(iii) Mentally Deficient: There are persons who are mentally deficient or insane and cannot earn
any living and they are forced to begging.
(iv) Old Age: Persons who become physically weak in old age and cannot do any work and at the
same time have nobody to support become beggars to get some money and sustain themselves.
d) Religious Causes: Among religious causes may be included religious mendicancy and
indiscriminate alms giving
(i) Religious Mendicancy: Religious mendicancy facilitates a man to beg under the garb of a Sadhu
or Fakir. Such people take the form of religious mendicants only as means to an end.
(ii) Indiscriminate Alms-giving: Indiscriminate alms giving by the public because of their religious
sentiments encourages beggary.
(e) Other Reasons: Among other reasons may be mentioned those who are forced to beg. There are
persons upon whom beggary is enforced. There are orphans and waifs and strays who are
sometimes deliberately maimed or disfigured in order that their guardians or some other persons
may earn their living. Many normal parents also trade on their children’s infirmities using these as
sources of supplementary income.
Effects of Beggary:
1. The future of child is ruined
2. It leads to prostitution, drug addiction and crime.
3. They are disturbing health system by spreading communicable diseases.
4. They are disturbing economic system as there is unequal distribution of wealth.
5. They are creating the traffic jam.
6. They are disturbing the privacy of the people.

Define antisocial behaviour. Explain the purpose and causes of aggression.

Anti-Social Behavior

Anti-social behaviours are actions that harm or lack consideration for the well-being of others. It
has also been defined as any type of conduct that violates the basic rights of another person and
any behaviour that is considered to be disruptive to others in society.This can be carried out in
various ways, which includes, but is not limited to, intentional aggression, as well as covert and
overt hostility. Anti-social behaviour also develops through social interaction within the family and
community. It continuously affects a child's temperament, cognitive ability and their involvement
with negative peers, dramatically affecting children's cooperative problem-solving skills.

Purposes of Aggression

Aggression can serve a number of different purposes, including:

 To express anger or hostility

 To assert dominance
 To intimidate or threaten
 To achieve a goal
 To express possession
 A response to fear
 A reaction to pain
 To compete with others

Causes of Aggression:
Inner Causes
Inner causes of aggression has been named and categorized into five different types.
Frustration:
Frustration is defined as blocking or interfering with a goal. In psychology, frustration is a
common emotional response to opposition, related to anger, annoyance and disappointment.
Frustration is a very common emotional response when we can’t get what we want or when things
don’t go the way we want them to; when we get blocked
Frustration arises from the perceived resistance to the fulfillment of an individual's will or goal and
is likely to increase when a will or goal is denied or blocked. 
There are two types of frustration: internal and external.
Internal frustration may arise from challenges in fulfilling personal goals, desires, instinctual
drives and needs, or dealing with perceived deficiencies, such as a lack of confidence or fear of
social situations. Conflict, such as when one has competing goals that interfere with one another,
can also be an internal source of frustration or annoyance and can create cognitive dissonance.
External causes of frustration involve conditions outside an individual's control, such as a physical
roadblock, a difficult task, or the perception of wasting time.

As toddlers, children will get aggressive with each other quickly over any frustration that they are
feeling.
Frustration often leads directly to aggression as when a person gets angry, they may act out against
the cause of their frustration, i.e. hitting the copier when it doesn’t work F
The specific situations that give rise to frustration are innumerable but, by and large, they can be
brought under four general categories:
(1) Man’s physical environment,
(2) Man’s biological limitations,
(3) The complexity of man’s psychological makeup, and
(4) The nature of man’s social environment.
Bad moods: These can be defined as the an angry or irritable state of mind. These are another
cause of aggression that will come from inside a person. People are far more likely to get
aggressive when they are already irritable about another unrelated issue.
Hostile attribution biases: The hostile attribution bias (HAB) is the tendency to interpret the
behavior of others, across situations, as threatening, aggressive, or both. People who exhibit the
HAB think that ambiguous behavior of others is hostile and often directed toward them, while
those who do not exhibit the HAB interpret the behavior in a nonhostile, nonthreatening way.
Furthermore, people who make the HAB often respond to the other person’s behavior in an
aggressive manner because they perceive it as a personal threat. When they respond aggressively,
this action is often viewed as inappropriate because the other person’s original behavior was not
intended to be aggressive. Perceiving all social interaction as aggressive would be a hostile
perception bias.

Age: It is another cause of aggression. The most hostile and aggressive age for human is
childhood, namely toddlers. Toddlers will resort to violence 25% of the time when faced with a
problem, much higher than any other age group (Baumeister & Bushman). A toddler then, has a
better chance of hitting you for taking something away from then, then any other age group. High
aggression rates in toddlers are most likely due to the fact that they still lack the means to
communicate in more constructive ways. Young children do not commit many violent crimes,
especially as compared to young men. This is most likely due to the fact that young children can’t
do much physical damage, because they are smaller and weaker.

Adolescents and young adults come in second on the aggressiveness scale, partly the reason why
so many murderers are in this age range. Longitudinal studies show that serious aggressive and
violent behavior peaks just past the age of puberty. After the age of 19, aggressive behaviors begin
to decline.

Gender: A person’s gender may also be the cause of aggression, men of course, are statistically
more aggressive. In all known societies, young men just past the age of puberty commit most of
the violent crimes. Research shows that males are more physically aggressive than females. Males
are also more verbally aggressive than females. Females are often taught to be less direct in
expressing aggression, so they often resort to more indirect forms of aggression. When it comes to
relational aggression, for example, females are more aggressive than males. Relational aggression
is defined as intentionally harming someone’s relationships with others. Some examples of
relational aggression include saying bad things about people behind their backs, withdrawing
affection to get what you want, and excluding others from your circle of friends. Thus, rather than
simply stating that males are more aggressive than females, it is more accurate to state that both
sexes can behave aggressively, but they tend to engage in different types of aggression.

Genetically influenced
Aggressive behaviors are believed to be inherited thus being passed on from generation to
generation through the DNA of individuals. This has been witnessed where both a father and son
display aggressive behaviors. Genes or the genetic component of individuals influence personality
and trait disorders thus determining the behaviors of an individual. If there is a biological
background for aggressive behavior, then the risk of aggressive behavior in children will be high
(Jones, 2005).

Blood chemistry
Blood chemistry can contribute to aggressive behaviors. Alcohol in the blood encourages
deindividuation. This is the decrease of self awareness of individuals which leads to the decreasing
ability to accurately perceive the outcome of aggressive behaviors. It discourages the normal brain
function by weakening brain mechanism which normally holds back impulsive behaviors such as
aggression (Glicksohn, 2002, pp. 120). In addition, low blood sugar can result to aggressive
behaviors.

Interpersonal Causes
Beyond inner causes, there are also interpersonal causes attributed to aggression as well.
Selfishness and influence: This mean that people are aggressive as a way to get what they want. If
a child throws a fit and yells, and is then rewarded with his goal, he will continue the process. So if
it works, it will be a method that is used up until and including the years of adulthood. Two social
psychologists put forward a broad theory of aggression arguing that aggression should be
understood as a form of social influence (Tedeschi & Felson, 1994). Aggression is mainly a way
by which people try to alter the behavior of others so as to the aggressor aggression is the way to
get what they want. This theory highlights the social rather than the antisocial nature of aggression,
because it depicts aggression as a way in which people relate to others. Creatures that don’t take
care of themselves tend not to survive and reproduce, so evolution has made most animals
(including humans) selfish (Dawkins, 1976/1989). Humans can rise above their selfishness, but the
selfish core is still there. Aggression is one means that social animals use to resolve some of these
disputes. People are more likely to resort to aggression when they believe it will bring success,
such as if the other person seems unlikely to retaliate. (If the other person is bigger and stronger
than you, then aggression does not seem a promising way to get what you want.) Some people
regard physical violence as immoral and will not engage in it under almost any circumstances,
whereas others are far less inhibited. Blaming someone for unfair actions can lead to aggressive
retaliation.

Domestic violence: A common definition of domestic violence is a pattern of abusive behavior

in any relationship that is used by one partner to gain or maintain power and control over
another intimate partner. It is an epidemic in many cultures, ours included. Domestic violence can
take a number of forms including physical, emotional, verbal, economic and sexual abuse, which
can range from subtle, coercive forms to marital rape and to violent physical abuse that results in
disfigurement or death. Globally, a wife or female partner is more commonly the victim of
domestic violence, though the victim can also be the male partner, or both partners may engage in
abusive or violent behavior, or the victim may act in self-defense or retaliation. “Aggression is
highest amongst siblings, as compared to all other relationships (Wiehe, 1991). This cause of
aggression includes child abuse, molestation, as well as spousal abuse.

External causes
External causes of aggression are more controllable, as far as how much the influence will affect a
person.

Weapons Effect: Weapons effect is a term for the aggressiveness of people around weapons. It
refers to the mere presence of a weapon or a picture of a weapon leading to more aggressive
behavior in humans, particularly if these humans are already aroused. People are far more likely to
be aggressive towards someone holding a gun, then a phone. Even when not in danger, studies
have shown that people tend to react more aggressively while in the same room as a weapon, as
opposed to a benign item. One explanation of the weapons effect is that because guns have been
associated with aggression, seeing a gun increases the accessibility of associated aggressive
thoughts which in turn facilitate aggressive behavior. Several studies have replicated the weapons
effect. A review of 56 published studies reported that the mere sight of weapons increases
aggression in both angry and nonangry individuals. Research also shows that drivers with guns in
their cars more likely to drive aggressively.

Mass media: It is a huge influence, most notably, our youth. When people watch violence, they act
more aggressively. Same thing goes for games and the like. With the advent of mass media,
including television and more recently, video and computer games, children and teenagers are
exposed to increasingly higher doses of aggressive images. In many countries, there is an average
of five to ten aggressive acts per hour of television. Violence among youth is also on the rise,
making it plausible to correlate the two, even though we believe that the primary causes for
aggressive behaviour in children are to be found in their family environment, and the social and
economic conditions in which they are raised.
Nonetheless, media plays a major role in the development of cultural orientations, world views and
beliefs. Most studies show that the relation between media violence and ‘real’ violence is
interactive: media can contribute to an aggressive culture; people who are already aggressive use
the media as further confirmation of their beliefs and attitudes, which, in turn, are reinforced
through media content. As the basis for this study, we formulated the compass theory. Depending
on a child’s already existing experiences, values and the cultural environment, media content
offers an orientation, a frame of reference which determines the direction of one’s own behaviour.
Viewers do not necessarily adapt what they have observed, but they measure their own behaviour
in terms of distance to the perceived media models. For instance, if cruelty is ‘common’, ‘just’
kicking the other seems to be innocent by comparison if the cultural environment has not
established an alternative frame of reference.
Unpleasant Environments : Unpleasant Environments cause aggression. Ever been working and
sweating outside, had someone cause pain by accident and you have to stop yourself from
punching them in the face? Well you are not alone. “Time period studies generally have found
higher violence rates in hot years, hot seasons, hot months, hot days” (Baumeister & Bushman).
Chemical Substances

Numerous chemicals have been shown to influence aggression, including testosterone, cortisol,
serotonin, and alcohol.

Testosterone. Testosterone is the male sex hormone. Both males and females have testosterone,
but males have a lot more of it. Testosterone has been linked to aggression. Robert Sapolsky,
author of The Trouble With Testosterone, wrote, “Remove the source of testosterone in species
after species and levels of aggression typically plummet. Reinstate normal testosterone levels
afterward with injections of synthetic testosterone, and aggression returns.”

Cortisol. A second hormone that is important to aggression is cortisol. Cortisol is the human stress
hormone. Aggressive people have low cortisol levels, which suggests that they experience low
levels of stress. How can this explain aggression? People who have low cortisol levels do not fear
the negative consequences of their behavior, so they might be more likely to engage in aggressive
behavior. Also, people who have low cortisol become easily bored, which might lead to sensation-
seeking behavior such as aggression.

Serotonin. Another chemical influence is serotonin. In the brain, information is communicated

between neurons (nerve cells) by the movement of chemicals across a small gap called the
synapse. The chemical messengers are called neurotransmitters. Serotonin is one of these
neurotransmitters. It has been called the “feel good” neurotransmitter. Low levels of serotonin
have been linked to aggression in both animals and humans. For example, violent criminals have a
serotonin deficit.

Alcohol. Alcohol has long been associated with violent and aggressive behavior. Well over half of
violent crimes are committed by individuals who are intoxicated. Does all of this mean that
aggression is somehow contained in alcohol? No. Alcohol increases rather than causes violent or
aggressive tendencies. Factors that normally increase aggression, such as provocation, frustration,
aggressive cues, and violent media, have a much stronger effect on intoxicated people than on
sober people.

Chemical influence, drugs, can cause aggression. Most notably would be steroids, which cause
infamous “roid rage.” Alcohol or a lack of serotonin can also be a cause of aggression in people.
Within the External category of causes, chemical influence is the most powerful cause, just think
of how many people are on pills to alter or change their body’s chemical makeup to stop anti-
social behavior.
So while there are many, many causes of aggression and scientist can hardly agree on anything
concrete, they can agree that it is an anti-social behavior. While many will argue that it is pure
nature that causes our aggressive behavior, one can see that as a person gets older, society
indoctrinates the need for less aggressive behavior.