Samara University

College of Engineering and Technology

Computer Science Department

Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing(CoSc3062)

Chapter Three
Mobile Radio Propagation: Large-Scale Path Loss
Mobile Radio Propagation: Large-Scale Path Loss
Outline:
• Radio wave propagation
• Free space propagation
• Propagation mechanisms
• Link Budget Design

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 2

Radio Wave Propagation
• The radio channel places a fundamental limitation on the
performance of wireless communication systems
• The path between transmitter and receiver is either
• Simple line-of-sight or
• Severely obstructed by buildings, mountains, and foliage

• Unlike wired channels that are stationary and predictable,

radio channels are extremely random and time varying
• Even the speed of motion impacts how rapidly the signal level
fades as a mobile terminal moves in space

• Modeling is difficult in mobile radio system and is typically

done in a statistical fashion or based on measurements for
specific system

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 3

Radio Wave Propagation …
• Electromagnetic (EM) wave propagation mechanisms can
generally be attributed to reflection, diffraction, and
scattering
• E.g., in urban areas there is no direct line-of-sight path between
transmitter and receiver and high rise buildings cause sever
diffraction loss

• Due to multiple reflections from various objects, EM waves

travel along different paths of varying lengths
• The interaction between those waves causes multipath fading at a
specific location

• Strength of the wave decreases as the distance between

the transmitter and receiver increases

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 4

Radio Wave Propagation …
• Propagation models
• Large-scale path loss model
• Small-scale fading model

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 5

Large-Scale Path Loss Model
• Predicts the average received signal strength at a given
distance from the transmitter
• Useful in estimating the coverage area of an antenna
• Characterize signal strength over large transmitter-receiver
(T-R) separation distance
• Several hundreds or thousands of meters

• Typically, the local average received power is computed by

averaging signal measurements over a measurement track
of 5λ to 40λ
• For cellular system in 1~2 GHz, this corresponds to 1~10m

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 6

Small-Scale Fading Model
• Focus on signal strength variation in close spatial proximity
to a particular location
• Characterize the rapid fluctuations of the received signal
strength over
• Very short travel distances (a few wavelengths) or
• Short time durations (in the order of seconds)

• The received power may very by 30-40 dB when the

receiver is moved by fraction of a wavelength
• This is because the received signal is a sum of many contributions
(with random phases) coming from different directions

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 7

Example: Small and Large-Scale Fading
• Signal variations in an indoor radio communication system
• Signal fades rapidly as the receiver moves
• By more than 20 dBm
• However, the local
average signal
decays much more
slowly with distance
(smoothed line)
• Depends on terrain
and obstructions

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 8

Small- and Large-Scale Fading …
• This Chapter covers large-scale propagation and presents
a number of common methods used to predict received
power in mobile communication systems

• Chapter 4 treats small-scale fading models and describes

methods to measure and model multi-path in the mobile
radio environment

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 9

Free Space Propagation Model
• Predicts received signal strength when the transmitter and
receiver have a clear, unobstructed line-of-sight path
between them
• E.g., Satellite communication and microwave line-of-sight radio links
• Free space model predicts the received power decay as a function of
the T-R separation distance raised to some power (i.e., a power law
function)

• The power received by the receiver antenna at a distance d

is given by the Friis free space equation
2
 λ  1 (3.1)
Pr ( d ) = Pt G t G r  
 4π d  L

• Where Pt: transmitted power; Pr: received power; Gt, Gr: antenna
gains; L: system loss factor; λ: wavelength in meters

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 10

Free Space Propagation …
• System loss factor L is not related to propagation
• Results from line attenuation, filter losses, antenna losses
• L ≥ 1 (L=1 indicates no loss in the system)

• The gain of an antenna

4π Ae
G = (3.2)
λ 2

• where Ae: the effective aperture related to the physical size of

antenna
• The wavelength is related to the carrier frequency
c 2π c
λ = = (3.3)
f ω c
• where f: the carrier frequency in Hertz
ωc: the carrier frequency in radians per second
c: the speed of light in meters/sec
• Higher frequency => higher gain for the same size antenna
Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 11
Free Space Propagation …
• Equation (3.1) implies that the received power decays with
distance at a rate of 20dB/decade or with square of T-R
separation
• Isotropic radiator
• An ideal antenna which radiates power with unit gain uniformly in
all direction
• Often used to reference antenna gains in wireless systems
• Effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP)=PtGt
Represents the maximum radiated power available from a
transmitter in the direction of maximum antenna gain, as compared
to an isotropic radiator
• Antenna gains are given in
• dBi : dB gain w.r.t. an isotropic source, which is (Gt=1)
0 dB
• dBd : dB gain with respect to a half-wave dipole antenna

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 12

Free Space Propagation …
• Path loss: Represents signal attenuation as a positive
quantity measured in dB
• Is defined as the difference in dB between the effective
transmitted and received power
• For free space
Pt  G tG r λ2  (3.4)
PL ( dB ) = 10 log = − 10 log  2 
Pr  ( 4 π ) 2
d 
• which is valid only in the far-field (or Fraunhoffer region) of
transmitting antenna region
2D 2
• That is, the far-field distance df =
λ
• where D is the largest physical linear dimension of antenna

• Additionally, df must satisfy df >>D and df >> λ

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 13

Free Space Propagation …
• Equation (3.1) does not hold for d=0
• Hence, large-scale propagation models use a close-in
distance, d0, as a known received power reference point
• The received power Pr(d) at any distance d>d0 may be
related to Pr(d0) at d0
• The value Pr(d0) may be
• Predicted from Equation (3.1) or
• Measured in the radio environment by taking the average received
power at many points located at d0 from the transmitter

• d0 must be chosen such that

• It lies in the far-field region, that is, d0 ≥ df
• It is smaller than any practical distance used in the mobile
communication system
Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 14
Free Space Propagation …
• At a distance greater than d0
2
d  (3.5)
Pr ( d ) = Pr ( d 0 ) 0  d ≥ d0 ≥ d f
 d 
• Pr changes by many orders of magnitude over a typical
coverage area of several kilometers
• Often measured in dBm or dBW

• In units of dBm, the received power is given by

 P (d )  d  (3.6)
Pr ( d ) dBm = 10 log  r 0  + 20 log  0  d ≥ d0 ≥ d f
 0.001W   d 
• where Pr(d0) in units of watts

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 15

Free Space Propagation …
• For practical system using low-gain antennas in 1~2 GHz
region, d0 is typically chosen to be
• 1m in indoor environments
• 100 m or 1 km in outdoor environments

• Example: Find the far-field distance for a base station

antenna with maximum dimension of 1m and 900 MHz
operating frequency
• Solution: Given
• Largest dimension of antenna, D = 1m
• Operating frequency f = 900 MHz, λ=c/f = 1/3 = 0.33 m
• Far-field distance is obtained as
2(1) 2
df = = 6m
0.33

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 16

Free Space Path Loss – Example
• If a transmitter produces 50 watts of power, express the
transmit power in units of
a) dBm, and
b) dBW
c) If 50 watts is applied to a unity gain antenna with a 900 MHz
carrier frequency,
i. Find the received power in dBm at a free space distance of 100 m
from the antenna.
ii. What is Pr (10 km)?
• Assume unity gain for the receiver antenna

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 17

Free Space Path Loss – Solution

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 18

 Example 2
• For a BS, let Pt = 10 W, fc=900 MHz, Gt=2, Gr=1
• The MS is at a distance of 5 km
• What is the received power in dBm?

 Pt G t G r λ 2   10 × 2 × 1 × ( 0 . 33 ) 2 
Pr ( d ) = 10 log   = 10 log  
 ( 4π d )  ( 4 π ) × ( 5000 )
2 2 2
 

Pr ( d = 5000 m ) = − 92 . 6 dBW = − 62 . 6 dBm

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 19

 Example 3
• For a BS, let Pt = 500 mW, fc=900 MHz, Gt=2, Gr=1
• The MS is at a distance of 10 km
• What is the received power in dBm?

 Pt G t G r λ 2   0 . 5 × 2 × 1 × ( 0 . 33 ) 2 
Pr ( d ) = − 10 log   = 10 log  
 ( 4π d )  ( 4 π ) × (10000 )
2 2 2
 
Pr ( d = 10000 m ) = − 111 . 6 dBW = − 81 . 6 dBm

• Can the mobile work at this power level?

• It depends on the receiver sensitivity of the MS
• Sensitivity is the minimum required power level for a GSM phone
to pick up the signal and work
• Typical GSM mobile station sensitivity < -100 dBm

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 20

Propagation Mechanisms
• In wireless com., multiple signals arrive at the receiver, but
with less power than indicated by the Friis equation
• The received power varies strongly (5-25 dB) even for small
changes in antenna position, center frequency, and time

• There is a large effect caused when the path length

increases by orders of magnitude
• This is due to reflection, diffraction, scattering, etc

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 21

Reflection
• Happens when EM wave impinges on an object which has
very large dimensions as compared to wavelength λ
• E.g., the surface of the earth, building, walls, etc.

• When a radio wave propagating in one medium impinges

upon another medium having different electrical properties
• Electric field intensity of the reflected and transmitted
waves are related to the incident wave by Fresnel reflection
coefficient, Γ
• Γ is a function of material properties, polarization, angle of
incidence, and frequency

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 22

Reflection …
• If the plane wave is incident on a perfect dielectric
• Part of the energy is transmitted into the secondary medium
• Part of the energy is reflected back into the first medium
• No loss of energy in absorption

• If the second medium is a perfect conductor

• All incident energy is reflected back into the first medium

• The electric waves can be represented as a sum of two

orthogonal polarization components
• E.g., vertical and horizontal, or left-hand and right-hand circular

• Incident and perpendicular planes

1. Incidence plane: Contains incident, reflected, & transmitted waves
2. Perpendicular plane: Normal to plane of incidence

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 23

Diffraction - Fresnel Zone Geometry
• Diffraction: occurs when radio path is obstructed (shadowed)
by a surface that has sharp irregularities (edges)
• Received power decreases rapidly as a receiver moves deeper into
an obstructed region
• However, diffracted field still exists and often has sufficient strength
to produce a useful signal

• Diffraction explains how radio signals travel without LOS in

urban environment as well as curved surface of the earth
• Diffraction can be explained by Huygen’s principle
• All points on a wavefront (including bending) can be considered as
point sources for the production of secondary waves
• At each point, the wave field is effectively re-radiating in all directions

• The re-radiations enable EM waves to “bend” around objects

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 24
Knife-edge Diffraction
• Geometry when the TX and RX are not at the same height
and no LOS
• At the top, where diffraction is to occur, we have a sharp edge
• E.g., communication between microwave links or between BSs

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 25

Scattering
• Received signal in a mobile radio environment is often
greater than predicted by reflection and diffraction models
• Because when a radio wave impinges on a rough surface, the
reflected energy is spread out (diffused) in all directions due to
scattering

• Scattering occurs when dimensions of objects in the

medium are smaller or comparable to λ and when number
of obstacles per unit volume is large, e.g., millimeter waves
• Small objects, rough surfaces, foliage, street signs, lamp posts

• Scattering causes transmitted energy to be radiated in

many directions

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 26

Link Budget
• Link budget is an accounting of the gains and losses that
occur in a radio channel between transmitter and receiver
• E.g., we need an acceptable SIR or SNR

• Noise power is due to thermal noise

• For a given required S/N ratio
• What is the required MS (or mobile) transmit power?
• What is the maximum cell radius, i.e., path length?
• What is the effect of changing the frequency of operation?

• To find the noise power PN, we need to know the

characteristics of the receiver

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 27

Link Budget – Design Variables

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 28

Link Budget - Design Procedure
• Link budget for received power is
Pr (dB) = Pt (dB) + ∑ dB Gains − ∑ dB Losses

• Link budget for S/N is

S / N = Pr (dB) − PN (dB) = Pt (dB) + ∑ dB Gains − ∑ dB Losses− PN (dB)

• Points to consider
1. All in either in dBW or dBm, otherwise we will have a 30 dB error!
2. If using EIRP transmit power, it includes Pt(dBW) and Gt(dB), so
don’t double count Gt by also including it in the dB Gains sum
3. The dB noise figure F (dB) is either included in PN(dBW) or in the
dB losses, not both!

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 29

Link Budget - Design Procedure …
4. Gains are typically only the antenna gains, compared to isotropic
antennas
5. There are also coding, processing, gains, achieved by using
channel coding to reduce the errors caused by the channels. DS-
SS CDMA is a type of modulation which has a processing gain.
These might be subtracted from the required S/N ratio, or added
to the gains. Do one, but not both
6. Losses include large scale path loss, or reflection losses (and
diffraction, scattering, or shadowing losses, if you know these
specifically), losses due to imperfect matching in the transmitter
or receiver antenna, any known small scale fading loss or
“margin” (what an engineer decides needs to be included in case
the fading is especially bad), etc.
7. Sometimes the receiver sensitivity is given (for example on a
RFIC spec sheet). This is the PN(dB) plus the required S/N(dB)

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 30

Link Budget - Thermal noise
• Thermal noise power, PN, is given as
PN = FkT0B
• Where
• k is Boltzmann’s constant equals 1.38×10−23J/K
• T0 is the ambient temperature, typically taken to be 290-300 K (If
not given, use 294 K)
• B is the bandwidth, in Hz
• F is the (unitless) noise figure, which quantifies the gain to the
noise produced in the receiver (F ≥ 1)
• In dB terms: PN (dB) = F (dB) + k (dB) + T0 (dB) + B(dB)

• F is also given in terms of “equivalent temperature” Te

Te
F = 1+
T0

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 31

Link Budget – GSM Uplink Example
• Consider the uplink of a GSM system with 11dB S/N
requirement
• Assume that
• A maximum mobile transmit power of 1.0 W (30 dBm)
• 0 dB antenna gain at the mobile, and 12 dB gain at the BS
• Path loss given by the urban area Hata model
• fc = 850 MHz
• BS antenna height of 30 meters
• Mobile height of 1 meter
• F = 3 dB and that the system is noise-limited

• What is the maximum range of the link?

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 32

Link Budget – Solution

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 33

Summary
• Radio channels are random and difficult to analyze
• Interference, path loss, shadowing, reflection, diffraction
• Analytical and empirical models exist to predict signal
strength or loss in a wireless medium
• In cellular system, if a mobile has a clear LOS path to the
BS, then diffraction and scattering will not dominate the
propagation
• If a mobile is at a street level without LOS, then diffraction
and scattering will probably dominate the propagation
• Path-loss estimation also requires terrain profile of a
particular area
• Link budget design!

Chapter 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 34