Metallurgy

lecture notes
1.
st
1 lec.
Sat. 8 feb. 2020
manufacture cost

50% material
12% direct labor
26% indirect labor
12% energy

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ISS : international space station
(research results)
▰ Velocity reaches to 27,000 km/hr. (in the space around the earth)
▰ structure is primarily made of high strength 2219-T6 Aluminum alloy
which forms most of the framework and internal skin.
▰ stronger materials were needed, high-strength steel and Titanium
alloys were used.
▰ The exterior is mostly covered in impact adsorbing blankets of Nextel
and Kevlar
▰ Some of it is covered with aluminized polyimide MLI (multi-layer
insulation). In some places you'll see beta cloth. Beta cloth is a
fabric made from silica and coated with Teflon.
4
Strength to weight ratio
(specific strength )
Material Specific strength
titanium 1250 ∗ 103
Aluminum 800
steel 750
copper 500
lead 5
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Jet engine (search results)

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 material
structure

Science Engineering
properties Applications

Basic knowledge
Applications of
of material
basic knowledge
structure

imperfections
Examples on materials
▰ Chemobrionics: material used to
manufacture organic material of human
Skelton

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Examples on materials
▰ Graphene (search result )

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Examples on materials
▰ Graphene (search result )

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Examples on materials
▰ Graphene (search result )

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Examples on materials
▰ CNT (carbon nanotubes) (search result )

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 structure

Amorphous(random) Crystalline

Low stability High stability

Glass is not a true solid (random)

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alloys
▰ Chemical combination of
various elements at least
one of which is metal

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Amorphous alloys (metallic
glasses)
▰ By fast cooling of
melting form to solid
form

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Amorphous alloys (metallic glasses)
(search results)

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Amorphous alloys (metallic glasses)
(search results)

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Amorphous alloys (metallic
glasses)
(search results)
▰ it is used in inverters (solar
inverter and wind inverter),
transformers, hybrid electric
vehicle (HEV) system,
switch-mode power supply,
motor control systems, and
materials used in anti-theft
tags, etc.

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2.
nd
2 lec.
15 feb. 2020
structure
▰ Space lattice: arrangement of atoms in space as
every atom has the same number of surronders
▰ Unit cell: the smallest unit which results from its
repeating space lattice( FCC-BCC-CPH)
 Closed packed hexagon forming is hard , the only
way to form it is casting
Imperfections
▰ Ways to discover imperfections:
 Solidification time is shorter than the time required to
rearrangement of material structure
 Strength theoretical calculations differs from particular
calculations (less than theoretical one )
▰ Whiskers: they are materials which prepared in special
conditions as it has its own space lattice and doesn’t
have any imperfections
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 metals

Non-
Ferrous
ferrous

Carbon
Aluminum
steel

Alloy
Copper
steel

Cast iron Titanium

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 Carbon steel
(0.05%:2%)

Low carbon Medium High carbon

steel carbon steel steel

Carbon Carbon Carbon

percent: percent: percent: 0.6%
0.05%:0.3% 0.3%:0.6% : 2%

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Effect of carbon on properties of
carbon steel(search result)

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Low carbon steel
▰ Excellent formability
▰ Low strength
▰ High toughness
▰ High weldability
▰ Low hardness
▰ Application: car body

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High carbon steel
▰ High hardness
▰ Very bad weldability
▰ High strength
▰ Very bad formability
▰ Applications: cutting tools , drilling tools

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Alloy steel
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Stainless steel (alloy steel )
▰ More expensive
▰ Fe , 0.1% C (very low carbon) , 20% Cr ,
10% Ni
▰ 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂3 layer on surface which prevent
corrosion
▰ High quality stainless steel is non
magnetic
▰ Applications: boilers , surgery tools ,
pans
HSS: high speed steel
(alloy steel (tool steel ))
▰ Fe , 0.7% C , 18% W ( tungsten ) , 4%
Cr , 1% V (Vanadium)
▰ Wear resistance
▰ Applications: cutting tools with high
speeds
Hadfield steel (alloy steel)
▰ Invented by sir Robert Hadfield
▰ Hard duty usage (because of high wear
resistance)
▰ Work hardening ( strength increase by
loading)
▰ Applications : cements mixers , railways
connections , rockers , rushers

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Cryogenic steel(alloy steel )
▰ Low temperature applications
▰ Keeps its strength at very low
temperature reaches to -80C

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Super alloys ( alloy steel)
▰ High strength
▰ Bearing high temperature
▰ Bearing high pressure
▰ Very expensive
▰ Applications : combustion chambre at jet engine
▰ E.g. incoloy (market name)
 30% :70% Fe
 15%:20% Cr
 10%:40% Ni
 Incoloy applications: aircraft 32
Cast iron

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Cast iron
▰ 2.5% to 4.5 % of carbon
▰ Extremely hard
▰ Low melting point
▰ High castability
▰ Bad formability
▰ High damping ability
▰ Energy absorption led to shorten age of
life
 Cast iron

White Gray cast Malleable Ductile

cast iron iron cast iron cast iron

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1. WHITE CAST IRON
▰ STRUCTURE:
The typical microstructure of white cast
iron, consisting of dendrites of transformed
austenite (pearlite) in a white interdendritic
network of cementite, Higher magnification
of the same sample reveals that the dark
areas are pearlite.

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1. WHITE CAST IRON
▰ PROPERTIES:
 It is hard, brittle & interstitial compound.
 Due to large amount of cementite it is hard & brittle but
extremely brittle & difficult to machine
 The range mechanical properties for unalloyed white
irons is as follows: hardness Brinell 375 to 600, tensile
strength 20,000 to 70,000 psi, compressive strength
200,000 lo 250,000 psi and modulus of elasticity 24 to
28 million psi.
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1. WHITE CAST IRON
▰ APPLICATION:
It can be used as liners of cement mixers,
ball mills, drawing dies and extrusion
nozzles.

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2. MALLEABLE CAST IRON
▰ It is the cast iron in which most or all of the carbon is uncombined in
the form of irregular round particles known as temper carbon.
▰ This is obtained by heat treatment of white cast iron.
▰ White irons suitable for conversion to malleable iron are of the
following range of composition:
 Carbon : 2.00-2.65%
 Silicon : 0.90-1.40%
 Manganese : 0.25-0.55%
 Phosphorous : Less than 0.18%
 Sulphur : 0.05%
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2. MALLEABLE CAST IRON
PROPERTIES:
▰ When copper is added it increase its tensile
strength, corrosion resistance e.t.c.
▰ The properties of malleable cast iron are:
1. Tensile Strength : 58000-65000 (psi)
2. Yield point : 40000-450000 (psi)
3. BHN : 135-155.

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2. MALLEABLE CAST IRON
APPLICATION:
It can be widely used as:
▰ Pipe fittings.
▰ Chain-hoist assemblies.
▰ Railroad equipment.
▰ Also as industrial casters

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3. NODULAR CAST IRON(ductile cast iron)
▰ Nodular cast iron, also known as ductile iron,
spheroidal, graphite iron, and spherulitic iron, is cast
iron in which the graphite is present as tiny balls or
spheroids.
▰ Nodular cast iron differs from malleable iron in that it is
usually obtained as a result of solidification and does
not require heat treatment.
▰ The spheroids are more rounded than the irregular
aggregates of temper carbon found in malleable iron
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3. NODULAR CAST IRON(ductile cast iron)
▰ PROPERTIES:
The structure of nodular cast iron have
toughness, maximum ductility &
machinability which can widely used in
some applications

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3. NODULAR CAST IRON(ductile cast iron)
▰ APPLICATION:
Some typical application Nodular cast iron
are in the field of:
▰ Agricultural & tractor parts.
▰ Automotive & diesel crankshafts.

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4. GRAY CAST IRON
▰ It is the cast iron in which most or all of the carbon is
uncombined in the form of graphite flakes.
▰ Most gray cast irons are hypoeutectic alloys containing
between 2.5 and 4 percent carbon.
▰ The initial appearance of combined carbon is in the
cementite resulting from the eutectic reaction at 2065F<.
▰ There is experimental evidence that, with proper control
of the alloying element, the alloy will follow the stable
iron-graphite equilibrium diagram, ), forming austenite
and graphite at the eutectic temperature of 2075F. 45
4. GRAY CAST IRON
▰ MECHAINICAL PROPERTIES:
(1) TENSILE STRENGTH: Tensile strength is important in
selecting a gray iron for parts that are subjected to static loads
in indirect tension or bending. Such parts include pressure
vessels, housings, valves, fittings, and levers, irons above
40,000 psi in tensile strength are usually considered high
strength irons and are somewhat more expensive to produce
and more difficult to machine
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4. GRAY CAST IRON
▰ MECHAINICAL PROPERTIES:
(2) YIELDING: Gray irons do not exhibit a well-defined yield point as do
most mild steels. The stress-strain curve does not show a straight-line
portion; thus a definite modulus of elasticity cannot be determined. The
percent elongation is small for all cast irons, rarely exceeding 3 to 4
percent, and the reduction of area is too slight to be appreciable.
(3) COMPRESSIVE STRENGHT: Compressive strength is important when
the gray iron is used for Machinery foundations or supports. Like all brittle
materials, the compressive strength of gray iron is much greater than its
tensile strength and is largely a function of the shearing strength. Failure in
compression usually occurs along an oblique plane unless the specimen is
long enough to allow failure by buckling 47
Non ferrous
metals

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aluminum
▰ High conductivity (less than copper) of electricity and heat
▰ High formability
▰ Low melting point 660C
▰ Good at formability
▰ Low strength
▰ Low weight
▰ Hard to use at applications more than 300 C
▰ Applications : windows extruded sections , sheets , dishes ,
overheat cables (because of low weight )
Aluminum alloys
▰ Drumlin : 95% Al , 4% Cu , 0.5% Mg ,
0.5 Mn
High strength to weight ratio
Applications : Air craft ( fuselage)

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Porous aluminum
▰ Aluminum with pours inside
▰ Used to solve low damping problem
▰ Aluminum powder + salt grains
▰ Pours reach to 30%
▰ Pours trap energy to decrease it

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Composite aluminum
(composites)

▰ E.g. aluminum with glass fibers

▰ Used to increase damping

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Copper (Cu)
▰ Melting point 1083 C
▰ High conductivity
▰ High formability
▰ Density 8.96 (high density)
▰ Expensive
▰ Strategic good

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 Copper most
important
alloys

brass bronze

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55
Titanium (Ti)
▰ 1675 C melting point
▰ 4.54 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 density
▰ High strength
▰ Biomaterial
▰ Insatiable in reaction
▰ Applications : joint implanting

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3.
rd
3 lec.
Sat. 22 feb. 2020
Nickel (Ni)
▰ FCC
▰ Melting point 1453 C
▰ Density 8.9 gm./cc
▰ High strength
▰ High corrosion resistance
▰ Nickel alloys: monel metal , shape
memory alloys

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Monel Metal (Nickel alloys)
▰ 32% of copper (Cu)+Nickel (Ni)
▰ High strength
▰ High corrosion resistance
▰ bearing high temperature
▰ Usage: jet engine parts , drugs , oil field
industry

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Shape memory alloy (SMA)
(Nickel Alloys)
▰ 55% Titanium (Ti) , 45% Nickel (Ni)
▰ The first manufacture shape is saved to
its memory
▰ When its reshaped after manufacture , it
returns to its first manufactured shape
▰ This alloy has sensation , actuation and
control
▰ Applications : robotics , medical field
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Nickel super Alloy
▰ Called super alloys because of its high
strength
▰ Trade names : Udimet – Hastealloy –
Nimonic alloy

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Zinc (Zn)
▰ CPH
▰ 413 C melting point
▰ 7.13 gm./cc
▰ The forth used manufacture
(arrangement of metals used in
manufacture : Fe ,Al ,Cu ,Zn )
▰ Doesn’t formed because of low melting
point , it can be only casted
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Zinc (Zn)
▰ Isn’t used in pure form because of high
density and low melting point
▰ Zinc alloys : brass , super plastic alloy
▰ Super plastic alloy:
 78% Zn , 22% Al
 Material gives high strain when it’s
exposed to tension

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High entropy alloy
▰ Cutting edge material
▰ Appeared at 2010
▰ High stability:∆𝐺 ↑= ∆𝐻 − 𝑇∆𝑆
▰ It’s minimum number of elements is five
metals in the same alloy
▰ It’s elements should be equally
proportional or at least nearly
proportional ≈ 20%
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High entropy alloy
▰ Formed by laser engineering shaping
▰ one of metal entropy alloys contains (Co,
Cr, Fe, Mo, Ni)
▰ High resistance to corrosion
▰ High strength
▰ High fatigue resistance

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Ceramics

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ceramics
▰ Chemically inert
▰ High wear resistance
▰ High oxidation resistance
▰ High hardness
▰ Not easy formed (can be formed by high
cost)
▰ Low toughness
▰ Formed by HIP (Hot isostatic Pressing)
ceramics
▰ Low toughness
▰ Formed by HIP (Hot isostatic Pressing)
▰ E.g. 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 with melting point 2050C
▰ Used in covering aluminum of space
shuttle to bear high temperature while
going out atmospheric air layers
𝑺𝒊𝟑 𝑵𝟒 (ceramics )
▰ Some ceramics aren’t oxides
▰ Bear high temperature
▰ It’s formation is hard
▰ Bearing high pressure
▰ Uses: compressor , race car pistons

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Glass (ceramics ,
amorphous)
▰ Transperent
▰ Easy formed
▰ Broken easily
▰ Bear compression but doesn’t bear
tension

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Glass (ceramics ,
amorphous)
▰ Ways to bear tension stress:
 RCS (residual compressive stresses) :it’s
put on surface to bear tension
 Using adhesive layer between two layers
of glass
 Adding chemicals

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Optical fibers
▰ Coat and cladding are made from silicon
and core from glass
▰ Core diameter less than 1.25 micrometer
▰ Core materials are glass or plastic
▰ Cladding materials are glass or plastic
with lower refractive index to prevent any
refracting passing data
▰ Applications: telescope , sensors
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Copper vs. optical fiber
P.O.C copper Optical fiber

Cable diameter 75mm 10 mm

Cable weight 7250kg/m 60kg/m

interference Affected by interference Not affected by interference

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Manufacture of optical fiber
▰ Glass perform
▰ Pipe drawing
▰ Modifying chemical vapor deposition
(MCVD)
▰ Drawing tower (die less drawing)

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Manufacture of optical fiber

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Graphite (Ceramic)
▰ Biochemical
▰ Nontoxic
▰ HCP
▰ Good conductivity
▰ Bearing high temperature
▰ Solid lubricant

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Graphite (Ceramic)
▰ Strength increase by heating
 At 2500C strength reaches 200MPa
▰ It oxides at 500 C and more
▰ At oxidation it changes from solid non
toxic state to vapor toxic state
▰ Adding graphite to polymers changes it
from low electric conductivity to high
electric conductivity
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graphene
▰ One atom thick
▰ Nano material
▰ Novoselov discovered a mechanical
method to separate graphite to turn it to
graphene at 2010
▰ Applications : solar panel , drug delivery

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4.
th
4 lec.
Sat. 29 feb. 2020
graphene
Outside paper
Aerogel
Aerogel
▰ Solid state of material filled with pours
▰ Highly porous material (ultra porous)
▰ 90%:99% of it is pours(air bubbles)
▰ Ultra light
▰ It’s a form of all materials like : starch , ceramics ,
polymers…etc.
▰ Sound velocity 100 m/sec.
▰ sound ,electricity and thermal isolation
▰ Pours diameter less than 1 micrometer
Aerogel
▰ Properties:
 Low density
 High damping
 Low conductivity
 Large surface area (reaches to
10:2000km/gm.)
 Catalyst
 Transparent material
Aerogel (Types):
▰ Oxides : 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 , 𝑇𝑖𝑂2 , 𝑍𝑛𝑂2
▰ Polymers(thermoset)
▰ Carbon
▰ Starch ,soleus
▰ Any material can be gel it could be
Aerogel too

84
Aerogel (synthesis ):
▰ Sol-gel
1. Making solution by adding chemicals
2. Adding catalyst to make gelation
3. Removing chemicals (drying)
4. Final product

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Aerogel (applications):
▰ Thermal isolation (fire protection ,
vehicles , buildings)
▰ Blinders (casting)
▰ Architecture
▰ Drug delivery
▰ Sensors

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Aerogel (applications):
▰ Sports (tennis balls , Racquet , sports
shoes )
▰ Military and wild manufacture (soldiers
suits because of thermal isolation for
camouflaging from infrared rays)
▰ Filtration
▰ Star dust (space craft )

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polymers

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Polymers
▰ E.g. :PE , PP , PVC
▰ Simplify design
▰ Isolated material
▰ Low weight
▰ Open structure
▰ Applications : (airplane furniture, vehicles
body , cars manufacture )
Thermoplastic vs. thermoset

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Thermoplastic vs. thermoset

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Polymers (examples)
▰ Book p194 :197
▰ PTEF
 Bears temperature till 370 C
 Non-stick
 Used in manufacture of Teflon
 High lubrication
 Low weight
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Self healing
polymers

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Composites

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composites
▰ It’s a material system contains mixture or
combination of two or more (micro or
macro scale) materials which differ in
shape and chemical combination
essentially insoluble in each other
▰ Composites contains two phases:
 Matrix
 Hard phase ( fibers )
Composites
Hard
matrix
phase

Semi Two Three

Metal Polymer Ceramics
dimension dimension dimension

(MMC) (PMC) (CMC) Fiber Laminate Particulate

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Composites
▰ Structural composite
 Book P201 , P202

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Composites (types of
fibers)
1. Glass fiber
▰ Density 2.54 gm./cc
High specific
strength

Good heat
E-glass
isolation
Types of
glass
S-glass inexpensive

98
Composites (types of
fibers)
2. Carbon fiber
▰ Density 1.74gm./cc
▰ Highest specific strength
▰ Keeps its strength at high temperature
▰ Isn’t effected by moisture
▰ Low cost

99
Composites (types of
fibers)
3. Aramid
▰ Trade name : Kevlar
▰ Types : aramid 29 , aramid 49
▰ Density 1.47gm./cc
▰ Lightest weight
▰ High strength
▰ High fatigue resistance
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Composites (types of
fibers)
3. Aramid
▰ Impact resistance
▰ applications: Jet engine tubes- Armed
chest- Space shuttles (thermal isolation )
▰ Disadvantage:
 Water absorption
 Low pressure bearing
 Very high hardness 101
whiskers
▰ Single crystal material
▰ High purity
▰ No impurities
▰ Defect-free
▰ High strength

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whiskers
▰ Tensile strength 15:20 GPa
▰ Elasticity coefficient 400:700
▰ Diameters between 1:10 micrometer
▰ Disadvantage : very expensive

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