Behavioral Economics
Behavioral Economics
ABSTRACT
A burgeoning field within the economics discipline concerns itself with consumer
psychology. As such, the field of behavioral economics and finance employs a
broad array of tools and methods to create a substantial composite of the
consumer. Such an illustration is critical as it aids economists, financial
professionals and policymakers to implement effective approaches and responses
to problems within a system. This paper takes an in-depth look at the growing
field of behavioral economics and finance and its significance for the overall study
of economics.
OVERVIEW
The esteemed political economist and writer Peter Drucker once said “A business
exists because the consumer is willing to pay you his money. You run a business
to satisfy the consumer. That isn’t marketing. That goes way beyond marketing”
(“Building brands,” 2009). The most significant “x-factor” in an economic system
is the behavior of the consumer. How he or she acts or reacts in a given situation
is arguably the key to determining a business’s best course of action. It is for this
reason that economics looks to understand consumer behavior as part of its
pursuits. For generations, the approach to understanding consumer behavior in
economics has been somewhat limited, due scientific dependence upon modeling
and “real time” assessments. Such a conservative approach has led to a lack of
information regarding consumer mindsets and also on how consumer behavior
impacts the economic system in question.
conditions that are either familiar or imaginable to the individual are seen as
influences on the decision being made. In fact, people often overestimate the
likelihood that past events and experiences will occur again (or have occurred
prior to the decision), which will in turn create more biases in the decision-making
process. In financial investments, such judgments may be critical to how the
individual proceeds with his or her money. Heuristic decision-making also often
involves “representativeness.” This term applies to judgments by individuals of
conditional probabilities that are based on how the data or sample represents the
existing hypothesis or classification (Camerer & Lowenstein, 2002). For example,
an individual who is operating from the hypothesis that a student fits the profile
to attend a certain class might glean a set of generalities about that class and affix
them to the student’s profile. Like other forms of heuristics, representativeness
does not necessarily provide wholly accurate information about a concept —
however, what is important for the purposes of this paper is the fact that such a
thought-process creates a short-cut methodology for individuals to make
decisions on how they might proceed in a given economic situation. These
“shortcuts” may in fact diverge from rational consumer behavior and create
inconsistencies in terms of the outcome of a given transaction or series thereof.
Market Anomalies As stated earlier, behavioral economics and finance was borne
of the view that the traditional notion of economics — a system that operates
based on rational behavior — was too rigid to account for an assessment of
certain anomalies. Thus far, this paper has focused on one side of the equation
regarding such behavioral anomalies — the consumer. However, behavioral
finance and economics concurrently reviews the economic system which is built,
maintained and even undone as a result of consumer behavior: The market. It is
to this area of the economy that this paper next turns attention in order to
illustrate the field of behavioral economics.
investor behavior within the marketplace is therefore more complex than the
traditional, return-based analysis of investor behavior (Pesendorfer, 2006).
Prospect Theory has come under some criticism, however, due to the sheer
complexity of the profiles it creates. For example, the reference point by which
utility is determined is somewhat nebulous, since it focuses on a set of gains and
losses rather than a final, fixed figure. Still, in light of ongoing market
inconsistencies in an era of economic flux, more careful analyses of how investor
behavior affects markets (and vice versa) continue to generate interest in
economics and finance.
CONCLUSION
The American author Dale Carnegie once advised, “When dealing with people,
remember you are not
6
Suggested Reading Chuvakhin, N. (2002). Efficient market hypothesis and
behavioral finance — is a compromise in sight? Graziadio Business Report,
22. Retrieved April 8, 2009, from http://ncbase.com/papers/ EMH-BF.pdf Driscoll,
J. C., & Holden, S. (2014). Behavioral economics and macroeconomic models.
Journal of Macroeconomics, 41, 133–47. Retrieved November 17, 2014, from
EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/
login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=97335499 Hoje, J. & Kim, Dong Man. (2008).
Recent development of behavioral finance. International Journal of Business
Research, 8(2), 89-101. Retrieved April 8, 2009, from EBSCO Online Database
Business Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=tru
e&db=bth&AN=35793508&site=ehost-live Michaud, R.O. (2001, September). The
behavioral finance hoax. Inquire UK. Retrieved April 8, 2009, from
http://www.behaviouralfinance.net/introduction/Mich01.pdf
Ritter, J.R. (2003). Behavioral finance. Pacific-Basin Finance Journal, 11(4), 429-
437. Retrieved April 8, 2009, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source
Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/ login.aspx?
direct=true&db=bth&AN=10571083&s ite=ehost-live Shefrin, H. (2002). Beyond
greed and fear. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved April 8, 2009, from
Google Books. http://books.google.com/ books?
id=hX18tBx3VPsC&printsec=frontcover Shleifer, A. (2000). Inefficient markets.
Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved April 8, 2009, from Google Books.
http://books.google.com/books? id=mGjStFEi2kQC&printsec=frontcover Special
report: The behavioral economy. (2008, October 23). Gallup Poll Briefing, 1.
Retrieved April 8, 2009, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete.
http://search.ebscohost.com/ login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=35118452&s
ite=ehost-live
ABSTRACT
Management is the process of efficiently and effectively accomplishing work
through the coordination and supervision of others. To do this effectively requires
an understanding of human behavior in the workplace; in particular, how to lead
employees, motivate them to do what needs to be done, and provide an
environment that facilitates them in achieving team and organizational
objectives. Regardless of one’s theoretical approach to leadership, certain
practical behaviors have been found to characterize successful leaders. In
addition, good management depends not only on understanding the behavior of
the manager but also on understanding the behavior of the subordinate.
Managers need to be able to motivate their employees to contribute to the
success of the organization.
OVERVIEW
7
Attempted Leadership The first level is attempted leadership, where Harvey
attempts to modify the behavior of other people in order to do what he wants
them to do. This can be done with one of three orientations.
Styles of Leadership There are three general styles of leadership that are based on
some combination of power and ability. Without one or both of these
characteristics, the attempted leadership will not be successful.
other type of power to reward or hurt the followers. This style of leadership is
frequently seen in organizations with supervisors or managers who invite neither
discussion nor participation on the part of the employees but use their
organizational standing and concomitant power (e.g., promote or fire; give or
withhold raises) to get employees to do what they want them to do. On the
other end of the spectrum is the persuasive leader who leads purely on ability.
This type of leader can be seen in organizations in the form of the expert on a
work team who is followed because of his or her level of technical expertise,
ability to organize and facilitate work, or other skill. Strictly persuasive leaders do
not have any power and must lead solely by their ability. Some leaders,
however, use both power and ability to lead others using a permissive style of
leadership. People using this type of leadership style use both their power and
ability to bring about the desired actions of the part of their followers. For
example, many persuasive leaders within organizations use their abilities to lead
their followers in most circumstances and rely on brute use of organizational
power only in extreme circumstances.
A leader can be said to be effective if his or her efforts bring about a change in the
behavior of others and they do what the leader wanted them to do. This,
however, does not necessarily mean that the leader was effective. The
effectiveness of Harvey’s leadership lies in the perceptions of those he was
leading, specifically whether or not they were rewarded for following Harvey.
Reward can be monetary or social — such as a bonus or praise — but it can also
take more subtle forms, such as getting the task accomplished on time
and within budget. Those who have been effective leaders in the past will
typically attempt to lead in other situations in the future.
Second, it is also important that a leader treat all employees fairly and equally.
Lack of fair treatment or perceptions of favoritism can lead to job dissatisfaction
among employees. Third, good leaders need to be available to all the employees
and be willing to discuss the employees’ problems with them. This observation
stems from the need to be concerned both with the task as well as with the
interactions of a work group and the individual needs of the employees. Finally,
good leaders tend to delegate responsibility as appropriate to their subordinates.
This allows the employees to learn new skills, helps them prepare for even more
responsibility, and lets them feel as if they are making a valued contribution to
the organization.
APPLICATIONS
Motivation Although part of the role of the manager is to clearly specify what kind
of behavior is expected in the organization and to encourage employees to meet
or exceed these standards by providing feedback, most employees need more
from the organization than to know that they are helping it succeed. To motivate
employees to perform at a consistently high level, the organization must give
them what they want or need. Good managers tend to try to determine what
motivates their employees and offer these things within the confines of the
organization in order to encourage them to contribute to the success of the
organization. High performing organizations in particular frequently motivate
employees to contribute to the company’s high performance by linking desired
performance to rewards. Different people are motivated by different things.
While Harvey may want security to save for the future, Mathilde may have what
she needs for a secure future and want, instead, more time to spend with her
family. Harvey is more likely to be motivated to work to earn more money,
whereas Mathilde is more likely to work if she is promised more time off. Some
motivation theorists try to reduce motivation to an equation that connects the
probability of increased performance with such things as the employee’s
perceived expectancy of obtaining a reward for doing so. Others, however, posit
that different people are motivated by different things, from having one’s physical
needs met (e.g., food on the table and a roof over one’s head) to having the
esteem of others or some other internal incentive. However, most motivation
theorists recognize that people working in organizations both need and expect
remuneration. Money means different things to different people and can act as a
motivator for various needs. For example, some people are motivated by money
to meet basic physical needs or to have the security of knowing that those needs
will continue to be met for the foreseeable future. Others see pay incentives in
the form of bonuses, raises, or promotions as recognition from the organization
for a job well done.
The Hierarchy of Needs One of the most enduring theories of motivation that has
been applied to the understanding of employee behavior is Abraham Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs (Figure 2). Maslow hypothesizes that people are motivated by
different things at different times
in their lives depending on what needs have or have not been met. The hierarchy
also hypothesizes that needs lower on the hierarchy must have been satisfied
before higher level needs can be satisfied.
Physiological Needs According to Maslow, the most basic level of needs is the
physiological needs, including the needs to satisfy hunger and thirst, sleep, and
sex. From an employee motivation point of view, this means that a manager is
unlikely to motivate an employee who cannot put food on the table by offering
him or her the possibility of a promotion without a pay raise; the need to eat in
this case is more important than the need to impress others with a fancy new
title.
Safety Needs Once the physiological level of needs has been met, people become
more concerned with safety needs, including the need to feel safe, secure, and
stable in life (e.g., having a job so that one not only has food for today but also
can buy food for the foreseeable future). People who are at this level of Maslow’s
hierarchy want to feel that their world is organized and predictable. From an
employee motivation point of view, this might mean that people at this level of
need would be willing to work without a raise for a given period of time if they
were assured that there would not be a layoff during that period.
Belongingness Needs Once the security and safety needs of the individual are
satisfied, the next level of needs is for belongingness. People at this level of need
are motivated by such factors as the need to feel accepted and part of a group, to
love or feel affection and be loved in return,
SelfActualization
Physiological Needs
Safety Needs
Belongingness Needs
Esteem Needs
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and to avoid loneliness and alienation. Someone at this level of need may be
motivated by being given the opportunity to work on a special team to solve an
organizational problem, thus allowing him or her to feel part of a group.
Esteem Needs The next level of needs in Maslow’s hierarchy is the esteem needs,
including such things as the need to achieve, be competent, and be independent.
Other needs at this level of the hierarchy include the needs for self-respect and a
sense of self-worth as well as the need for recognition and respect from others.
From an employee motivation point of view, someone at this level of need might
be motivated by the offer to be part of a special team not because it was an
opportunity to be part of a group but because it was a respected position that
showed his or her importance or expertise.
Other Points of Interest In addition to the fact that different people are motivated
by different things, there are several other things that can be learned from
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs that have direct application to good management.
First, employees can move not only up the hierarchy, but down as well. For
example, although most adults are not worried about the safety and security
needs (i.e., they have a regular paycheck and live in a safe neighborhood), the
situation can change. An accident or ailing parent may mean that more income is
needed. A divorce or change in a family situation may mean that one’s esteem
needs a boost. Further, in addition to moving up and down the hierarchy,
people can experience multiple needs
at once. For example, in negotiating a strike settlement, a manager will
understand that although the workers need more money, they also need to have
the assurance that they will continue to have jobs. Sometimes settlements can be
negotiated that take such considerations into account by giving a token or low
level raise in the short term for the security of a continuing job with the promise
of reevaluation of the situation after a given period of time.
CONCLUSION
Bibliography Alfes, K., Truss, C., Soane, E. C., Rees, C., & Gatenby, M. (2013). The
relationship between line manager behavior, perceived HRM practices, and
individual performance: Examining the mediating role of engagement. Human
Resource Management, 52(6), 839–859. Retrieved December 2, 2013, from
EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete.
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.as px?direct=true&db=bth&AN=92038571
Dessler, G. (2005). Human resource management (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall. Landy, F. J. & Conte, J. M. (2004). Work in the 21st
Century: An introduction to industrial and organizational psychology. Boston:
McGraw Hill. Lorinkova, N. M., Pearsall, M. J., & Sims Jr., H. P. (2013). Examining
the differential longitudinal performance of directive versus empowering
leadership in teams. Academy of Management Journal, 56(2), 573–596. Retrieved
December 2, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete.
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McShane, S. L. & Von Glinow, M. A. (2003). Organizational behavior: Emerging
realities for the workplace revolution (2nd ed). Boston: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
Suggested Reading Ilies, R., Judge, T., & Wagner, D. (2006). Making sense of
motivational leadership: The trail from transformational leaders to motivated
followers. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 13(1), 1–22.
Retrieved September 29, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source
Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=bth&AN=21955772&site=bsi-live Mohd Soieb, A., Othman, J., &
D’Silva, J. (2013). The effects of perceived leadership styles and organizational
citizenship behaviour on employee engagement: The mediating role of conflict
management. International Journal of Business & Management, 8(8), 91–99.
Retrieved December 2, 2013, from EBSCO Online
ABSTRACT
OVERVIEW
Over the last two decades corporations have been placing increased emphasis on
the management of data (Goodhue, Quillard & Rockart, 1988). Business data
management is a core activity for all businesses and supports a wide array of
activities including financial management, accounting, purchasing, sales, human
resource management, facilities management, product planning, manufacturing,
and strategic planning. The activities of virtually every employee in every
organization are dependent on business data management. There are four basic
steps to business data management: Data creation, data storage, data processing,
and data analysis. Generally, it is the central Management Information Systems
(MIS) department that designs, implements,
12
and maintains the computer systems, networks, and applications software that
support the four basic steps of business data management. The director of the
MIS department, or Chief Information Officer (CIO) often participates in business
decision making at the highest management level in the organization (Moynihan,
1990). This participation helps to align the activities of the MIS department with
the strategic business goals of an organization (Grant, 2003). The strategic
alignment of MIS activities and business goals can provide a company with a
competitive edge as well as reduce overhead by avoiding expenditure for less
than useful management information systems. Trained information technology
professionals staff the MIS department. MIS staff specialize in the many different
disciplines necessary to create and maintain systems to support business data
processing. These include operations specialists that support the data centers that
house computer and storage systems, network staff that maintain the data
communications systems that link systems together, and applications
programmers who design and maintain software. Other specialties include
database administrators who are responsible for database software and
applications, systems analysts who keep large systems up-to-date and
operational, and helpdesk staff that support end-users throughout the company.
The Creation of Data Data is created through every-day business processes such
as the production of items, the consumption of supplies or resources, the sale of
goods or services, and customer service activities. In a consumer goods retailer,
for example, data is created when inventory is ordered, sales are made in stores,
employees clock in and out for work, and when accounts are paid or collected.
The larger the retail operation the more data that is created on a daily basis, and
the more important it is for data to be accurate and readily available to support
business processes. Achieving good data management requires an understanding
of data, data management systems, and data management software (Chalfant,
1998). This means that the staff in the MIS department must understand the data
needs of the organization in order for them to best apply their skills to business
problems. But this requires that managers and data users throughout the
orgnization understand their data and how they use it. Interdepartmental teams
can be
established to address business information needs. These teams can identify the
organization’s data management needs, what data is needed to meet those
needs, where the data will come from, how it will get into a database, and what
can be done with it after it is stored. One of the most important steps in creating
and maintaining good data is the establishment of a data dictionary (DD). A DD is
a database of descriptors for each piece of data used in an organization’s data
management activities. A wide assortment of DD software packages is available.
In general, a DD system will hold data that describes data along with its
associated structures, processes, users, applications, and equipment (Vanecek,
Solomon & Mannino, 1983).
The Storage of Data Data storage has three major elements: The software used to
manage stored data (most often database software); the technology used to store
data (disk drives); and the networks which connect computers and computer
users to data storage systems. The importance of database software has
increased over the last three decades and has enabled banks, retailers, and
manufacturers to grow beyond small local operations into global giants. Disk drive
technology has also dramatically changed with increases in storage capacity,
manageability, reliability, and accessibility. Data communications networks have
become like the nervous system of an organization; allowing data to be instantly
collected from locations across the country or around the world. The networks
also allow data to be utilized by managers and decision-makers in offices far from
where data is created or stored. The primary tool for managing large amounts of
data is database software. IBM, Oracle, Microsoft, and other software companies
offer a wide variety of database software packages. The packages are capable of
managing several thousand up to billions of pieces of data. Database software can
operate on desktop and laptop computers as well as on servers and giant
mainframe complexes. Database software is used in virtually all industries
especially those that are transaction focused and need to track large quantities of
items or activities. Organizations with large amounts of data are turning to data
warehousing models of data storage. The five basic steps required to build a data
warehouse is planning, design, implementation, support,
The Processing of Data There are two major components required for data
processing: The software used for processing data and the computer systems on
which data is processed. The goals of data processing procedures are to take large
amounts of data and make it useful to the personnel responsible for operations,
managers that oversee various business functions, and planners who rely on data
to forecast business activity. Data is processed for day-to-day operations in many
ways using several different types of software ranging from accounting software
to inventory control or payroll. In addition to helping to manage the storage of
data, database software can also be used to generate planned reports or on-the-
spot queries necessary to make business decisions. The second essential element
in processing data is the computer system on which the data is processed. These
systems can range from servers capable of supporting small organizations to large
complexes of mainframe systems capable of processing billions of pieces of data
in a few hours or in many cases just a few minutes.
IBM has dominated the business data processing field for several decades. Ever
since computing started to be used commercially, IBM has been a key player in
providing businesses with information technology. Historically, the mainframe has
performed the role of a central data server for many large enterprises and has
typically provided high data throughput, scalability and strong security
capabilities. However, over time business computing has evolved and now most
companies have a multi-tier hardware infrastructure with various types of servers
spread throughout the enterprise. For decades, mainframes have been viewed as
large and very expensive systems. However, over the last ten years are so,
mainframe technology has become more scalable and systems are available to
support the largest global companies as well as small companies. The new age
mainframe can have from one to 54 processors in a single system. In addition to
flexibility in the number of processors, the new mainframe provides scalability in
memory and in input/ output capabilities.
The Analysis of Data Complex data analysis, beyond what database software
provides, has become essential to manage large organizations. This type of data
analysis can be performed with a variety data mining, statistical analysis, and
decision support software packages. This software helps managers and analysts
compile or create statistics on millions of business transactions. These statistics
can support business forecasting and planning efforts enabling a company to
maintain a competitive edge in a competitive global marketplace. Data analysis
software has evolved over the last 60 years. For several years, such software was
rather cumbersome and required custom programming. In the 1970s decision
support systems (DSS) were introduced that provided assistance for specific
decision-making tasks. While DSSs can be developed for and used by personnel
throughout the organization, they are most commonly employed by line staff or
middle and lower managers. Among the latest developments are expert systems,
which capture the expertise of highly trained, experienced professionals in
specific problem domains. In the 1990s, executive information systems (EIS) or
executive support systems (ESS) were being developed in large organizations
(Main, 1989). At first these
systems were cumbersome and most were stand alone systems requiring time
consuming data entry processes. As expected, the technology for EIS has evolved
rapidly, and new systems are more integrated with other applications like the DDS
or Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems (Watson, Rainer & Koh, 1991).
Data warehouses can also serve as analytical tools and in some cases data
warehouses are developed specifically for data analysis purposes. According to
Jukic (2006), there are “two main reasons that could necessitate the creation of a
data warehouse as a separate analytical data store. The first reason is that the
performance of operational queries can be severely diminished if they must
compete for computing resources with analytical queries. The second reason lies
in the fact that, even if the performance is not an issue, it is often not possible to
structure a database that can be used (queried) in a straightforward manner for
both operational and analytical purposes” (p. 84).
APPLICATIONS
Supply Chains Extend the Scope of Business Data Management A supply chain is a
network of organizations with specialized activities that work together, usually in
a sequential manner, to produce, distribute, sell, and service goods. According to
Kumar (2001), “Supply chain systems support entire networks of manufacturers
and distributors, transportation and logistics firms, banks, insurance companies,
brokers, warehouses and freight forwarders, all directly or indirectly attempting
to make sure the right goods and services are available at the right price, where
and when the customers want them. Having delivered the goods or services, the
chain does not terminate. At the front end, through delivery, installation,
customer education, help desks, maintenance, or repair, the goods or services are
made useful to the customer. At the end of the product life, reverse logistics can
ensure that used and discarded products are disassembled, brought back, and
where possible, recycled. The scope of the supply chain, thus, extends from “dirt
to dirt,” from the upstream sources of supply, down to the point of consumption,
and finally retirement and recycling” (p. 58). Conventional strategic thinking relied
on the individual firm as the basic unit of competition in a given industry. The
individual company created,
stored, processed, and analyzed data all produced within the company itself. In a
supply chain environment, “the competitive success of a firm is no longer a
function of its individual efforts-it depends, to a great extent, on how well the
entire supply chain, as compared to competing supply chains, is able to deliver
value to the ultimate consumers” (Kumar, 2001, p. 58). Consequently, business
data management has evolved from focusing on data produced by the individual
entity to that of data created by companies up and down the supply chain
(Kumar, 2001). Information technology plays a key role in the modern supply
chain system by supporting businessto-business (B2B) applications. Supply chain
management (SCM) is a digitally enabled interfirm process that integrates
information flow, physical flow, and financial flow. Research indicates that a firm’s
ITbased platform capabilities have a substantial effect on supply chain process
integration. This capability is deeply embedded into the structure of interfirm
operational processes, such as order processing, inventory management, logistics,
and distribution; financial processes, such as billing and receivables management;
and information processes, such as demand planning and forecasting.
Implementation of IT-based supply chain management systems has been shown
to have a positive effect on procurement of materials for production as well as
distribution, marketing, and sales after production (Richardson, 2006). The
integration associated with these processes is achieved through a variety of
initiatives that may include trading partner agreements and supply chain
partnerships and even deeply embedded IT capabilities. The development of
process integration capability based on an IT infrastructure requires expertise that
spans the business process domain, partnership context, and IT (Rai, Patnayakuni
& Seth, 2006).
15
p. 121). The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has
worked to develop a model for contingency planning. NIST breaks the
contingency planning process into six basic steps:
Step 2: Identify the Resources That Support Critical Functions After identifying
critical missions and business functions, it is necessary to identify the supporting
resources, the time frames in which each resource is used and the effect on the
mission or business if the resource is unavailable. Contingency planning should
address all the resources needed to perform a function, regardless of whether or
not they directly relate to a computer. The analysis of needed resources should
be conducted by those who understand how the function is performed and the
dependencies of various resources on other resources and other critical
relationships.
the return to normal operations. Strategies for processing capability are normally
grouped into five categories: Hot site; cold site; redundancy; reciprocal
agreements; and hybrids. These terms originated with recovery strategies for data
centers but can be applied to other platforms.
Step 6: Test & Revise A contingency plan should be tested periodically because
the plan will become outdated as time passes and as the resources used to
support critical functions change. Responsibility for keeping the contingency plan
current should be specifically assigned. The extent and frequency of testing will
vary between organizations and among systems. There are several types of
testing, including reviews, analyses, and simulations of disasters (NIST, 2004, p.
122-132). A review can be a simple test to check the accuracy of contingency plan
documentation. For instance, a reviewer could check if individuals listed are still in
the organization and still have the responsibilities that cause them to be included
in the plan. This test can check home and work telephone numbers,
organizational codes, and building and room numbers. The review can determine
if files can be restored from backup tapes or if employees know emergency
procedures.
CONCLUSION
There are four basic steps to business data management: Data creation, data
storage, data processing, and data analysis. Business data management
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Raymond, A.H. (2013). Data management regulation: Your company needs an up-
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Supply chain IT enables coordination. Industrial Engineer: IE, 38(11), 10-10.
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Corp./Redbooks. Retrieved from IBM. com
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SG245470/wwhelp/wwhimpl/js/html/wwhelp. htm?href=19-4.htm Vanecek, M.,
Solomon, I., & Mannino, M. (1983). The Data Dictionary: An evaluation from the
EDP audit perspective. MIS Quarterly, 7(1), 15-27. Retrieved July 11, 2007, from
EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.
ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph& AN=4679333&site=ehost-live
Watson, H., Rainer Jr., R., & Koh, C. (1991). Executive information systems: A
framework for development and a survey of current practices. MIS Quarterly,
15(1), 13. Retrieved July 13, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search
Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx ?
direct=true&db=aph&AN=9604086246&site=e host-live
Suggested Reading Behera, J., Bhuta, C., & Thorpe, G. (2000). Management
information systems: An overview of practices at Marine Container Terminals in
Australia and Asia. Transportation Quarterly, 54(4), 59-73.
18
OVERVIEW
There is a story of a doctoral candidate who had just finished his dissertation and
put it in the back of the car so that he could take it to the university in order to
have the final copy signed before being submitted to the graduate school for
completion of his doctorate. It was a beautiful spring day and the man was full of
the joys of knowing that one has just completed a major milestone in one’s life
and the that future is rosy. So, he carefully placed the requisite three copies of
the dissertation in the back seat and proceeded down the road. However, the day
was so beautiful that he decided to roll down the windows. As he pressed the
accelerator toward the floor and felt the rush of the wind blowing on his face, his
joy soon changed to horror as he watched helplessly as the clean white pages
flew out the window and blew down the road. The worst could have been
avoided had the doctoral candidate avoided taking such risks. The candidate
could have kept the windows of his car rolled up tightly and kept backup copies
(digital and hardcopy) at several different (safe) locations.
The loss of information is not only of concern to poor graduate students without
the means or time to recreate their dissertations. As anyone who has ever
experienced a computer crash knows, the loss of data and information can be
devastating. Without backups of data and information, as well as application
software and operating systems, it can be extremely difficult if not impossible to
recreate the information stored on one’s computer. If this happens to a business,
the problem can be multiplied untold times to the point where it is impossible to
recover. For this reason, not only data but entire computer systems and their
concomitant software programs are regularly backed up. Sometimes, however,
conveniently available backups are insufficient to recover from a disaster. As the
tragedies of September 11, 2001, and Hurricane Katrina should have taught us, it
is not always sufficient to have a backup disk in the computer lab or even
elsewhere in the building. In fact, sometimes it is not sufficient to have a backup
disk on the same block or even in the same area of town. By definition, disaster is
widespread. By definition, also, disasters are unexpected. In order to face disaster
and recover from it, therefore, one must plan for the unexpected and prepare for
it.
The Importance of Backup Systems Of course, in many (if not most) situations, it is
impossible to backup everything. From a purely software point of view, one could
conceivably backup all data as well as all application and operating systems
programs. However, having these things available to recover after a disaster may
not be sufficient. For example, if the building in which the business resided was
destroyed by a fire, the hardware would also have to be replaced. In some
situations, this might only mean that a new computer system would have to be
obtained using expedited delivery and new facilities leased in order for the
business to be up and running within the week. In other cases, however, these
actions might be insufficient. Getting the power grid, telephone system, or
emergency services up and running after a disaster can be of paramount
importance. In such cases, waiting a week may not be an option not only for the
success of the business, but more importantly from the standpoint of the
potential in lives lost if
19
such services could not be quickly restored. This is why there are extensive
backup systems and facilities for many such organizations. Although most
business organizations do not provide critical lifeline services, interruption of
business processes for an extended period of time can be devastating to an
organization. Therefore, every business is well-advised to develop a business
continuity plan. Particularly in many of
20
hardware would be less so since hardware can be more easily replaced. Business
impact analysis is a type of risk assessment.
Business Impact Analysis During business impact analysis, data and information
are collected from each business unit in the organization to determine what
standards or regulations must be upheld in an emergency situation. The analysis
describes and prioritizes the tasks within each unit, and identifies the resources
necessary to perform the critical tasks (without which essential business
processes cannot proceed). These tasks are usually evaluated on the basis of the
recovery time objective — the time goal for reestablishing and recovering the
business functions and resources. The recovery time objective should be
prioritized and take into account any interdependencies between processes and
functions as well as any possible economies of scale. All processes and functions
within a business unit or department may not have the same recovery time
objective. For example, although it might be necessary to recover telephone
technical support of the customer service department within minutes of
interruption, other functions within the department (e.g., development work)
could be delayed significantly longer without impacting the organization’s
effectiveness. Although it might be possible to recover many or all of the
processes or functions in the organization quickly, in most cases this would also
entail excessive expense. A properly conducted business impact analysis can help
cut down on unnecessary expenses during the recovery period. In addition to
analyzing the impact to effectiveness of the various internal business processes, it
is also important to analyze the impact of interruption of processes external to
the business as well. The inability to obtain raw materials, supplies, or component
parts from one’s supply chain could bring a business process to a halt if there is
not a continuity plan. This is particularly true if there is only one source for the
input. Similarly, one must also continue the other side of the supply chain,
including the transportation of products to warehouses or retail outlets or of an
interruption in those facilities. Although some business interruptions may affect
only the organization or one of its facilities, other
APPLICATIONS
Potential Disasters The next step in determining the impact of various disasters
on a business is to determine what potential disasters may befall and to assess
the probability of occurrence and the potential impact of each. Disasters to be
considered include not only those that could occur within the organization (e.g., a
fire), but also those that could affect the entire community (e.g., a hurricane). The
latter type of disaster could affect lifeline services as well as make other resources
more difficult to obtain than would a disaster that only affected the organization’s
facility. It is, of course, very difficult to consider all the possible emergencies with
which an organization could be faced. However, there are several categories that
should be considered and that can help guide this part of the analysis (Disaster,
n.d.).
21
Historical emergencies comprise those things that have happened in the past in
the community in which the organization is situated or at the organization’s
facility or at other facilities in the area. Examples of this kind of emergency
include fires, severe weather conditions (e.g., hurricanes, tornadoes), hazardous
material spills, transportation accidents, earthquakes, terrorism, and utility
outages. Potential geographic disasters include those that can happen as a
result of the facility’s physical location. These include such factors as proximity to
flood plains, seismic faults, or dams; proximity to facilities that produce, store,
use, or transport hazardous materials; proximity to major transportation routes
and airports; and proximity to nuclear power plants. Technological disasters are
those that could arise from a process or system failure. Examples include fire,
explosion, or hazardous materials accident; failure of a safety system; failure of
telecommunications systems (e.g., for networks); failure of a computer system;
power failure; heating/cooling system failure; or emergency notification system
failure. Another general type of disaster results from human error. The
probability of this type of disaster can be reduced through proper training in job
tasks and in emergency procedures. Examples of human error that can have
disastrous effects on an organization’s functioning include lack of adequate
training for personnel; poor equipment maintenance (due to poor training of
maintenance technicians, inadequate procedures, or failure to follow
procedures); and carelessness, misconduct, fatigue, or substance abuse.
Disasters can also result from the physical design or construction of the facility.
Things to be considered include the construction of the facility, any hazardous
processes or byproducts, safety of the facilities for the storage of combustible
materials, layout and location of the equipment, lighting, availability of
evacuation routes and exits, and the proximity of shelter areas. The analysis
should also consider any potential emergencies or hazards that the business is
regulated to consider.
CONCLUSION
Property Impact
External Total*
High Impact
Weak Resources
Strong Resources
51
High Low
51
Figure 2: Vulnerability Analysis Chart (Adapted from Wahle & Beatty, p. 67)
22
ABSTRACT
The influx of data enabled by the technologies of the Information Age has literally
transformed many businesses. Most businesses today use information technology
in some form to create, store, and distribute
23
OVERVIEW
The influx of data enabled by the technologies of the Information Age and with
which we are bombarded every day has literally transformed many businesses. At
a basic level, much correspondence today is not sent by mail or even faxed, but is
transmitted nearly instantaneously around the world via e-mail. Accounting and
project management tasks that used to be labor intensive jobs done by hand have
benefited from spreadsheet application software that allows quick and easy
manipulation of data, checking of calculations, and monitoring of tasks. Huge
databases improve the ability of organizations to perform customer relationship
management to better serve the customer as well as data mining to determine
previously unknown relationships that help the organization better market its
products and services. Information technology is the use of technology from
computers, communications networks, and electronics to create, store, and
disperse information and knowledge. Various technology components are put
together in an information system that facilitates the flow of data (i.e., raw facts,
figures, or details) and information (i.e., organized, meaningful, interpreted data)
between people or departments. There are several characteristics of the
information age that set it apart from other periods in history. First, the
proliferation of information technology has led to a situation where society in
many countries today is information-based, with more people dealing with
information than with agriculture or manufacturing. As the number and range of
available information technologies increase, a concomitant number of businesses
depend on information technology to accomplish their work. This dependence is
on both the computer technologies that enable organizations to gather, store,
manipulate, and analyze data, and also on the communication technologies that
allow them to interconnect more quickly and efficiently than ever before. In fact,
the understanding of information technology and information systems is so
important in the information age, that in many situations it is difficult if not
impossible to be successful in the business world without it. Information
technology has become so much a part of our lives
today that it is often embedded in other products and services that we take for
granted. For example, the phone call one makes for technical support may be
enabled by network technology and wireless communications systems so that the
call can be answered by a technician working halfway around the world. The
prevalence of information technology does not mean that an organization needs
to implement information technology to be successful, however. Like the
manufacturing technology that came before it and the agricultural technology
before that, information technology is only a tool and must be understood in
order to optimize its usefulness in the organization. Information technology does
more than support our work. In many cases it also transforms the way that we
accomplish our tasks and even allows us to do things that we would never have
been able to accomplish before. Work processes are constantly being
transformed through the application of information technology in order to
improve productivity and free humans from many repetitive tasks. For example,
typewriters have given way to word processors which, in turn, have given way to
multitasking computers that allow us to view, create, edit, and interact with not
just documents but images, audio, animation, movies, websites, and more.
However, information technology not only allows humans to perform existing
processes more quickly or efficiently than ever before, in many cases it also allows
us to rethink and reengineer the way that we do things in the workplace. Business
process reengineering helps organizations and managers rethink their practices
and processes and introduce radical improvements that benefit both the
organization and its customers. For example, the division of labor necessary to
the industrial age is frequently being replaced by teamwork, information sharing,
and other ways of increasing the interconnectedness of workers.
24
camera, the ATM machine outside the bank, and the automatic ticket kiosk at the
cinema.
25
Expertise Just as computer hardware and software are useless without each
other, both require the additional input of the user’s expertise in order to be able
to optimize the work that they can do. This expertise includes familiarity with the
tools of information technology, the skills needed to use these tools, and an
understanding of how and where information technology can best be
implemented. When all three of these components of information technology are
working together, they can create an information system that facilitates and
optimizes the flow of information and data between people or departments.
Information technology and systems can support the organization in its processes
and help it to maximize the use of its other resources and be more effective.
APPLICATIONS
Linking computers into networks can enhance the productivity and effectiveness
of the entire enterprise. A common example of this can be seen in the
information systems used in many modern retail stores. Computerized cash
registers in a retail store or other point of sale can be linked together so that sales
clerks can search across the network to see what other store may have a
particular item in stock. In addition, the computers at the point of sale can be
linked directly to the corporate headquarters so that the store’s closing data each
evening can be directly and immediately shared with corporate management.
Information technology can also help individual stores keep track of their
inventories including what items they have in stock, what products are most in
demand, when it is time to reorder, and even assist in automatically ordering
stock. Information
26
Database management systems are also used in marketing. Database systems can
help marketers better understand their target market, collect and analyze data on
prospective customers, keep track of current customers’ buying histories, needs,
and other characteristics. Database management systems can be used to develop
targeted mailing lists for new products based on customer demographics or
buying history or track customer purchases so that better solutions can be offered
or new products developed to better meet their needs. Another way that
organizations are meeting the increasing demands for communication and
information exchange is through communications networks. These networks can
be used for a number of purposes. One of the most common uses of this
application of information technology is the electronic transmission of messages
and documents. These capabilities include e-mail, voice mail, electronic document
exchange, electronic funds transfer, and access to the Internet or other networks.
Communications networks can also be used for purposes of e-commerce to buy
and sell goods or services — including products and information retrieval services
— electronically rather than through conventional means. Networks can also be
used to support group activities such as the ability to hold meetings with
participants at geographically dispersed sites. Audio and videoconferencing
capabilities combined with electronic document exchange capabilities can often
obviate the need for extensive travel to meetings.
27
Otim, S., Dow, K. E., Grover, V., & Wong, J. A. (2012). The impact of information
technology investments on downside risk of the firm: Alternative measurement of
the business value of IT. Journal of Management Information Systems, 29(1), 159-
194. Retrieved December 4, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database Business Source
Premier. http://search. ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bu
h&AN=79629592 Senn, J. A. (2004). Information technology: Principles, practices,
opportunities (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall. Wang, N.,
Liang, H., Zhong, W., Xue, Y., & Xiao, J. (2012). Resource structuring or capability
building? An empirical study of the business value of information technology.
Journal of Management Information Systems, 29(2), 325-367. Retrieved
December 4, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Premier.
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Lu, Y., & Ramamurthy, K. (2011). Understanding the link between information
technology capability and organizational agility: An empirical examination. MIS
Quarterly, 35(4), 931-954. Retrieved December 4, 2013 from EBSCO Online
Database Business Source Premier. http://search. ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=bu h&AN=67129445 Mohamed, A. (2007, 6 Feb). How to get it
right when shopping for a database management system. Computer Weekly, 30-
32. Retrieved May 12, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source
Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?di
rect=true&db=bth&AN=24344224&site=ehost-live Peterson, K. (2007). Organizing
business staff for greater productivity. Kitchen & Bath Design News, 25(4), 40.
Retrieved May 11, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete.
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=t
rue&db=bth&AN=24791674&site=ehost-live Tallon, P. P., & Pinsonneault, A.
(2011). Competing perspectives on the link between strategic information
technology alignment and organizational agility: Insights from a mediation model.
MIS Quarterly, 35(2), 463-486. Retrieved December 4, 2013 from EBSCO Online
Database Business Source Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/ login.aspx?
direct=true&db=buh&AN=60461965
Business Statistics
ABSTRACT
meaningful results when analyzed and for designing a research study that will
control extraneous variables while emulating the real world situation to which the
results will be extrapolated.
OVERVIEW
Every day, business persons are faced with a multitude of questions the answers
to which can determine not only the course but the very success of the business.
Will the new logo design better connect our product in the customer’s mind than
the current logo does? Will the new widget design attract people’s attention and
make them want to buy it? Are
28
men or women more likely to buy a gizmo, and how do we best advertise it to
them? How do we turn prospective customers into established customers? Will
oil prices continue to rise and will people be open to alternative fuel sources? If
the business answers these questions correctly, it can be on the leading edge of
its industry. However, if the business answers these questions incorrectly, it can
potentially lose money, its market share, or even its viability. Mathematical
statistics is a branch of mathematics that deals with the analysis and
interpretation of data. Mathematical statistics provides the theoretical
underpinnings for various applied statistical disciplines, including business
statistics, in which data are analyzed to find answers to quantifiable questions.
Business statistics is the application of these tools and techniques to the analysis
of real world problems for the purpose of business decision making. There are
two general classes of statistics that are used by the business analyst. Descriptive
statistics are used to describe and summarize data so that they can be more easily
comprehended and studied. Among the tools of descriptive statisticsare various
graphing techniques, measures of central tendency, and measures of variability.
Graphing techniques help the analyst aggregate and visually portray data so that
they can be better understood. Included in this category are histograms,
frequency distributions, and stem and leaf plots. Measures of central tendency
estimate the midpoint of a distribution. These measures include the median (the
number in the middle of the distribution), the mode (the number occurring most
often in the distribution), and the mean (a mathematically derived measure in
which the sum of all data in the distribution is divided by the number of data
points in the distribution). Measures of variability summarize how widely
dispersed the data are over the distribution. The range is the difference between
the highest and lowest scores in the distribution. The standard deviation is a
mathematically derived index of the degree to which scores differ from the mean
of the distribution. Descriptive statistics are helpful for taking large amounts of
data and describing them in ways that are easily comprehendible. Pie charts,
histograms, and frequency polygons are frequently used in business presentations
and are all examples of ways that descriptive statistics can be used in business.
Although such descriptive statistics are useful in summarizing
29
that does not receive the experimental conditions (e.g., the group sees only the
old logo) and an experimental group that does receive the experimental condition
(e.g., the group sees the new logo). The analyst then collects data from people in
the study to determine whether or not the experimental condition had any effect
on the outcome. After the data have been collected, they are statistically analyzed
to determine whether the null hypothesis should be accepted (i.e., there is no
difference between the control and experimental groups) or rejected (i.e., there is
a difference between the two groups). As shown in Figure 1, accepting the null
hypothesis means that if the data in the population are normally distributed, the
results are more than likely due to chance. This is illustrated in the figure as the
unshaded portion of the distribution. By accepting the null hypothesis, the analyst
is concluding that it is likely that people do not react any differently to the red
logo than they do to the blue logo. For the null hypothesis to be rejected and the
alternative hypothesis to be accepted, the results must lie in the shaded portion
of the graph. This means that there is a statistical significance that the difference
observed between the two groups is probably not due to chance but to a real
underlying difference in people’s attitudes toward the two logos. Part of the
process of designing an experiment is determining how the data will be analyzed.
There
Improbable outcomes
Improbable outcomes
Reject hypothesis
30
how much sugar they usually consume in their diet, what cereal they ate when
they were children, or whether or not they have a medical condition that requires
them to reduce the amount of sugar in their diets. Multiple regression analysis is
a family of statistical techniques that allow one to predict the score on the
dependent variable when given the scores on one more independent variables.
This statistical technique analyzes the effects of multiple predictors on behavior
so that the business analyst has a better understanding of their relative
contributions as well as the factors that make up a consumer’s preference or
other question of interest. These are only a few of the statistical techniques that
can be used in the analysis of business data. Statistical techniques can be applied
to the gamut of business problems from marketing research, quality control,
prediction of marketplace trends or sales volume, or comparing the relative
efficiency of the various operations in a multinational organization.
APPLICATIONS
As opposed to mathematical statistics, the field of business statistics is an applied
field used to help make practical decisions about real world problems. This is
done through a variety of types of research studies. In general, the goal of
research is to describe, explain, and predict behavior. For example, a marketer
may want to know which of two proposed new company logos will be most
memorable and will have the most positive image in the minds of prospective
customers. Another example of applied research is when the engineering
department seeks to determine which of two graphical user interfaces is more
user friendly. Designing a good research study depends in part on two factors:
controlling the situation so that the research is only measuring what it is
supposed to measure and including as many of the relevant factors as possible so
that the research fairly emulates the real world experience. In the simplest
research design, a stimulus (e.g., a new company logo) is presented to the
research subjects (e.g., potential customers) and a response is observed and
recorded (e.g., which logo they liked better and why). There are three types of
variables that are important in research. As discussed above, the variables of
most concern in the design of a
Extraneous Variables
Independent Variable
Dependent VariableSubjects
31
hypothesis may be that “People like Super Crunchies better than Very Flakies.” To
find out if this hypothesis is true, the researcher next needs to operationally
define the various terms (i.e., constructs) in the hypothesis. Specifically, s/he
needs to determine what the components of “like better” are. To do this, s/he
might develop a series of rating scales that measure the various components of
whether someone buys a cereal (e.g., prefers it to the current brand, likes the
taste, likes the mouth feel, likes the price). The researcher would then run the
experiment, letting people try both cereals in a controlled setting, statistically
analyzing the resulting data using inferential statistics, and — based on the
statistical significance of the answer — determine whether it is likely to be cost
effective to put one of the two cereals on the market. Not all research is done in
the laboratory, however. As stated above, it is important not only to control as
many variables as one can when designing an experiment, but also to have the
experimental situation emulate the real-world situation as much as possible. For
example, although Super Crunchies may taste fine in a taste test in a laboratory,
when the potential consumer is faced with the reality of feeding it to fussy
children while simultaneously checking homework, making lunches, and driving
the carpool, waiting for the cereal to lose a little of its crunch may be more than
time allows.
Inductive Process
Deductive Process
Personal Observation
Preliminary Theory
Form Hypothesis
Test Hypothesis
32
Therefore, there is no way to know whether the subject is telling the truth.
Finally, the analyst does not necessarily have to do new research in order to
statistically analyze data for decision making. Meta analysis and other secondary
analysis techniques allow researchers to analyze multiple previous research
studies to look for trends or general findings. Statistical analysis can also be
applied to existing data that the business has collected for other purposes or that
are publicly available. Although these approaches do not give the researcher
control over the way that the data are collected, these approaches often yield
interesting results that can add to the body of knowledge about a topic or that
can inform business decisions.
Teks asli
That goes way beyond marketing” (“Building brands,” 2009).
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