MANAGING TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT 2013

Overview of Training& Development
1. Introduction

In the field of human resource management, training and development is the field which is
concerned with organizational activity aimed at bettering the performance of individuals and
groups in organizational settings. It has been known by several names, including human resource
development, and learning and development. (Rosemary Harrison 2005)

“Training & Development is any attempt to improve current or future employee performance by
increasing an employee’s ability to perform through learning, usually by changing the
employee’s attitude or increasing his or her skills and knowledge.”

Training and development encompasses three main activities: training, education, and
development. Garavan, Costine, and Heraty, of the Irish Institute of Training and Development,
note that these ideas are often considered to be synonymous. However, to practitioners, they
encompass three separate, although interrelated, activities. (Thomas N. Garavan, Pat Costine,
and Noreen Heraty 1995)

1.1. Definitions of Training, Education and Development

1.1.1. Definitions of Training

As Gary Dessler defines training, refers to the method used to give new or present employees the
skills they need to perform their job.

Noe,Hollenbeck, Gerhart, Wright also define training as, training consists of an organizations
planned efforts to help employees acquire job related knowledge, skills, abilities and behaviors
with the goal of applying these on the job.

According to J.Kenney, E.Donnelly, and M.Reid training is helping an individual to learn how to
carry out satisfactorily the work required of him in his present job.

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Training is planned process to modify attitude, knowledge or skill behavior through learning
experiences to achi9ve effective performance in an activity or range of activities. (M.Foot,
C.Hook, 2002)

Training according to H.J.Bernardin (2007) is defined as any attempt to improve employees’

performance on a currently held job or one related to it.

Generally Training is refers to the process of imparting specific skills. An employee undergoing

training is presumed to have had some formal education. No training program is complete
without an element of education. Hence we  can say that Training is offered to
operatives.

This activity is both focused upon, and evaluated against, the job that an individual currently
holds.

1.1.2. Education:

It is a theoretical learning in classrooms. The purpose of education is to teach theoretical

concepts and develop a sense of reasoning and judgment. That any training and d e v e l o p m e n t
p r o g r a m m u s t contain an element of education is well understood by HR Specialists. Any
such program has university professors as resource persons to enlighten
participants about theoretical knowledge of the topics proposed to discuss. In fact organizations
depute or encourage employees to do courses on part time basis. CEOs are known to attend
refresher courses conducted by business schools. The education is more important for managers
and executives rather than low cadre workers. Any ways education is common to all employees,
their grades notwithstanding.

1.1.2.1. Education Vs Training

Both training and education are instructional process designed to modify human behavior. As
such, their basic foundations are independent on learning and transfer process. In the past,
professionals emphasized differences between training and education based on the specificity of
their program objectives. Thus, industrial training objectives were easily specified and were
designed to produce uniform terminal behavior. But as society becomes more concerned with
providing services and managing human resources, as well as with nuts-and-bolts machinery,
management has begun to recognize that uniform behavior by all trainees is not necessarily a

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desired goal. This realization has led to management training programs designed to enhance
individual modes of behavior. On the other hand, education has become concerned with setting
minimum acceptable levels of performance, resulting in greater degree of uniformity. (Irwin
L.Goldstein, 1974)

A number of writers including Tamehill (1970) and String fellow (1968) have discussed the
nature of education and training in industry and have pointed to the problems which arise from
the different meanings attributed to these two words. The word education, for example, narrowly
used to mean the formal process of studying a syllabus of work, which usually involves
attendance at educational institution. It is also used in the very much broader sense of ‘life itself
is the best educator’, where the meaning conveyed is that of developing an individual’s
personality, attitudes, and knowledge of self. Similarly the word training is used both as a
synonym for education and, in our view more appropriately, in the restricted sense of learning
behavior which is usually capable of precise definition. (J.Kenney, E.Donnelly, and M.Reid,
1979)

Also education and training are both concerned with promoting and guiding learning, we can
consider how training and education differ and yet can complement each other. They differ in
four main areas: in the degree to which their objectives can be specified in behavioral terms, in
the time normally needed to achieve these objectives, in their method of learning, and in the
learning material involved. (J.Kenney, E.Donnelly, and M.Reid, 1979)

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Difference between Education and Training

Areas of difference Education Training

Objective specification in Less amenable to definition More amenable to definition

behavioral terms
Time needed to achieve the Relatively short period Relatively long period
objectives
Method of learning Organic learning (helps for Mechanistic learning (improves
personal change ) what one can do)
Learning material involved Theoretical and Practical and relevant to
conceptual material the job
Table 1.difference between education and training
1.1.3. Definitions of management development

As Gary Dessler, management development is any attempt to improve managerial performance

by imparting knowledge, changing attitudes, or increasing skills.

As Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart, and Wright employee development is the combination of formal
education, job experience, relationship, and assessment of personality and abilities to help
employees prepare for the future of their careers.

Whereas J.Kenney, E.Donnelly, and M.Reid define development as preparing the individual for
a future job.

Development refers to learning opportunities designed to help employees grow, such

opportunities do not have to be limited to improving employees’ performance on their current
job. (H.J.Bernardin, 2007)

Development implies learning that is not necessarily related to the Employees current job.
Instead it prepares employees for other positions in the organization, and increases their ability to
move in the jobs that may not yet exist. Development also helps employees prepare for changes
in their current job. ( Hollenbeck, Gerhart, Wright, 2007)

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Management development includes in house programs such as courses, coaching, and rotational
assignments; professional programs such as American management association seminars, and
university programs such as executive MBA programs. (Gary Dessler, 2006)

1.1.3.1. Training Vs Development

Development means those learning opportunities designed to help employees to grow.

Development is not primarily skills oriented; instead it provides the general knowledge and
attitudes, which will be helpful to employers in higher positions. Efforts towards development
often depend on personal drive and ambition. Development activities such as those supplied
by management development programs are generally voluntary in nature. 
Development provides knowledge about business environment, management principles and
techniques, human relations, specific industry analysis and the like is useful for better
management of a company.
Differences between Training and Development
Training Development
Training is skills focused Development is creating learning abilities
Training is presumed to have a formal education Development is not education dependent
Training needs depend upon lack or deficiency in Development depends on personal drive and
skills ambition
Trainings are generally need based Development is voluntary
Training is a narrower concept focused on job Development is a broader concept focused on
related skills personality development
Training may not include development Development includes training wherever
necessary
Training is aimed at improving job related Development aims at overall personal
efficiency and performance effectiveness including job efficiencies

Table 2.Differences between Training and Development

Difference between Training and development Based on the characteristics

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Characteristics Training Development

Focus Current Future

use of work experience Low High

Goal Preparation for current job Preparation for future /changes

Participation Required Voluntary

Table3. Training Vs development

What are the Training Inputs?

• Skills
• Education
• Development
• Ethics
• Problem Solving Skills
• Decision Making
•Attitudinal Changes

2. Objectives of the training program

Formally establishing objectives for the training program has several benefits.

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First, a training program based on clear objectives will be more focused and more likely to
succeed.
In addition, when trainers know the objectives, they can communicate them to the employees
participating in the program. Employees learn best when they know what the training supposed
to accomplish.
Finally, Establishing objectives provide a basis for measuring whether the program succeeded.
(Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart, Wright, 2007)
The primary objective of training is to prepare employees both new and old, for promotions
which require added skill and knowledge. This means that the training may range from highly
specific instruction as to steps performance of a given job to very general information concerning
the economy and the society. Therefore, it is necessary to establish the goals of training very
cautiously some objectives of training include:
 To impart to new entrants the basic knowledge and skill they need for an intelligent
performance of definite tasks;
 To assist employees to function more efficiently in their present positions by exposing
them to the latest concepts, information, and techniques and developing the skills they will need
in their particular fields;
 To build up a second line of competent officers and prepare them to occupy more
responsible positions;
 To broaden the minds of senior managers by providing them with opportunities for an
interchange of experiences within and outside with a view to correcting the narrowness of the
outlook that may arise from over specialization;
 To develop employees for future jobs;
 To strength the organizations culture by developing a broad understanding of “the way
we do things in work place.”
 In general the objectives of training are “to bridge the gap between existing performance
ability and desired performance.” (M.Attwod and S.Dimmok, 1996)

2.1. Purposes of Training and Development

Reasons for emphasizing the growth and development of personnel include;

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 Creating a pool of readily available and adequate replacements for personnel who
may leave or move up in the organization.
 Enhancing the company's ability to adopt and use advances in technology because
of a sufficiently knowledgeable staff.
 Building a more efficient, effective and highly motivated team, which enhances
the company's competitive position and improves employee morale.
 Ensuring adequate human resources for expansion into new programs.
((Zeromillion.com2002-2011)
2.2. Training aims and objectives
John Stredwick (2005) pointed out that the fundamental aim of training is to help the
organization to meet its organizational objectives by increasing the value of its major resource,
namely, its employees.
Armstrong (2001) sets out three specific training objectives:
■ To develop the competences of employees and improve their performance.
■ To help people grow within the organization in order that, as far as possible, its future needs
for human resources can be met from within the organization.
■ To reduce the learning time for employees starting in new jobs on appointment, transfer or
promotion, and ensure that they become fully competent as quickly and economically as
possible.
There needs to be a systematic approach to training, which means that training must be directed
towards specific ends. It is all too common for employees to be sent on training courses as a
result of an attractive brochure arriving on a manager’s desk without considering the real needs
of the employee or the implications of the training. A systematic approach is best explained
through an analysis of the training cycle.

2.3. STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT (HRD) AIMS

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According to Michael Armstrong (2006), the fundamental aim of strategic HRD is to enhance
resource capability in accordance with the belief that the human capital of an organization is a
major source of competitive advantage. It is therefore about ensuring that the right quality people
are available to meet present and future needs. This is achieved by producing a coherent and
comprehensive framework for developing people.
The specific objectives of strategic HRD are to develop intellectual capital and promote
organizational, team and individual learning by creating a learning culture –an environment in
which employees are encouraged to learn and develop and in which knowledge is managed
systematically.
Although strategic HRD is business-led, its policies have to take into account individual
aspirations and needs. The importance of increasing employability outside as well as within the
organization is an important HRD policy consideration.
In addition, Objectives of (MDP) Management Development Programs OR Advantages of
Development
1. Making them
•Self-starters
•Committed
• Motivated
•Result oriented
•Sensitive to environment
•Understand use of power
2. Creating self-awareness
3. Develop inspiring leadership styles
4. Instill zest for excellence
5. Teach them about effective communication
6. To subordinate their functional loyalties to the interests of the organization
Benefits from Employee Training and Development
“Training will neither make a fish fly nor a bird swim; but training will certainly help a fish to
swim faster and a bird fly higher” ( Yong, AKB, 1996.)
Employee training and development have many benefits for the society, the company, and the
individual him/herself. Among those benefits some of them are listed

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• Increased job satisfaction and morale among employees
• Increased employee motivation
• Increased efficiencies in processes, resulting in financial gain
• Increased capacity to adapt new technologies and methods
• Increased innovation in strategies and products
• Reduced employee turnover
• Enhanced company image
• Risk management
• Creating a pool of readily available and adequate replacement for personnel who leave or
move up in the organization
• Ensures adequate human resource for expansion in to new programs
• A greater volume of work can be expected from trained staff, partly because they work
more rapidly and partly because they make fewer mistakes
• A reduction in work errors benefits a company in two other ways.
First, management can spend more time on planning and development activities instead of
correcting mistakes. Secondly, costs of correcting errors, often involving overtime, are
eliminated
• Training in safe working practices reduces accidents, resulting in social and financial
benefits for both the employees and the company
• A company with a reputation for providing good training tends to attract better applicants
•Helps remove performance deficiencies in employees
•Greater stability, flexibility and capacity for growth in an organization
•Accidents, scraps and damages to machinery can be avoided
•Serves as effective source of recruitment
•It is an investment in HR with a promise of better returns in future
•Reduces dissatisfaction, absenteeism, complaints and turnover of employees

Research has shown specific benefits that a small business receives from training and developing
its workers, including:
• Increased productivity.
• Reduced employee turnover.

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• Increased efficiency resulting in financial gains.
• Decreased need for supervision.
Employees frequently develop a greater sense of self-worth, dignity and well-being as they
become more valuable to the firm and to society. Generally they will receive a greater share of
the material gains that result from their increased productivity. These factors give them a sense
of satisfaction through the achievement of personal and company goals.
(Zeromillion.com2002-2011)
The purpose of training is mainly to improve knowledge and skills, and to change attitudes or
behavior. It is one of the most important potential motivators which can lead to many possible
benefits for both individuals and the organization. Changing technology requires that employees
possess the knowledge, skills and abilities needed to cope with new processes and production
techniques. According to Cole (2002), training can achieve:
1) High morale - employees who receive training have increased confidence and motivation.
2) Lower cost of production- training eliminates risks because trained personnel are able to make
better and economic use of material and equipment thereby reducing and avoiding waste.
3) Lower turnover- training brings a sense of security at the workplace which reduces labor
turnover and absenteeism is avoided.
4) Change management- training helps to manage change by increasing the understanding and
involvement of employees in the change process and also provides the skills and abilities needed
to adjust to new situations.
5) Provide recognition, enhanced responsibility and the possibility of increased pay and
promotion.
6) Give a feeling of personal satisfaction and achievement, and broaden opportunities for career
progression; and
7) Help to improve the availability and quality of staff.

3. The Process of Training

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An elaborate model by David M.Harris and Randy L.De Simon (1994) constitutes three phases
is illustrated in the figure below.

1. Need Assessment Phase 2. Design/ implementation phase 3. Evaluation phase

Define program Select evaluation criteria

Assess needs
objectives

Prioritize needs select trainer

Evaluation design

Develop lesson plan

Select program Implement evaluation

methods and design
techniques

Prepare materials

Schedule program
Interpret results

Implement program

Training and human resource development model (David M.Harris and Randy L.De
Simon, 1994)

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Other training scholars (Gerhart et al, 2007) include four phases need assessment, setting
training objectives, implementing the training program, and evaluation of training. These are
discussed below one by one.

3.1. Conduct A Need Assessment

This phase of the training process provides the information necessary to design the entire
program. An examination of the model indicates that the training and evaluation phases are
dependent up on the input from the development phase. Unfortunately, many programs are
doomed to failure because trainers are more interested in conducting the training program than in
assessing the needs of the organization. (Goldstein, 1974)

A variety of conditions may prompt an organization to conduct a needs assessment.

Management may observe that some employees lack basic skills or are performing poorly.
Decisions to produce new products, apply new technology, or design new jobs should prompt a
needs assessment, because these changes tends to require new skills. The decision to conduct a
needs assessment also may be prompted by out-side forces, such as customer request or legal
requirements. (Gerhart et al, 2007)

The needs assessment phase consists of organizational analysis, task analysis, and
persons/individual analysis.

3.1.1 Organizational Analysis

Usually, the needs assessment begins with the organization analysis. This is a process or
determining the appropriateness of training by evaluating the characteristics of the organization.
The organization analysis looks at training needs in light of the organization’s strategy, resource
available for training, and managements support for training activities. Anyone planning a
training program must consider whether the organization has the budget, time and expertise for
training.

Even if training fits organizations strategy and budget, it can be viable only if the
organization is willing to support the investment in training. (Gerhart et al, 2007))

3.1.2 Task Analysis

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Task analysis is the process of identifying the tasks, knowledge, skills, and behavior that training
should emphasize. Usually, task analysis is conducted along with person analysis. Understanding
short comings in performance usually requires knowledge about the tasks and work environment
as well as the employee. To carry out the tasks analysis, the HR professionals look at the
conditions in which tasks are performed. These conditions include the equipment and
environment of the job, the constraints, safety considerations, and performance standards. These
observations from the basis for a description of work activities, or the tasks required by the
person’s job. For a selected job, the analyst interviews employees and their supervisors to
prepare a list of tasks performed in the job. Then the analyst validates the list by showing it to
employees, supervisors, and other subject matter experts and asking them to complete a
questionnaire about the importance, frequency, and difficulty of the job. (Gerhart et al, 2007))

3.1.3 Persons Analysis

Person’s analysis is a process for determining individuals’ needs and readiness for
training. It involves answering several questions

 Do performance deficiencies result from a lack of knowledge, skill, or ability? (If so,
training is appropriate; if not, other solutions are more relevant.)
 Who needs training?
 Are these employees ready for training?

The answers to these questions help the manager identify whether training is appropriate
and which employees need training. In certain situations, such as the introduction of new
technology or service, all employees may need training. However when needs assessment is
conducted in response to performance problem training is not always the best solution. The
person analysis is therefore critical when training is considered in response to a performance
problem. (Gerhart et al, 2007)

3.2. Setting Training Objectives

Formally establishing objectives for the training program has several benefits. First a
training program based on clear objectives will be more focused and more likely to succeed. In
addition, when trainers know the objectives, they can communicate them to the trainees.

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Employees learn best when they know what the training is supposed to accomplish. Establishing
objectives provides a basis for evaluation.

Effective training objectives have three components

1. A statement of what the employee is expected to do

2. A statement of what the quality or level of performance that is acceptable
3. A statement of the conditions under which the trainee is expected to apply what
she/he learned.

As Michael Armstrong (2010) points out, it is essential to be clear about what the program or
event is required to achieve its training objectives and outcomes. These are defined by reference
to established training needs, and provide the basis for planning content and evaluating results.
Objectives can be defined as criterion behavior (the performance standards or changes in
behavior on the job to be achieved if a learning process is to be regarded as successful) and
terminal behavior (what actually happened following the training event).Any gap between
criterion and terminal behavior will indicate deficiencies in the program.
If possible the objectives should include measurable performance standards. Finally,
training objectives should identify any resources required to carry out the desired performance or
outcome. This helps the organization ensure that employees will be able to apply what they have
learned. (Gerhart et al, 2007)

3.3. Implementing Training Program

Learning permanently changes behavior. For employees to acquire knowledge and skills
in the training program and apply what they have learned in their jobs, the training program must
be implemented in a way that applies what we know about how people learn.

Employees are most likely to learn when training is linked to their current job
experiences and tasks. There are a number of ways trainers can make this link. Training sessions
should present material using familiar concepts, terms, and examples. As far as possible, the
training context-such as the physical setting or the images presented on a computer- should
mirror the work environment.

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To fully understand and remember the context of training, employees need a chance to
demonstrate and practice what they have learned. While implementing training trainers may use
on-the-job training or/and off-the-job training. (Gerhart et al, 2007))

3. 4 Evaluation of Training

After a training program ends, or at intervals during an ongoing training program,

organizations should ensure that the training is meeting objectives. Depending on the objectives,
the evaluation can use one or more of the measures listed down.

 Trainee satisfaction
 Return on investment
 Performance improvements
 New skills and knowledge
 Transfer of training

3.4.1 Types of Training Evaluation

3.4.1.1 Formative and Summative Evaluation

Formative evaluation is utilized to determine if the program is operating as originally

planned or if improvements are necessary before the program is implemented. The major
concern of summative evaluation is the evaluation of the final product with the major emphasis
being program appraisal. Thus formative evaluation stresses try out and revision process,
primarily using process criteria, while summative evaluation uses outcome criteria to appraise
the training program.

3.4.1.2 Formal Training Research, Action Research, Casual Research

Formal training research an effort is need to obtain the most valid measures
available. Thorough evaluations of available measures usually precede their use in the research.
Action research less rigorous evaluation of measures than in scientific research.
Participants often lack training in the use and evaluation of educational measures but can do
satisfactory job with help of a consultant.
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Casual or “common sense” approach usually no evaluation is made except for the
casual observations of the trainers participating. (Goldstein, 1974)

3. 4.2 Levels of Evaluation

It is best to consider how training is to be evaluated before it begins. Donald L.Kirkpatrick
(1996) identified four levels at which training can be evaluated. As Figure 3: shows, the ease of
evaluating training becomes increasingly more difficult as training is evaluated using reaction,
learning, behavior, and results measures.
Level 1-Reaction :Organizations evaluate the reaction level of trainees by conducting interviews
or by administering questionnaires to the trainees. Assume that 30managers attended a two-day
workshop on effective interviewing skills. A reaction-level measure could be gathered by having
the managers complete a survey that asked them to rate the value of the training, the style of the
instructors, and the usefulness of the training to them. However, the immediate reaction may
measure only how much the people liked the training rather than how it benefited them.
Kirkpatrick suggests the following guidelines for evaluating reactions:
1. Determine what you want to find out.
2. Design a form that will quantify reactions.
3. Encourage written comments and suggestions.
4. Get 100 per cent immediate response.
5. Get honest responses.
6. Develop acceptable standards.
Level 2-Learning: Learning levels can be evaluated by measuring how well trainees have learned
facts, ideas, concepts, theories, and attitudes. Tests on the training material are commonly used
for evaluating learning and can be given both before and after training to compare scores. To
evaluate training courses at some firms, test results are used to determine how well the courses
have provided employees with the desired content. If test scores indicate learning problems,
instructors get feedback, and the courses are redesigned so that the content can be delivered more
effectively. Also, as students will attest, what is remembered and answered on learning content
immediately after the training is different from what may be remembered if the “test” is given
several months later.

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Level 3 -Behavior: Evaluating training at the behavioral level involves (1) measuring the effect
of training on job performance through interviews of trainees and their coworkers and (2)
observing job performance. For instance, a behavioral evaluation of the managers who
participated in the interviewing workshop might be done by observing them conducting actual
interviews of applicants for jobs in their departments. If the managers asked questions as they
were trained and they used appropriate follow-up questions, then a behavioral indication of the
interviewing training could be obtained. However, behavior is more difficult to measure than
reaction and learning. Even if behaviors do change, the results that management desires may not
be obtained.
Level 4-Results: Employers evaluate results by measuring the effect of training on the
achievement of organizational objectives. Because results such as productivity, turnover, quality,
time, sales, and costs are relatively concrete, this type of evaluation can be done by comparing
records before and after training. For the interviewing training, records of the number of
individuals hired to the offers of employment made prior to and after the training could be
gathered. The difficulty with measuring results is pinpointing whether it actually was training
that caused the changes in results.
This is the ultimate level of evaluation, and provides the basis for assessing the benefits of the
training against its costs. The objective is to determine the added value of learning and
development programs, how they contribute to raising organizational performance above its
previous level.

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Donald L.Kirkpatrick (1996) four levels of training evaluation

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4. Technique of Training and Development

4. 1. Training Technique
After determining the employees’ training needs, created a perceived need, and set
training objectives, you can design, validate, and implement a training program. Popular training
techniques are described in this section. Training in organizations is offered in many different
areas. Some of this training is conducted primarily in-house, whereas other types of training
make greater use of external (off-house) training resources. (Mathis ,p 313)
1. On-the-job training
One of the most common and least expensive methods of training is on-the-job training (OJT).
OJT refers to the process of learning skills while working where workers-especially new workers
Obtain the knowledge and skills they need to complete their tasks through a systematic training
program ( Bernatek,2010).

On-the-job training is delivered to employees while they perform their regular jobs. In this way,
they do not lose time while they are learning. After a plan is developed for what should be
taught, employees should be informed of the details. A timetable should be established with
periodic evaluations to inform employees about their progress. On-the-job techniques include
orientations, job instruction training, apprenticeships, internships and assistantships, job rotation
and coaching.

i) Orientations: are for new employees. The first several days on the job are crucial in the
success of new employees. Orientation is the planned introduction of new employees to their
jobs, coworkers, and the organization. Orientation training should emphasize the following
topics:

 The company's history and mission.

 The key members in the organization.

 The key members in the department, and how the department helps fulfill the mission of the
company.

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 Personnel rules and regulations

Purposes of Orientation for Employers

 The overall goal of orientation is to help new employees learn about the organization as soon
as possible, so that they can begin contributing
 Productivity enhancement: Both employers and new employees want individuals starting
jobs to become as productive as possible relatively quickly.
 Turnover Reduction: Some employers have experienced significant turnover of newly hired
employees, and it is common for over half of all new hires in hourly jobs to leave within their
first year of employment. But employers with effective orientation programs have found that
new employees stay longer.
 Organizational Overview: Another purpose of orientation is to inform new employees about
the nature of the organization. A general organizational overview might include a brief
review of the organization; the history, structure, key executives, purpose, products, and
services of the organization; how the employee’s job fits into the big picture; and other
general information
 Favorable Employee Impression. Certainly a good orientation program creates a favorable
impression of the organization and its work. This impression begins even before the new
employees report to work. Providing sufficient information about when and where to report
the first day, handling all relevant paperwork efficiently, and having personable, efficient
people assist the new employee all contribute to creating a favorable impression of the
organization.
 Enhance Interpersonal Acceptance: Another purpose of orientation is to ease the employee’s
entry into the work group. New employees often are concerned about meeting the people in
their work units. Further, the expectations of the work group do not always parallel those
presented at management’s formal orientation. Also, if a well-planned formal orientation is
lacking, the new employee may be oriented solely by the group, possibly in ways not
beneficial to the organization. Therefore, orientation was essential for management to make
certain that new employees knew what their supervisors wanted.

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ii) Job rotation: Involves moving an employee through a series of jobs so he or she can get
a good feel for the tasks that are associated with different jobs. It is usually used in training
for supervisory positions. The employee learns a little about everything. Through job
rotation, companies can create a flexible workforce capable of performing a variety of tasks
and working for multiple departments or teams if needed. Furthermore, employees can
cultivate a holistic understanding of a company through job rotation and can learn and
appreciate how each department operates. Effective job rotation programs entail more than a
couple of visits to different departments to observe them. Rather, they involve actual
participation and completion of actual duties performed by these departments. In addition,
job rotation duties encompass typical work performed under the same conditions as the
employees of the departments’ experience. Because of the value some companies place on
job rotation, they establish permanent training slots in major departments, ensuring ongoing
exposure of employees to new tasks and responsibilities
iii) Apprenticeship - A method of training where an unskilled person understudies a skilled
person develop employees who can do many different tasks. They usually involve several
related groups of skills that allow the apprentice to practice a particular trade, and they take
place over a long period of time in which the apprentice works for, and with, the senior
skilled worker.
iv.) Internships and Assistantships: are usually a combination of classroom and on-the-job
training. They are often used to train prospective managers or marketing personnel.

Internships: An internship is a form of on-the-job training that usually combines job training
with classroom instruction in trade schools, high schools, colleges, or universities

v) Coaching: Coaching refers to a pre-arranged agreement between an experienced manager

and his or her employee. The role of the coach is to demonstrate skills and to give the
employee guidance, feedback, and reassurance while s/he practices the new skill.

vi.) Committees: Committees are part of every-day activity in any organization. They can
also be effective learning tools, with the right focus. Committees made up of staff from

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different areas of your organization will enhance learning by allowing members to see issues
from different perspectives.
Vii) Job Instruction Training (JIT): A special, guided form of on-the-job training is known as job
instruction training (JIT). Developed during World War II, JIT was used to prepare civilians with
little experience for jobs in the industrial sector producing military equipment. Because of its
success, JIT is still used. In fact, its logical progression of steps is an excellent way to teach
trainers to train.
Advantages and Disadvantages of OJT
On-the-job training is by far the most commonly used form of training because it is flexible
and relevant to what the employee is doing. Training is take place through doing the actual
job, and reduces the cost of hiring outside trainers. However, OJT has some problems as
well. A common problem is that OJT often is haphazardly done. Trainers may have no
experience in training, no time to do it, inadequate in transferring their knowledge to trainees,
no desire to participate, and errors and damages to equipment that occur when trainee is on-
the-job bear out cost. Under such conditions, learners essentially are on their own, and
training likely will not be effective. Another problem is that OJT can disrupt regular work.
Unfortunately, OJT can amount to no training at all in some circumstances, especially if the
trainee simply is abandoned by an ineffective trainer to learn the job alone. However, well-
planned and well-executed OJT can be very effective.

2. Off-the-job Training Techniques

a) Role playing and simulation: : Simulation is a training approach that uses a training site set up
to be identical to the work site. In this setting, trainees can learn under realistic conditions but be
away from the pressures of the production schedule. One type of simulation is called vestibule
training, which occurs in special facilities that replicate the equipment and work demands of
jobs. Examples of vestibule training include airlines that use simulators to train pilots

b) Audiovisual methods: such as television, videotapes and films are the most effective means of
providing real world conditions and situations in a short time. One advantage is that the
presentation is the same no matter how many times it's played. This is not true with lectures,
which can change as the speaker is changed or can be influenced by outside constraints.

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The major flaw with the audiovisual method is that it does not allow for questions and
interactions with the speaker, nor does it allow for changes in the presentation for different
audiences.

c) Programmed Learning: computer-aided instruction and interactive video all have one
thing in common: they allow the trainee to learn at his or her own pace. Also, they allow
material already learned to be bypassed in favor of material with which a trainee is having
difficulty. After the introductory period, the instructor need not be present, and the trainee
can learn as his or her time allows. These methods sound good, but may be beyond the
resources of some small businesses.
d) Classroom Lectures and Conference Training: Training seminars, courses, and
presentations can be used in both skills-related and developmental training. Lectures and
discussions are a major part of this training. The numerous management development
courses offered by trade associations and educational institutions are examples of
conference training. Company-conducted short courses, lectures, and meetings usually
consist of classroom training, whereas company sales meetings are a common type of
conference training. Both classroom and conference training frequently make use of training
techniques such as case discussions, films, and tapes to enhance the learning experience.
Particularly important in classroom training is to recognize that adults in classroom training
have different expectations and learning styles than do younger students. (Barb Berquam
1998)
Lectures present training material verbally and are used when the goal is to present a great
deal of material to many people. It is more cost effective to lecture to a group than to train
people individually. Lecturing is one-way communication and as such may not be the most
effective way to train. Also, it is hard to ensure that the entire audience understands a topic
on the same level; by targeting the average attendee you may under train some and lose
others. Despite these drawbacks, lecturing is the most cost-effective way of reaching large
audiences. (Zeromillion.com2002-2011)

e) Laboratory training: is conducted for groups by skilled trainers. It usually is conducted

at a neutral site and is used by upper- and middle management trainees to develop a spirit of

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teamwork and an increased ability to deal with management and peers. It can be costly and
usually is offered by larger small businesses.

f) Case studies: The case study is a classroom-oriented development technique that has been
widely used. Cases provide a medium through which trainees can study the application of
management or behavioral concepts. The emphasis is on application and analysis, not mere
memorization of concepts. One common complaint is that cases sometimes are not
sufficiently realistic to be useful. Also, cases may contain information inappropriate to the
kinds of decisions that trainees would make in a real situation.

g) Computer-based training
In computer-based training (CBT), computers and computer-based instructional materials are the
primary medium of instruction. Computer-based training programs are designed to structure and
present instructional materials and to facilitate the learning process for the student. Primary uses
of CBT include instruction in computer hardware, software, and operational equipment. The last
is of particular importance because CBT can provide the student with a simulated experience of
operating a particular piece of equipment or machinery while eliminating the risk of damage to
costly equipment by a trainee or even a novice user. At the same time, the actual equipment's
operational use is maximized because it need not be utilized as a training tool. The use of
computer-based training enables a training organization to reduce training costs, while improving
the effectiveness of the training. Costs are reduced through a reduction in travel, training time,
and amount of operational hardware, equipment damage, and instructors. Effectiveness is
improved through standardization and individualization. In recent years, videodisc and CD-ROM
(Compact Disk-Read Only Memory) have been successfully integrated into computer platforms
allowing low-cost personal computers to serve as multimedia machines, increasing the flexibility
and possibilities of CBT

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4.2 Managerial Development Methods

a) Managerial On-The-Job Development Techniques

 Job rotation moving management trainees from department to department to

broaden their understanding of all parts of the business and to test their ability.
 Coaching/ understanding approach trainees work directly with a senior manager
or with the person he/she is replace.
 Action learning is analyzing and solving problems in departments other than
Aalone. (Gary Dessler, 2006)

b) Off-The-Job Managerial Development Techniques

 Case study method presents a trainee with written description of an organizations

problem. The person then analyzes the case, diagnoses the problem, and presents
his/her findings/solutions in a discussion with other trainees.
 Management games a development technique in which teams of managers
compete by making computerized decision regarding realistic but simulated
situations.
 Role playing the aim is to create a realistic situation and then have the trainees
assumed the parts (role) of specific person in that situation.
 Behavioral modeling involves (1) showing trainees the right way of doing
something, (2) letting trainees to practice that way, and then (3) giving feedback
on trainees performance

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Summary
The primary objectives of training are to bridge the gap between existing performance ability and
desired performance and to prepare employees both new and old, for promotions which require
added skill and knowledge.
 The fundamental aim of strategic HRD is to enhance resource capability in accordance
with the belief that the human capital of an organization is a major source of competitive
advantage. It is therefore about ensuring that the right quality people are available to meet
present and future needs.
 Benefits that organizations can get from employee training and development include:
Increased productivity
Reduced employee turnover
Increased efficiency resulting in financial gains
Decreased need for supervision

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