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University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria

DCE1501/1/2018–2024

70548218

InDesign
Science campus

PROJECT TEAM

Author
Ismael Amer

Critical reader
Naadhira Seedat

Education consultant
Happy Jane S Ndinisa

Graphic designer
Dawid Kahts

Electronic Originator
Deirdre Croucamp

Planning & coordination

Heleen Dias

PR_Tour_Style
 CONTENTS

 Page
FOREWORDvii
Study unit 1: Introduction to chemical drawing1
1.1 Overview1
1.2 Learning outcomes 1
1.3 Drawing2
1.4 Sketching2
1.5 Lettering3
1.6 Uniformity and standardisation 3
1.7 Computers3
1.8 The skills associated with engineering drawing 4
1.9 Conclusion4
1.10 Revision and self-evaluation 4
Study unit 2: Drawing techniques6
2.1 Overview6
2.2 Learning outcomes 6
2.3 Instrument drawing: drawing equipment 6
2.3.1 Drawing equipment 6
2.3.2 Instrument quality 7
2.3.3 Draw in pencil only 7
2.3.4 Using drawing equipment: some things you should never do 7
2.3.5 Drawing do’s and don’ts 8
2.3.6 Some practical hints on the use of drawing equipment 8
2.4 Instrument drawing 9
2.4.1 Line types 9
2.4.2 Hatching10
2.5 Printing (lettering) 11
2.5.1 Background11
2.5.2 The essence of good lettering 13
2.5.3 Direction of lettering, dimensioning and reading a drawing, and
layout of notes 14
2.6 Freehand drawing (sketching, NTS drawing) 16
2.6.1 Introduction16
2.6.2 Sketching in stages 16
2.7 Basic drawing techniques 17
2.7.1 Drawing sheets and title blocks 17
2.7.2 Starting, placing, making and order of finishing a pencil drawing: A
brief review 18
2.7.3 Scales19
2.8 Revision and self-evaluation 19

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Study unit 3: Dimensioning22

3.1 Overview22
3.2 Learning outcomes 22
3.3 Revision and self-evaluation 24
Study unit 4: Revision of geometric constructions25
4.1 Overview25
4.2 Learning outcomes 25
4.3 Basic concepts 25
4.4 Tangents and tangential arcs 27
4.4.1 The construction of the tangent to a circle at a given point P 28
4.4.2 The construction of a tangent to a circle from a given point P outside
a circle 28
4.4.3 The construction of common external tangents to two given circles,
with radii R1 and R2, having centres O1 and O2 respectively 29
4.4.4 The construction of a common internal tangent to two given circles,
with radii R1 and R230
4.4.5 The construction of a circle passing through any given point P and
tangential to two given lines AB and CD 30
4.5 Regular polygons 31
4.6 Conic sections: the ellipse, parabola and hyperbola 31
4.6.1 The cone 31
4.6.2 Conic sections 32
4.6.3 The ellipse 33
4.6.4 The parabola 38
4.6.5 The hyperbola 39
4.7 Revision and self-evaluation 40
Study unit 5: Machine drawing42
5.1 Overview42
5.2 Learning outcomes 42
5.3 Orthographic projection and auxiliary views 43
5.3.1 Introduction43
5.3.2 Pictorial projections 44
5.3.3 Orthographic projection 45
5.4 Sectional views 51
5.4.1 Introduction51
5.4.2 Application of sectioning 51
5.5 Types of sections 63
5.6 Special conventions 64
5.7 Revision and self-evaluation 64
Study unit 6: Drawing techniques70
6.1 Overview70
6.2 Learning outcomes 70
6.3 A picture when words are inadequate 70
6.4 Oblique drawings 72
6.4.1 Definition: oblique drawing (projection) 72
6.4.2 Supplementary notes 72
6.5 Isometric drawings 75
6.5.1 Definition: isometric drawing (projection) 75

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6.5.2 Supplementary notes 75

6.6 Perspective drawing 80
6.7 Sketching: oblique, isometric and simple perspective drawings 81
6.8 Revision and self-evaluation 84
Study unit 7: Process and instrument drawings (P&IDs)86
7.1 Overview86
7.2 Learning outcomes 87
7.3 How to read P&IDs 87
7.4 Types of process diagrams 87
7.5 Uses and applications of P&IDs 87
7.6 Basic instrument symbols 88
7.7 Deciphering symbols 97
7.8 What Should P&IDs include and NOT include? 100
7.9 Preparation of P&IDs 101
7.10 Revision and self-evaluation 101
Study unit 8: An introduction to CAD103
8.1 Overview103
8.2 Learning outcomes 103
8.3 Introduction to CAD 104
8.4 AutoCAD104
8.4.1 Introduction to AutoCAD 104
8.4.2 Autodesk Inventor 106
8.5 Revision and self-evaluation 108

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vi
 FOREWORD

Introduction
Welcome to the study of drawing, the universal graphic language of engineering.
Drawing is a language that can be used to describe simple and complicated
objects far more accurately and unambiguously than mere words are able to do.

During this course you will learn to appreciate that Engineering Graphics and
Design, the name we now give to what used to be referred to as Technical
Drawing, and which is also referred to as Engineering Drawing, is extremely
important in the field of engineering. By studying this subject you will develop
a very good understanding of the basics of technical drawing and design,
and this will give you a solid foundation on which you will rely throughout
your career. You will also obtain a sound grounding in the basics of technical
drawing, which will serve you in good stead in the application of computer-
aided drawing (CAD). You will be introduced to this powerful tool later in
this course.

Main outcomes of the module

The main learning outcomes for this module are:

(1) Understand drawing, dimensioning, sketching, lettering, uniformity and

standardisation, instrument drawing.
(2) Drawing techniques: oblique drawings, isometric drawings, orthographic
projection and auxiliary views, sectional views and introduction to
assembly drawing.

Structure of the module

This module consists of eight study units and the following topics are covered:

(1) Introduction to chemical drawing

Focus in this study unit is on terminology used in chemical drawing and
we further explore the use of these drawings as well as the standardisation
and uniformity that guides this process.
(2) Drawing techniques
In this unit, we look at methods used, basic drawing techniques and the
importance of maintaining proportions and scaling in chemical drawing.
(3) Dimensioning
Here we look at the importance of dimensioning as well as using the
correct methods of dimensioning when performing chemical drawing.
(4) Revision of geometric constructions
We discuss geometric drawings, how various elements are constructed,
their applications and usefulness.
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FO R E WO R D

(5) Machine drawing

This where we cover the first and third angle orthographic projection, the
differences, and the auxiliary views according to SANS 10111:Part 1-19190.
(6) Drawing techniques
In this unit we look at the distinction between oblique, isometric, one-
point and two-point perspective drawings.
(7) Chemical process flow diagrams
Here the discussion is on different chemical process flow diagrams, how
they represent different scales of process views and information and
symbols used in these diagrams.
(8) Introduction to computer-aided drawing (CAD)
I have included this unit as additional information for you to get an
understanding of the differences between drawing on paper and using
CAD and how to use different functionalities on the CAD. I also introduce
you to applications on the Autodesk Inventor.

How this study guide is structured

Since this study guide is the most important means of communication between
you, the student, and me, your lecturer, please take the time to study each unit
and do so carefully, without rushing. Thereafter refer to only the relevant topics
in the prescribed textbook. Do not be overwhelmed by the prescribed book;
you will find that some parts of the chapters in the book, and in fact some
whole chapters are for general information only. You do not need to study
these parts, only focus on the important topics referred to in the study units.

The study units in this study guide provide you with supplementary information
and explanations, and they contain additional figures to help you understand
the various concepts. The study guide also contains some additional study
units, which do not correspond to chapters in the prescribed textbook.

Your learning process

This study guide is one of the resources available to guide you in your learning
process and it is based on your prescribed textbook.

I also provide you with a workbook which you will use for practicing your skills.

In addition I will schedule contact sessions for this module; check this schedule
via MyUnisa’s announcements tool.

Also, an e-tutor is allocated to assist you with questions and inquires for this
module. Check this communication on MyUnisa as well.

Education and skills cannot be taken away from you. What you have in your
head and in your hands is uniquely yours. Study, develop, learn and apply
your skills – and enjoy the journey.

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STUDY UNIT
1 1

1 Introduction to chemical drawing

(Chapter 1 of the prescribed book)

1.1 OVERVIEW
The purpose of this study unit is to orient you and help you to understand
the purpose and scope of engineering graphics and design, and in that way
to appreciate its value.

Drawing is a valuable skill which is well worth the trouble of mastering. This
skill will be of benefit to you and to others, and it will remain with you for
the rest of your life.

Carefully study only the relevant topics in chapter 1 in the prescribed book as I
point them out to you in this study unit. Take particular note of the applications
of engineering graphics and of the design process.

1.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES

The essential outcomes of this study unit are listed below. You must concentrate
on these essential technical outcomes.

After studying the relevant topics in chapter 1 in the prescribed textbook and
this study unit in the study guide, you should be able to:

•• Explain the general purpose and scope of engineering graphics and design.
•• Describe why engineering drawing is important.
•• List the main aims of this module.
•• Explain why drawing is called the “language” of engineering.
•• Explain why it is important to make and “read” engineering drawings.
•• Explain the importance of:
–– sketching (freehand or not-to-scale (NTS) drawing)
–– drawing with instruments
–– neat lettering and good proportions
–– picturing (seeing) objects in your mind (visualising)
–– projection (drawing three-dimensional objects on two-dimensional paper)
–– following strict drawing standards

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1.3 DRAWING
Drawing is a method of communication in engineering – it is in fact the language
of engineering. Words cannot communicate ideas as accurately or as easily as
drawings can. Therefore, we use this graphic language (drawing) to tell others
about new ideas and designs. All the details of physical (material) objects can
be accurately described in the language of drawing.

If you want to succeed in the field of engineering, you must have a good command
of this universal and standardised method of graphic communication. You must
also have a good understanding of how solid objects are drawn on flat (plane)
surfaces in engineering drawings (this is called projection) and you must know
and be able to apply the special terms used in engineering drawing.

Reekie, a well-known expert in this field, states that “anyone with normal vision
and ability to use his hands intelligently can be taught to draw very well in a
short time” (Reekie, 1946:v). However, you cannot learn to draw by reading a
book – the only real way is to start drawing and to keep on drawing as much
as possible. Pick up your pencil and start to sketch and draw. Once you have
started, you will be surprised at how rewarding it can be.

You will find the drawing process much easier if you follow established methods.
To be good, a drawing must be:

•• suitable for the purpose (it must be easy to see from the drawing what is
required)
•• accurate (true to scale)
•• legible (easily readable)
•• neat (of good appearance)

In this module you will learn to “write” (draw) and “read” engineering drawings,
and be familiar with, understand and interpret the terminology associated with
engineering drawing (the special terms used in the field).

Your drawings must be:

•• economical in terms of time and labour (they must be completed in the

shortest time and with the least effort)
•• in accordance with accepted standards (SANS 10111: Part 1-1990 )

You should be aware of other specialised fields of technical drawing, such

as land surveying; mining engineering; topographic, geological and civil
engineering; architectural, electro-technical and chemical engineering drawing.

1.4 SKETCHING
Drawings made with the unaided hand are referred to as freehand drawings
or sketches.

Sketching is important because being able to sketch competently:

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 S T U DY U N I T 1:   I nt r o du c t i o n to c h e m i c a l d r aw i n g

•• helps you to sort out ideas, and will enable you to see which design looks
best
•• will give you something to show other people so as to obtain their advice
and benefit from their ideas (brainstorming)
•• is a good preparation for technical drawing
•• is of value in the preparation of layouts when spacing and planning the
arrangement of views on a drawing

1.5 LETTERING
Neat, well-spaced, well-proportioned lettering is vital. Untidy lettering will
spoil an otherwise excellent drawing. Neat lettering, on the other hand, will
always enhance (improve) a drawing of average quality.

1.6 UNIFORMITY AND STANDARDISATION

Universally accepted, conventional and standardised methods of communication
through engineering drawing are used. This is so that designers, both here and
in other countries, will be able to read and interpret one another’s drawings
in exactly the same way.

Components (machine parts) shown in the drawings can therefore be made by

suitably skilled artisans of any nationality, provided they can read an engineering
drawing. If the drawings are correctly drawn and annotated (described) by
means of symbols, notes, dimensions and so on, the finished product will be
exactly as visualised by the designer. This will prevent any misunderstandings
arising from a description of shape and size using just words (with no drawings).

In order to ensure uniformity of drawing and interpretation, the South African

Bureau of Standards prepared a very important document, namely SANS 10111:
Part 1-1990. This document, which is in fact a code of practice, is prescribed
for this subject, and your drawings must comply with the requirements set out
in it. The code of practice ensures uniformity of drawing and interpretation
and enables all designers to interpret (understand) drawings in the same way.
You must be familiar with the standards and conventions, as they are basic to
both the understanding and the production of engineering drawings.

1.7 COMPUTERS
Computers and computer-aided drawing (CAD) have had a significant and
positive influence on engineering communication. However, before you are
able to use CAD effectively and efficiently, you must know and understand
the underlying basics of conventional engineering drawing presented in this
module.

CAD is introduced in the last chapter of the prescribed book. This is an area
of continuous development. CAD is a powerful tool, and the basic programs
have specialised add-ons, which cover various fields of specialisation.

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1.8 THE SKILLS ASSOCIATED WITH ENGINEERING DRAWING

Once you have mastered engineering drawing skills, you will be able to:

•• draw neatly and accurately in pencil according to the most important

principles of engineering drawing
•• read, interpret and produce engineering drawings in accordance with
the South African Bureau of Standards code of practice for engineering
drawing set out in SANS 10111-1 Engineering drawing: Part 1-1990 – General
principles. (In this module, we will use the abbreviation SANS 10111: Part
1-1990. This used to be referred to as SABS 0111: Part 1-1990.)
•• make well-proportioned sketches (freehand drawings) of
engineering components (parts) and assemblies (parts put together)
•• use practical geometry to solve problems in engineering drawing
•• demonstrate a sound knowledge of projection (the drawing of solid objects
on a flat surface)
•• recognise and visualise (picture in your mind) three-dimensional (having
length, breadth and depth) components and assemblies and to sketch and
draw them
•• produce simple working drawings
•• understand process and instrument drawings (P&IDs)

1.9 CONCLUSION
To conclude this study unit, here is some good advice from the author of
numerous books on engineering drawing, AC Parkinson (1958:v).

In the course of your training in engineering drawing you should gain and
develop:

•• a clear conception and appreciation of form, proportion and purpose

•• speed and accuracy in the use of the pencil and of drawing instruments
•• the ability to think in three dimensions
•• the power of expressing ideas in construction work quickly and clearly by
freehand sketches

1.10 REVISION AND SELF-EVALUATION

For additional questions for revision and assignments, refer to the workbook.

(1) Why is engineering drawing important? What is its purpose?

(2) Complete the following by filling in the missing words:

Some of the main aims of this module are:

•• to teach you to draw neatly and ……………….

•• to teach you to use practical ………………….. to solve problems in
engineering drawing
•• to give you a good knowledge of …………….. (drawing three dimensional/
solid objects on a plane (flat) sheet of paper)

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 S T U DY U N I T 1:   I nt r o du c t i o n to c h e m i c a l d r aw i n g

•• to enable you (provide you with the skills) to make well-proportioned

……………… (freehand drawings that look like the real thing)
•• to teach you to recognise and visualise (which means …………………….)
three-dimensional objects (objects having length, ……………………….
and ………………….)
•• to read, interpret and produce engineering drawings in accordance
with the ………………. practice described in …………………………..

(3) Why is drawing called the language of engineering?

(4) Why should you be able to read engineering drawings?
(5) Why is it essential to be able to make good freehand sketches?
(6) Why is it important to be able to produce neat lettering?
(7) What is the purpose of drawing projections?
(8) Is it necessary to draw according to certain standards? Why is standardisation
necessary?
(9) What is the full number and title of the document to which we refer as
SANS 10111: Part 1-1990? Why should you have this document?
(10) What is CAD?

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STUDY UNIT
2 2

2 Drawing techniques

(Chapter 2 of the prescribed book)

2.1 OVERVIEW
This study unit is based on chapter 2 in the prescribed textbook. This study
unit provides you with the basic required information for this module.. As you
go through it, pay particular attention to the following topics:

•• basic drawing techniques

•• the alphabet of lines from SANS 10111: Part 1-1990, and their applications
•• basic printing techniques
•• freehand drawing, sketching, NTS (not-to-scale) drawing
•• title blocks
•• starting and finishing a pencil drawing
•• scales

2.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After studying the relevant topics in chapter 2 in the prescribed book and this
study unit in the study guide, you should be able to:

•• list and acquire the drawing equipment required to complete the module
•• demonstrate the skills needed to use this equipment effectively
•• identify the various types of lines as set out in SANS 10111: Part 1-1990
•• apply standard printing techniques
•• explain the importance of freehand drawing in the industry
•• draw freehand drawings ensuring that proportions are maintained
•• explain the purpose of a title block
•• draw a title block using the correct line types
•• discuss the difference between poor and good drawing technique

2.3 INSTRUMENT DRAWING: DRAWING EQUIPMENT

2.3.1 Drawing equipment

The following is a list of equipment you need to obtain to enable you to complete
drawing work and assignments, as well as for use in the examination.

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 S T U DY U N I T 2:   D r aw i n g te ch ni q u e s

•• A3 and/or A4 drawing boards

•• T-square for the A3/A4 drawing board
•• scale rule: triangular or flat (not to be used to rule lines)
•• compasses for large and small circles
•• protractor 360°
•• set square 45° and 60°/30°
•• erasing shield
•• eraser
•• pencils, HB and H (two 0,5 mm clutch pencils are recommended)
•• masking tape

2.3.2 Instrument quality

You need to ensure that you buy the best instruments that you can afford. Poor
quality instruments will make it difficult to produce good quality drawings, and
cheap instruments of poor quality will rapidly become completely worthless.
Approach someone with experience for advice, as it may be difficult to
distinguish between instruments of good and inferior quality.

2.3.3 Draw in pencil only

For this module, do your drawings in pencil. Modern A3-size drawing boards
and T-squares are recommended. Blank, unlined A3 copy (duplicating) paper
may be used for practice and for the assignments. These sheets may be folded
into A4 size.

2.3.4 Using drawing equipment: some things you should never do

Here is a list of things you should never do when using drawing equipment
(French & Vierck, 1975:63):

•• Never use the scale rule for drawing lines.

•• Never draw horizontal lines with the lower edge of the T-square.
•• Never use the lower edge of the T-square as a horizontal base for the set
square.
•• Never cut paper with a knife using the edge of the T-square as a guide.
•• Never use the T-square as a hammer.
•• Never put either end of a pencil into your mouth.
•• Never work with a dull (blunt) pencil.
•• Never sharpen a pencil over the drawing board.
•• Never jab the dividers into the drawing board.
•• Never oil the joints of compasses.
•• Never use dividers as reamers, pincers, picks or darts.
•• Never use drawing pins on modern boards; use adhesive tape.
•• Never begin work without wiping off the table and instruments.
•• Never put instruments away without cleaning them.
•• Never put spring bow instruments away without opening them to relieve
the spring tension.
•• Never work on a table cluttered with unneeded instruments or equipment.
•• Never fold an important drawing and especially a tracing. (You may, however,
fold your assignment drawings and worksheets.)

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2.3.5 Drawing do’s and don’ts

Figure 2.1 below shows drawing do’s and don’ts. Study it carefully.

FIGURE 2.1
Drawing do’s and don’ts (University of the Witwatersrand, 1988).

2.3.6 Some practical hints on the use of drawing equipment

For accurate work, and to avoid parallax, a non-triangular scale (scale-rules,
not a ruler) should be tilted onto its edge so that the divisions are in contact
with the paper. Never use a scale to draw lines; use a set square or a T-square.

The only way to learn how to draw is to draw and keep on drawing! Get to
know your instruments by using them often and by completing all the exercises

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 S T U DY U N I T 2:   D r aw i n g te ch ni q u e s

and assignments. The objective of these simple exercises is to help you draw
accurately and neatly, and produce a finished product with a good, strong
line. Don’t try to finish the lines right away; start your drawings with all the
lines lightly drawn. Only when you are satisfied with the general layout and
accuracy of the drawing, and after you have made the necessary adjustments,
should you complete the drawing as follows:

•• Erase all unwanted lines and tag ends (extra, untidy lengths of lines) with
a soft eraser. Stroke the eraser in one direction only.
•• Line in with a 0.5 mm H pencil (avoid a lead which smudges). Using an
even pressure, aim for a strong, clean, dark outline of uniform density with
sharp edges (no fuzziness).

Always draw tangents as shown in figure 2.2. Note that when tangents are
drawn to arcs of circles, the arcs must always be drawn first.

You must practise often. Maintain a steady, even pressure from the exact
start to the exact end of each line and keep your pencil almost vertical. For
a professional appearance, your drawing should be carefully, accurately and
neatly drawn.

Please be patient with yourself. Speed will develop with practice. Personal
satisfaction will come from mastering this skill through patient, creative effort.

FIGURE 2.2
Correct and incorrect drawing of tangents: lines must be the width of one line at
tangent point (French & Vierck, 1975:58)

2.4 INSTRUMENT DRAWING

2.4.1 Line types

Drawing is a universal graphic language. The types of lines are accordingly
called the “line alphabet”. Study SANS 10111: Part 1-1990: table 3 and the
latest revisions. As with any language, users of this graphic language must
learn the accepted standards and rules (the code of practice, appearance,
type and application).

The line-work must be of sufficiently good quality that it is possible to make

legible copies. Each line has a definite meaning and is drawn and used in the
universally accepted manner as specified in SANS 10111: Part 1-1990.
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You should be able to draw and identify the SANS 10111: Part 1-1990 types
of lines.

They are a range of line styles that represent physical objects. Some types of
lines are shown in figure 2.3 below. You are not limited to these line types.
You can define your own, but the SANS 10111: Part 1-1990 requires that you
add a key to your drawing to describe your custom line types meaning.

FIGURE 2.3
Line styles and types

2.4.2 Hatching
Hatching is used when sections are drawn. You could think of hatching as the
marks made by a saw when parts are sectioned (cut). Below are aspects you
need to be aware of when hatching:

•• You should usually hatch 45º with a 0.3 mm line.

•• Space at about 1.3 or 5 mm, depending on the size of the drawing.
•• In all sectional views of the same part, hatching must be the same and must
be drawn to the same scale.
•• Draw the hatching on adjacent parts in different directions and/or to a
different spacing.
•• Hatching may be omitted where the meaning of the drawing is clear without
it.
•• Hatching may be interrupted for dimensioning, but only if this is unavoidable.
•• You should hatch horizontally or vertically when the drawing is at 45º.
•• Maintain a good contrast of the lined and unlined areas on the paper.
•• Outlines should be thick and hatching should be thin.

An example of a good and bad hatching is showing in figure 2.4 below.

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 S T U DY U N I T 2:   D r aw i n g te ch ni q u e s

FIGURE 2.4
Hatching-presentation of sections

(SA Bureau of Standards (Standards South Africa)).

2.5 PRINTING (LETTERING)

2.5.1 Background
Parkinson (1954:5) states that: “Small things make perfection; but perfection
is no small thing.” He goes on to say that lettering “is one of the ‘small things’
which makes or mars the appearance and the usefulness of a drawing. The
objective should be to employ uniform letters and figures which can be
produced with reasonable rapidity and which will ensure good and legible
reproductions from pencil originals.”

One of the first steps in an engineering drawing course should be practice in

freehand lettering and dimensioning. This is a very important aspect of the work,
as so many otherwise good drawings are spoilt by uneven and untidy printing
and lettering. While practising lettering, remember that you are continuing a
tradition begun by the engravers, artists and scribes of old.

Engraving is the oldest art form to have been practised by humankind. In

prehistoric times, it was easier to scratch the side of rock with a hard, sharp flint
than it was to find pigments with which to paint or draw designs. Throughout
history, from the time that people created rock drawings and hieroglyphics,
and wrote on stone, papyrus, wax, vellum, parchment, paper and cloth up
until the present day, artists and craftspeople have practised some form of
what you, as a student of this subject, are doing today.

Refer to figure 2.5: as you will see, you are in good company!

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FIGURE 2.5
Engineering lettering (Reekie 1946:59)

The basis of the various alphabets is the beautifully balanced Classic Roman.
This generally accepted standard is the lettering carved on Trajan’s Column
in Rome in 2 AD. This lettering was incised (cut into) the stone with a chisel
(giving the serifs, or shoulders, as chiselled terminations of parts of letters).
Compare this lettering with the Times New Roman and Arial fonts on a
personal computer (PC).

Keep these classic proportions in mind and don’t produce unattractive,

incorrectly proportioned lettering. In engineering drawing, simplified letter
forms are used. You will not see any thick or thin strokes or serifs (letter forms

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 S T U DY U N I T 2:   D r aw i n g te ch ni q u e s

without serifs are referred to as “sans serif”): standard, plain, no-frills lettering
is used.

2.5.2 The essence of good lettering

The essence (most important feature) of lettering is legibility, combined with
ease and rapidity of execution (speed). To obtain good formation, proportionate
spacing and close imitation (similar letter shapes) when characters are repeated,
you must keep on practising diligently and frequently.

For the purposes of this module, lettering should be done freehand without
the aid of instruments (compasses, stencils, rulers etc.), except for guidelines.
You are welcome to use stencils and scribers later to save time, but you should
use them only after you have mastered the basics. Please do not use them in
the assignments and examinations.

You have the ability to become an expert in lettering, but remember that
lettering skills are acquired only through constant practice.

The essentials of good lettering are the following:

•• quality
•• legibility
•• style, beauty and character of letter
•• letter spacing
•• layout and arrangement
•• uniformity (for engineering drawings particularly)
•• suitability for microfilming and copying
•• use of colour. and tone values (for artistic layouts)

There are certain well-established, proven ways to form letters, which, with
a little practice, anyone is able to master. These basics of calligraphy (from
the Greek kalligraphos, meaning “a person who writes beautifully”) may be
extended beyond engineering drawing into fair and elegant printing, writing
and penmanship which you can use every day.

Mechanical (stencils) and electronic (scribers, desktop publishers and CAD)

printing are wonderful adjuncts or aids. Once you have mastered the basics
you will be able to appreciate these aids and also be able to use them to best
advantage. Think of it this way: to use an electronic calculator, you need to
know the basics of simple arithmetic; similarly, you need knowledge of basic
engineering drawing before you can use CAD systems effectively.

In the prescribed book, lower-case lettering is often used in the figures and
view descriptions. This was done for a specific reason relating to the layout
of the book. However, in SANS 10111: Part 1–1990, section 4.2(e) it is stated
that: “Capital letters should be used in preference to lower-case letters, since
they are less congested and less likely to be misread when reduced… Lower-
case letters should be used where they form part of a standard symbol, code
or abbreviation”. It is recommended that you practise and master upper-case,
vertical lettering, which is neat, quick and easy to produce, and requires
only two guidelines per line. Please remember that the sets of lines must be

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13 D CE1501/1
 separated. If you need to print in lower case, then four guidelines must be
used. Remember to leave spaces between lines. Refer to figure 2.6.

FIGURE 2.6
Guidelines of lettering

Balance the white space area in lettering as shown in figure 2.7.

FIGURE 2.7
White space area balanced (Mitchell 1960:13)

2.5.3 Direction of lettering, dimensioning and reading a drawing, and

layout of notes
The direction of lettering and dimensioning should be from left to right on
the sheet facing you, and when this is not possible, from bottom to top, as
shown below.

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 S T U DY U N I T 2:   D r aw i n g te ch ni q u e s

Please also refer to figure 2.8. Remember to use upper-case (capital) letters
and to draw 15 mm wide borders around all sheets.

FIGURE 2.8
Direction of lettering

There should not be general notes scattered across the drawing; notes should
be neatly arranged in aligned panels of regular shape. The general notes should
be numbered and divided into paragraphs for easy reading. If general notes are
scattered all over, there is a good chance that one or two will be overlooked.

Lettering should not touch header or dimension lines, but should be placed
approximately 1.0 mm above them. This is necessary for microfilming.

Always use the decimal comma rather than the decimal point or stop: so, for
instance, you would write 3,6. Place a zero before the decimal comma for
dimensions less than one: for instance, you would write 0,8.

Figures 2.9, 2.10 and 2.11 show few examples of how to do lettering.

FIGURE 2.9
Natural, balanced word spacing (French & Vierck, 1975:124)

FIGURE 2.10
A word spacing technique (French & Vierck, 1975:125)

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15 D CE1501/1


FIGURE 2.11
Compressed and extended lettering (French & Vierck, 1975:122)

2.6 FREEHAND DRAWING (SKETCHING, NTS DRAWING)

2.6.1 Introduction
You are studying freehand drawing (sketching) early in this module so that you
will have acquired sketching skills and will have had some time to practise by
the time you get to later study units.

Training in freehand sketching will enable you to:

•• visualise problems, and formalise and communicate ideas

•• be innovative, creative and not bound by traditional methods
•• simplify seemingly complex problems
•• use graphic communication to illustrate technical language

You must therefore be able to produce neat and accurate sketches in order to
progress in your technical environment.

Study the useful tips and techniques given in the prescribed book.

2.6.2 Sketching in stages

•• Decide on the views and on a size large enough to adequately show the
required detail.
•• Rough in positions with light centre lines and block the views within
rectangular frames to define the areas.
•• Sketch in the views with light construction lines, and work some detail into
the rough outline.
•• Complete the detail and darken the outlines of the object.
•• Add any additional views and detail any sections.
•• Draw extension lines and dimension lines with arrows.
•• Add dimensions and notes.
•• Give the sketch a title.
•• Check for errors.
•• Check that no dimensions have been omitted.
•• Re-read and check the notes and the title.

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 S T U DY U N I T 2:   D r aw i n g te ch ni q u e s

2.7 BASIC DRAWING TECHNIQUES

2.7.1 Drawing sheets and title blocks

The prescribed textbook gives an excellent coverage of this topic. All professional
drawings should have title blocks. Professional, fully completed title blocks
will take a lot of time to draw. Simpler title blocks are acceptable in exercises.

Unless you have time, in exercises and assignments, draw title blocks only
when specifically asked to do so. Your drawing should always have a subtitle
and a main title, and you should include the scale and projection symbol (if
applicable).

Add a note on your exercises to the effect that all drawings should have title
blocks.

The title block is usually located in the bottom right of the drawing frame; it
is designed in accordance with its specific field of application and individual
requirements. It should contain the following information:

•• the name of the organization or company

•• the title of the drawing
•• the drawing number, which is normally a unique filing identifier
•• the scale
•• the angle of projection used, either first or third, usually shown symbolically
•• the signature or initials of the draftsman, checker, approving officer, and
issuing officer, with the respective dates
•• other information as required

Figure 2.12 shows an example of a title block with recommended width of 180
mm. Note that this title block contains only guidelines to proportions. Title
blocks should be in proportion to drawing sheet sizes. Do not add dimensions
to your title blocks.

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FIGURE 2.12
An example of a title block with recommended width of 180 mm
(De Kok & Melck, 1992:10)

2.7.2 Starting, placing, making and order of finishing a pencil drawing: A

brief review
You will stand the best chance of producing an accurate, neat, clean, attractive,
professional drawing with smooth joins and tangents, sharp corners and neat
fillets if you follow the order of working set out below:

•• draw borders lightly at first, darken later (15 mm wide on A4 sheets)

•• main centre lines (assess on spacing)
•• lay out component outlines (check spacing and appearance)
•• lay out details
•• small circles and arcs (always draw circles and arcs first)
•• large circles and arcs
•• hidden circles and arcs
•• irregular curves
•• horizontal full lines, working from the top of the sheet downwards
•• vertical full lines, from the left side of the sheet to the right
•• oblique (slanted) full lines, from the left side of the sheet to the right
•• hidden lines, in the same order as above
•• other (secondary) lines
•• fill in the outer edge lines (outlines) and centre lines
•• extensions and dimension lines
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 S T U DY U N I T 2:   D r aw i n g te ch ni q u e s

•• section lines
•• arrowheads (neat and narrow) and figures
•• dimensions (centred), lettering, notes and headings (line up)
•• title block and number (bottom right-hand corner)
•• borders: line in boldly to frame your drawing
•• check drawing carefully
•• make corrections, neaten tag ends and final clean-up

Practise constantly, be patient with yourself, use your imagination, and draw
methodically, neatly and accurately.

Learn to enjoy drawing and develop your creative skills. Drawing can be very
satisfying, useful and creative.

2.7.3 Scales
It is essential that you clearly understand the concept and meaning of scales.
Please pay particular attention to the explanations in the prescribed book.

Basically:

1:1 = one = full size (true size)

1:2 = one half = one half of full size
1:100 = one hundredth = one hundredth of full size
2:1 = two = twice full size

2.8 REVISION AND SELF-EVALUATION

For additional questions for revision and assignments, refer to the workbook.

(1) Why is it necessary to practise and master conventional drawing with a

pencil, set square, T-square and drawing board, when computer-aided
drawing (CAD) does the job so well?
(2) List the basic drawing equipment required to produce good quality
drawings.
(3) How would you know whether a drawing board and T-square are of
good quality?
(4) How would you test a T-square and set square for accuracy? Why is the
error doubled if a set square is reversed?
(5) When you are preparing to draw, why should the light come from above
your left shoulder?
(6) Why are backing-sheets used on drawing boards?
(7) Why should a pair of compasses have knee-joints (knuckle-joints)? Should
these joints be rigid? Why?
(8) Should the lead used in a pair of compasses be harder or softer than the
lead used for line drawing? What is the reason for this? Are fine-lead
adapters available to hold 0.3 mm or 0.5 mm clutch pencils?

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19 D CE1501/1


(9) Should the end of the compass needle line up with point of the lead?
Give reasons for your answer. Why does a good pair of compasses have
a shouldered needle-point?
(10) When is a beam compass used? When would a spring-bow be used?
When would a drop-compass (twirler) be used?
(11) Why is an erasing shield such an important piece of equipment?
(12) What is the meaning of a scale of 1:2? Is this different from a scale of 2:1?
Can a scale of 1:10 be used for drawings to scales of 1:1 and 1:100? If the
scale is given as 1 mm to 1 cm, what is the natural scale?
(13) Why should you erase in one direction only (particularly when neatening
up tag ends of construction lines) over large areas when you can’t find
your erasing shield?
(14) Practise drawing type A, B and C lines with the correct pencils by using
T-squares and set squares. Try out all your instruments and get used to
them. For example, draw circles, measure line lengths, practise using your
erasing shield and so forth.
(15) List five things that you should never do when using drawing equipment.
(16) Why is it necessary to plan your drawing by using preliminary sketches
before you start to draw?
(17) List six do’s and six don’ts when drawing.
(18) List five common mistakes made when drawing.
(19) What are the six essentials of a good layout?
(20) Should curves be drawn before the straight lines joining the curves at
tangent points? Give reasons for your answer.
(21) What is the full title of the applicable South African Bureau of Standards
(SABS) code of practice applicable to this module?
(22) Where must title blocks and drawing numbers be placed on a drawing?
(23) Is a continuous thick line a type E, D, B or A?
(24) Describe and illustrate the type of line used as a centre line. Give its code.
(25) When are dashed lines used?
(26) Are dimensions written under, in or over dimension lines? What units are
used? If you add a general note “all dimensions are in mm”, this will save
you having to repeat “mm” after every dimension (remember to write
mm, not MM).
(27) Are extension lines drawn as being of the same weight as dimension lines?
Should extension lines touch the outlines of objects?
(28) Why should hatching be evenly drawn?
(29) List the order of precedence of lines.
(30) Sketch the symbol for first-angle orthographic projection. How does it
differ from the symbol for third-angle projection? Sketch both together
and label them.
(31) Why is neat lettering so important?
(32) What should the ratios of line thicknesses be on any one drawing?
(33) What line thicknesses would you use on your drawings? Why?
(34) Why is a minimum gap of 1 mm between a dimension and the dimension
line below it necessary for microfilming?
(35) Where are overall dimensions placed?
(36) How would you dimension a circle on a drawing? How would you
dimension a radius?
(37) What is the size in mm of an A3 sheet?
(38) What width should you make your border on an A3-size sheet?
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 S T U DY U N I T 2:   D r aw i n g te ch ni q u e s

(39) List the four essential requirements for lettering:

1. legibility
2. ………..
3. ………..
4. ………..
(40) What type of lettering is employed in engineering drawing?
Single stroke, upright …………….
(41) The classic alphabet, which is recognised as embodying (forming or
representing) the essence of excellent quality and good proportion in
lettering, is called ……………………
(42) State two advantages of using upper-case (capital) letters.
………………………………………………………..
(43) Complete the following by filling in the missing words:
One of the first steps in an engineering drawing course should be practice
in ……………….. and …………………..
(44) What grade of pencil hardness and line thickness should be used for:
1. guidelines ……………………… …………………….
2. lettering 3.5 mm high ……………………… …………………….
3. lettering 5 mm high ………………………. …………………….
4. lettering 7 mm high ………………………. …………………….
(45) List six applications of freehand sketches.
(46) Two specific areas where sketches are frequently used are (i) field sketching
and (ii) ……………………
(47) What grade of pencil would you use for sketching?
(48) Which two important properties of a form or shape would you try to
identify before commencing your sketch?
(49) List the 11 steps of the sketching procedure in stages as recommended
in this study chapter.
(50) In your activities, while working through the study chapter, you would
have sketched the examples in your textbook. Sketch all these figures
again to make sure that you have mastered the sketching techniques.
(51) Neatly print a list showing the precedence of lines. Use upright capital
letters 5 mm high. Refer to SANS 10111: Part 1-1990.
(52) Print the characters from 1 to 20. Print 1,0 to 10,0 in 0,1 mm intervals,
for instance 0,1, 0,2 and so on. Also print 10,0 to 90,0 in units of ten, for
instance 10, 20, 30 and so on. All characters must be 3,5 mm in height.
Repeat this exercise twice. Try to improve the quality each time.
(53) Use your drawing instruments, drawing paper and drawing board to
make your own drawings of all the figures in this study unit. This drawing
exercise will help you with revision for assignments and examinations.
Don’t forget your borders, titles and numbers.
(54) Rule your own guidelines for 10 mm high characters, 7 mm apart. Now
reproduce the alphabet (upper case, vertical) and the numerals 0 to 9. Use
the correct sequence of strokes. Fill one line with each character. On the
first letter of each series, use arrows to mark the direction of the strokes
you intend using. Leave a blank line between each row of characters.
(55) Repeat the above exercise, but rule guidelines for 5 mm high characters
on a blank A4 sheet with a suitable border.
(56) Reproduce the complete title block shown in the prescribed book.

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STUDY UNIT
3 3

3 Dimensioning

(Chapter 3 of the prescribed book)

3.1 OVERVIEW
The notes on dimensioning are based on SANS 10111: Part 1-1990. The study
of dimensioning is divided into two parts, namely:

(1) The technique of dimensioning (drawing, lettering and positioning).

(2) The choice of dimensions to adequately and accurately specify the size
and details of a part. A skilled tradesperson must be able to manufacture
an item or to build according to plan without having to calculate missing
dimensions.

All drawings must be dimensioned.

The topic of dimensions is well covered in the prescribed textbook. Please study
dimensioning carefully, apply the recommendations and keep on practising.

3.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After studying the relevant topics in chapter 3 in the prescribed textbook and
this study unit, you should be able to:

•• apply the basic techniques required to dimension a drawing

•• know the use of leaders (leader lines)
•• know how to dimension:
–– small features
–– angles
–– arcs
–– circles
–– diameters
–– spheres
–– chamfers
–– countersinks
–– counter bores
–– spotfaces

Some essential points to remember when dimensioning a drawing:

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 S T U DY U N I T 3:   D i m e nsi o ni n g

•• Use a 0.5 mm pencil.

•• Heights of the dimensions must be in proportion to the size of the drawing.
•• Dimension lines must be thin and, wherever possible, must not be closer
than 8 mm to any portion of the drawing.
•• Place overall dimensions on the outside of other dimensions.
•• Dimensions must be placed so that they can be read from left to right or
bottom to top.
•• Use neat, narrow arrowheads.
•• Centre the dimensions themselves over the dimension lines.
•• Dimensions (numerals) must not be closer than 1 mm to the dimension line.
•• Where possible, the dimensions should be placed on the outside of the
relevant part of the drawing (outside the outline).
•• Each dimension should be given only once.
•• Spread the dimensions over different views.
•• Do not dimension from dashed lines.
•• Do not use a centre line as a dimension line.
•• Distinguish between auxiliary (extra) dimensions and overall dimensions.

Figure 3.1 below shows an example of how you can dimension the objects
correctly.

FIGURE 3.1
A proper dimensioning of objects

Study topics 3.3-3.7 listed in the table of contents of this study unit as well
as the various examples in 3.8. All this content is adequately covered in the
prescribed textbook. Refer to the prescribed book for details.

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23 D CE1501/1


3.3 REVISION AND SELF-EVALUATION

For additional questions for revision and assignments, refer to the workbook.

(1) Why are dimensions important?

(2) By means of a neat drawing, illustrate what is meant by the following terms:
•• outline
•• projection line
•• dimension line
•• extension (of a projection line)
•• dimension figure (numeral)
•• leader line
•• arrowheads
(3) List at least seven important conventions which must be observed when
dimensioning a drawing.
(4) Illustrate the correct method of dimensioning the following drawings:
•• small features
•• angles
•• arcs
•• circles
•• inclined lines
•• squares
•• diameters
•• spheres
•• chamfers
•• similar features
•• pitch circle diameters

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24
STUDY UNIT
4 4

4 Revision of geometric constructions

(Chapter 4 of the prescribed book)

4.1 OVERVIEW
The topics listed in the contents of this study unit are covered in detail in the
prescribed textbook. Study chapter 4 in the prescribed book as well as the
supplementary material in this study unit carefully.

It is important for you to realise that geometric drawing and geometric

constructions (including problems of tangency) form the basis of engineering
drawing and design. Accuracy is important for the successful completion of
your geometric constructions. You must carry this type of accuracy over into
your engineering drawing.

You have already covered the basic techniques of engineering drawing, namely
line types, lettering and sketching. Now apply what you have learnt while you
practise the useful geometric constructions in this study unit.

4.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After revising the relevant topics in chapter 4 in the prescribed textbook and
this study unit, you should be able to:

•• describe and draw basic geometric constructions for:

–– lines
–– angles
–– circles
–– tangents and tangential arcs to various combinations of elements
–– regular polygons
–– an ellipse using the four-centre method
–– the drawing of simple objects from industry
•• explain the applications and usefulness of geometric drawing

4.3 BASIC CONCEPTS

Remember that construction lines should be visible, but light, neat and sharp,
and should not be erased. The methods you use should be clearly illustrated
in exercises and assignments.

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25 D CE1501/1


In this unit, I will introduce you to the cone and conic sections. You should study
the methods of construction of the ellipse, the parabola and the hyperbola.

Useful properties of some important geometric figures are summarised in

figure 4.1 in this study unit.

You need to study these constructions not merely as exercises, but with the
realisation that they have many useful practical applications. Some of the
applications of geometric constructions are listed below.

•• Straight lines, tangents to circles, circles and arcs

–– machine parts, fillets, pulleys, wheels, gears
–– road and railway geometry, e.g. tangents to horizontal and vertical curves
•• Triangles

The shape of a triangle and the position of any apex (joint) cannot be changed
unless the length of a side changes, or the two lines at any apex move apart.
A triangle can thus have pinned joints and remain rigid. A rectangle, however,
would collapse unless the joints were fixed and not pinned. The triangle is
extremely important in engineering, e.g. in roof trusses, bridges and braced
steel stanchions.

•• Ellipses:
–– machine parts, glands, templates
–– arches
–– landscape features
–– the ellipse of stress (principal stresses in materials)
–– the ellipse of inertia (momental ellipse) – shows the radius of gyration
about any axis
•• Parabolas:
–– the path (trajectory) of a projectile or other object
–– bending moment diagrams
–– symmetrical, parabolic arch ribs in structures, hinged at springings and
crown
–– parabolic girders (chord heights are proportional to bending moments
for uniformly distributed loads on all spans)
–– parabolic form of a vertical curve in road and railway route geometry. It
is desirable to ease a change of gradient of a vertical curve (e.g. a curve
over a summit (hill) or through a sag (valley)). The parabola is commonly
used because it is easy to calculate and set out, and also because clear
views (site distances) of vehicles ahead are easy to calculate. The incli-
nation of the tangent at any point x along a curve is proportional to x.
The radius of curvature is also practically constant over the length of
the transition.
–– the strength of a rectangular beam varies as bd² (where b = breadth
and d = depth). M = fz = fbd²/6. z = section modulus (strength) ~
bd². This is parabolic.
–– irregular area calculations. Simpson’s ⅓ rule (sometimes called the para-
bolic rule) assumes that the boundaries between offsets are portions of
parabolic arcs.
•• Hyperbola:

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 S T U DY U N I T 4:  R ev isi o n o f g e o m e t r i c co ns t r u c t i o ns

–– Boyle’s law, which expresses the relationship between pressure and

volume of a known mass of steam or gas at a constant temperature, can
be graphically depicted by a rectangular hyperbola.

Study the diagram below displaying various geometric figures.

FIGURE 4.1
Geometric figures (French, Svenson, Helsel & Urbanick, 1976:86)

For sections 4.4 to 4.6, study these topics as listed in the table of contents
of this study unit. The detail is well covered in the prescribed textbook, so
please study them carefully. I have included below important notes additional
to the information in the prescribed textbook.

4.4 TANGENTS AND TANGENTIAL ARCS

I have included important basic instructions for revision purposes below, and
they are additional to those in the prescribed textbook.

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27 D CE1501/1


4.4.1 The construction of the tangent to a circle at a given point P

Refer to figure 4.2 below.

•• Draw a radial line from a centre O through any point P.

•• Construct a perpendicular AB to the radial line through P.
•• The perpendicular AB is the required tangent to the circle at:

FIGURE 4.2
The construction of a tangent to a circle at a given point (De Kok & Melck, 1992:22)

4.4.2 The construction of a tangent to a circle from a given point P

outside a circle
Refer to figure 4.3 below.

•• Join the circle; centre O, to point P.

•• Bisect OP and let M be the mid-point of OP.
•• With centre M and radius MP, draw a semi-circle to intersect the given
circle at N.
•• Line PN is the required tangent.

Do you remember that a diameter subtends an angle of 90° at the circumference

of a circle, and that the angle between the radius of a circle and a tangent
equals 90°?

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 S T U DY U N I T 4:  R ev isi o n o f g e o m e t r i c co ns t r u c t i o ns

FIGURE 4.3
The construction of a tangent to a circle from a given point outside the circle (De
Kok & Melck, 1992:22)

4.4.3 The construction of common external tangents to two given circles,

with radii R1 and R2, having centres O1 and O2 respectively
Refer to figure 4.4 below.

•• Join centres in O1 and O2 and let M be the bisector of O1O2.

•• With centre M and radius R3 = O1M, draw a semi-circle through O1 and O2.
•• With centre O2 and radius R2 – R1, draw a circle, intersecting the semi-
circle at T.
•• Draw line O2T and produce it to intersect the larger circle at T2.
•• Draw line O1T and erect a perpendicular on O1T at O1, thus locating T1 on
the smaller circle.
•• Line T1T2, parallel to O1T, is the required tangent, with T1 and T2 being the
points of tangency.

FIGURE 4.4
The construction of common external tangent to two circles with different diam-
eters (De Kok & Melck, 1992:23)

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4.4.4 The construction of a common internal tangent to two given circles,

with radii R1 and R2
Refer to figure 4.5 below.

•• Join centres O1 and O2, and let M be the bisector of O1O2.

•• With centre M and radius R3 = O1M, draw a semi-circle through O1 and O2.
•• With centre O2 and radius R1 + R2, draw an arc, intersecting the semi-
circle at T.
•• Join O2 and T. Line O2T intersects the larger circle at T2.
•• Draw line O1T and erect a perpendicular on it at O1, which intersects the
smaller circle at T1.
•• Draw the required tangent T1T2 parallel to O1T.
•• T1 and T2 are the points of tangency.

FIGURE 4.5
The construction of common internal tangents to two circles with different diam-
eters (De Kok & Melck, 1992:23)

4.4.5 The construction of a circle passing through any given point P and
tangential to two given lines AB and CD
Refer to figure 4.6 below.

•• If the lines AB and CD do not intersect, produce them to intersect at N.

•• Draw two lines from N, one being the bisector of the angle ANC and the
other a line from N through the given point P.
•• Take any point O1 on the line bisecting the angle ANC, and using this point
as centre, draw a circle tangential to AB and CD.
•• This circle intersects NP produced at P1.
•• Join P1O1 and draw a line parallel to P1O1 through the given point P.
•• This parallel line will intersect the bisector of angle ANC at O.
•• With centre O and radius OP, the required circle can be drawn.
•• A second circle, which also satisfies the required conditions, is indicated
by the dotted line.

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 S T U DY U N I T 4:  R ev isi o n o f g e o m e t r i c co ns t r u c t i o ns

FIGURE 4.6
The construction of a circle passing through a given point and tangential to two
given lines (De Kok & Melck, 1992:24)

4.5 REGULAR POLYGONS

Polygons are two dimensional geometric objects with straight sides. Regular
polygons have all equal angles and all equal side lengths. Examples include
triangles, quadrilaterals, pentagons, hexagons and so on (figure 4.7). Carefully
study the topics in the prescribed book.

FIGURE 4.7
Examples of regular polygons

4.6 CONIC SECTIONS: THE ELLIPSE, PARABOLA AND HYPERBOLA

4.6.1 The cone

See figure 4.8 below. The cone is a solid generated by a straight line, one end
of which follows a closed curve in a plane (base), with the other end passing
through a fixed point (apex). If the closed curve is a circle, a circular cone will
be obtained. If it is an ellipse, it will be a cone with an elliptical base.

When the fixed apex point is directly above the centre of the base circle, a
right circular cone will be generated. With the fixed point in any other position,
an oblique cone will be generated.

The length of the generator of an oblique cone varies continuously, and the
oblique cone is therefore not a true solid of revolution.
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31 D CE1501/1


FIGURE 4.8
The right and oblique cone

4.6.2 Conic sections

The sectioning of a solid is a concept frequently encountered in drawing. An
object must often be represented as if cut (sectioned) on a specified plane.
Sectioning is an imaginary action undertaken in order to show hidden details.

By 250 BC, Greek mathematicians had identified the distinctive group of

curves which we today refer to as conic sections. Conic sections are plane
curves generated by the perimeter of a section taken through a right cone (see
figure 4.9 below).

Some five centuries later it was discovered that these same curves could
be generated by the locus of a point. This interesting aspect is discussed in
mathematics.

FIGURE 4.9
The conic sections: Four plane curves are produced by cutting a cone

Figure 4.10 shows the physical results if a right cone is cut along certain
planes. Should the detached pieces be re-oriented, bringing the cutting planes
perpendicular to the line of vision, the boundaries of the particular sections
would each reveal a different curve with specific characteristics. The curve

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 S T U DY U N I T 4:  R ev isi o n o f g e o m e t r i c co ns t r u c t i o ns

of section A is known as a parabola, that of section B an ellipse and that of

section C a hyperbola (figure 4.10 below). A cutting plane or section parallel
to the base of a right circular cone produces a circle. A vertical section through
the apex produces an isosceles triangle, the edges of which are intersecting
straight lines.

FIGURE 4.10
Realistic representations of conic sections

The practical usefulness of circular curves, arcs of circles, tangents and so forth
is obvious. Curves, other than circular curves, from conic sections are used for
curves in arches, engine components, bridges, roofs and so on. Spiral curves
are used in CAM design. The rolling curves, namely cycloids, epicycloids,
hypocycloids and involutes, are used in gear tooth and turbine blade design.

4.6.3 The ellipse

The ellipse is a very important curve which is frequently encountered in
engineering drawing (e.g. isometric circles) and in practice (e.g. elliptical arches,
glands). The method of drawing isometric views of circles (ellipses) is covered
in the prescribed textbook and in this study unit in pictorial drawings. Study
the description of the methods of constructing ellipses in the design phase
(sketching), on scale drawings, in the workshop or on-site below.

(a) Sketching an ellipse

Figure 4.11 shows a simplified method of sketching an ellipse.

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FIGURE 4.11
Sketching an ellipse

(b) Drawing an ellipse: the four-centre method

Carefully study the description of how to do this in the prescribed book. This
is a very important but simple construction. You must memorise the steps and
be able to draw the ellipse on your own.

I will now guide you through the steps in the construction of figure 4.12 in
this study unit.

•• Join AC.
•• Draw arc AE (centre O), radius OA = 1/2 major axis, to meet OC produced
in E. That is OE = OA.
•• Draw arc EF (centre C, radius CE). That is, CF = CE.
•• Bisect AF.
•• Produce the perpendicular bisector to cut CD (or CD produced) at C1 and
AB at C2.
•• With radius R2 = C2A, and centre C2, describe the arc on either side of A.
•• With radius R1= C1C and centre C1, describe the arc on either side of C.
•• By symmetry, locate similar centres on OB and OC (produced), and repeat
the process on the other side of the ellipse.

If you draw accurately, the arcs will join each other tangentially and produce
a smooth curve.

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FIGURE 4.12
The four-centre method of constructing an approximate ellipse

(c) The practical construction of an ellipse

The trammel method is a useful practical drawing office, workshop and on-site
method. You could use it to lay out a template and an oval (elliptically shaped)
pond. It allows you to plot a large number of points rapidly and accurately.

There are two trammel methods:

•• where the length of axes differs significantly (flat ellipses)

•• where the length of axes differs only slightly (almost round ellipses)

For an illustration, see figure 4.13 below. Other methods make use of twine
(string) and a measuring tape. For this illustration, have a look at figure 4.14.

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FIGURE 4.13
Practical applications: Setting out an ellipse using a trammel
(Lee & Reekie, 1949:50)

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FIGURE 4.14
Setting out an ellipse: Practical applications (Lee & Reekie, 1949:53).

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4.6.4 The parabola

Study figure 4.15 below to see how to construct a parabola inside a given
rectangle ABCD.

•• The axis of the parabola will be represented by line EF bisecting rectangle

ABCD.
•• Divide AE into a number of equal parts, say five, and draw lines through
the divisions parallel to EF. This gives us lines 1, 2, 3 and 4 as shown.
•• Divide line AD into the same number of equal parts, numbered to give us
points 1, 2, 3 and 4 as shown.
•• Join point 1 on AD to E, thus obtaining a point of intersection on the vertical
line 1.
•• Join point 2 on AD to E, to obtain a point of intersection on the vertical line
2. Repeat for all of the remaining points.
•• Points of intersection may be obtained to the right of EF by the same method
or by symmetry.
•• Draw a smooth curve through the appropriate points of intersection to give
you the required parabola. The greater the number of points, the smoother
the curve.

Complete all drawings as neat, fully finished engineering drawings. Use

guidelines, make sure that your lettering is neat, and add titles, scales or NTS
projection symbols (if applicable), borders and so on. The methods must be
clear.

FIGURE 4.15
The construction of a parabola inside a given rectangle

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4.6.5 The hyperbola

The type of hyperbola that is of practical interest to the engineer is the equilateral
hyperbola (an equilateral hyperbola is rectangular in relation to its asymptotes).
The equilateral hyperbola makes it possible to graphically represent the law
PV = c, connecting the varying pressure and volume of steam or gas.

To draw an equilateral hyperbola (figure 4.16), follow the steps as below:

•• Let OA and OB be the asymptotes of the curve and P any point on it (this
could be the point of cut-off on an indicator diagram).
•• Draw PC vertically and PD horizontally.
•• Mark any points on PC, and through these points draw a first system of lines
parallel to AO and a second system through the same points converging at O.
•• From the intersections of the lines of the second system with DP extended,
draw perpendiculars to OA (down and up from DP).
•• The intersections of these perpendiculars with the corresponding lines of
the first system give points on the curve.

FIGURE 4.16
An equilateral hyperbola (asymptotes perpendicular to each other)

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4.7 REVISION AND SELF-EVALUATION

For additional questions for revision and assignments, refer to the workbook.

(1) Why are geometric constructions so important in engineering drawing?

(2) Draw a line AB which is 200 mm long, and divide it into 7 equal parts.
Use a graphic method and a convenient scale. Do not use a calculator.
Your graphic method must be clear.
(3) How many sides do each of the following figures have?
a. octagon
b. hexagon
c. pentagon
d. rhombus
e. quadrilateral
f. polygon
(4) Construct the following
a. a hexagon within a circumscribed circle (two methods)
b. a hexagon external to a given inscribed circle
(5) Why is it essential to master the basics of geometric constructions which
involve tangency?
(6) List three practical applications of tangency to solve everyday problems.
(7) Draw the following constructions involving tangents
a. an arc which is tangential to two intersecting straight lines
b. a given arc which is tangential to an existing arc and a straight line
(three cases)
c. an arc of a given radius which is tangential to two given arcs (three
cases)
(8) Describe the following and make a neat NTS drawing to illustrate each
a. a right circular cone
b. an ellipse
c. a parabola
d. a hyperbola
(9) What is a trammel? Describe its application and make a sketch to illustrate
this.
(10) Sketch an ellipse by using:
a. the sketch method
b. the four-centre method
c. the trammel and/or twine (string) method
(11) Draw a circle circumscribing triangle ABC where AB = 100 mm, BC =
80 mm, and CA = 65 mm.
Reminder: All constructions, like all other drawings, are to be neatly and
fully completed as engineering drawings at tertiary level, in accordance
with SANS 10111: Part 1-1990. The methods must be clearly illustrated by
leaving in clear, thin construction lines, and adding letters, dimensions,
equalities (angles and sides), and neat notes within thin guidelines. Always
add descriptive titles, scales, borders, dimensions and so on.
(12) Divide a line AB (length 175 mm) into 13 equal parts, using the graphic
method of line division. Do not use a calculator. This type of question
has been repeated because of the practical usefulness of the method.
(13) Construct two regular hexagons, one within the circumscribing circle
and the other external to the same inscribed circle of diameter 120 mm.

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Letter, dimension, title and complete the drawing accurately, neatly

and completely.
(14) Using the four-centre method, construct an ellipse with a major axis of 110
mm and a minor axis of 80 mm. The method must be clearly illustrated,
showing all centres and radii. Your drawing must be neatly and suitably
titled, indicating the scale and so on. Add neatly printed explanatory notes.
(15) Make a neat drawing to a suitable scale to clearly illustrate the method
of constructing a parabola inside a given rectangle. Refer to figure 4.14
in this study unit.
(16) Draw a circle centre O, radius 42 mm, and, in relation to this circle:
a. Draw two tangents to the given circle from a point P outside of the
circle, and 72 mm from the centre O.
b. Draw a tangent at the point P on the circumference of the circle.
Method: join P to the centre O, extend PO internally, and extend
OP external to the circle. Erect a perpendicular to this line at point
P. Remember that a tangent to a circle at any point is perpendicular
to the radius at that point.
(17) Illustrate the methods of constructing common external and internal
tangents to two given circles. Two separate, dimensioned and annotated
drawings are required to clearly illustrate the method. The ratios of radii
should also be shown. The given circles are to be of radii 26 mm and 40
mm, their centres being 100 mm apart.
NB: Refer to the methods in the prescribed textbook. You need to draw
only one external and one internal tangent. Add a descriptive title (not
a title block), scale and so on, and complete the drawing to engineering
drawing standards (SANS 10111: Part 1-1990).

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STUDY UNIT
5 5

5 Machine drawing

(Chapter 5 of the prescribed book)

5.1 OVERVIEW
This is a very important study unit. Please study and make sure you understand
the relevant topics in chapter 5 in the prescribed textbook. These supplementary
notes should help you to master the material.

You now have the opportunity to apply what you have studied, drawn and
mastered thus far. The topics covered here are the essential building blocks
which enable you to produce general working drawings and the detail and
assembly drawings similar to those illustrated in the examples at the end of
chapter 5 in the prescribed textbook.

The most important topics are:

•• orthographic projection (multi-view projection)

•• auxiliary views
•• sections

In this study unit, I provide you with detailed notes, illustrations and worked
examples.

5.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After studying the relevant topics in chapter 5 in the prescribed textbook and
this study unit, you should be able to:

•• explain the difference between first-angle orthographic projection and

third-angle orthographic projection
•• designate the views for both first-angle orthographic projection and third-
angle orthographic projection according to SANS 10111: Part 1-1990
•• plan the placing (spacing) of views when making multi-view drawings
•• make a drawing in first-angle orthographic projection and third-angle
orthographic projection, placing the designated views according to set
conventions
•• project auxiliary views to give the true size of inclined surfaces
•• apply sectioning techniques in both first-angle orthographic projection and
third-angle orthographic projection

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5.3 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION AND AUXILIARY VIEWS

5.3.1 Introduction
If you want to remember what an object or a person looks like, you probably
take a photograph. This photograph is a picture of the object, a “pictorial
view”. In a photograph of a landscape, an object close to you would appear to
be larger than an identical object further away. We refer to this phenomenon
as “perspective”. The picture would not show the true or correct sizes of all
objects. You would get a general idea of shape and proportions, but you would
not be able to measure or dimension any items. If you photographed a car,
for instance, mainly from the front, but with a little of the one side showing,
the side (or length of the car), would appear to be quite short. We refer to this
as “foreshortening”.

Many students find it difficult to visualise shapes. Visualisation is the ability to

picture an object, to see it from different points of view (viewing positions) in
the mind’s eye, or to imagine the appearance of the different views. For this
reason, we will be paying particular attention to what are termed “projections”.

These supplementary notes, and the figures, should enable you to obtain a
clearer understanding of the principles involved. They should also give you
practice in visualising three-dimensional (solid) objects from two dimensional
(flat) drawings. The figures are self-explanatory.

In our geometric drawings and in the drawings of loci and linkages, the figures
are in one plane only. Only one view of an object is given and therefore
only the dimensions of length and height are shown (axes OX and OY). It
would not be possible to manufacture a three-dimensional object from such
a drawing, as no information is given of its depth. A third dimension is thus
required (axis OZ). We are thus faced with the following problem: how can a
three-dimensional shape be best described on a two-dimensional drawing? In
other words, “How best can we show a three-dimensional object on a two-
dimensional plane (flat) surface?” The solution to this problem may be found
in one of the two main methods of projection. An object can be represented
either as a solid object (as the eye sees it), or by a number of views on one
plane taken from different convenient directions. Each of these views gives
two dimensions at a time, namely length and height, length and depth, or
depth and height. Auxiliary views perpendicular to inclined planes can also
be used. These will also show only two dimensions at a time.

These two main methods of projection are:

•• pictorial projection, which has limited application in engineering; and

•• orthographic projection, sometimes called orthogonal or multi-view
projection, which is widely used

Perspective, isometric and oblique projections, which are all pictorial projections,
will be studied in detail in this study unit.

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5.3.2 Pictorial projections

Pictorial views are views as seen by the eye. Although they appear to be more
natural than orthographic views, distortion of both angles and dimensions
occurs. It is not possible to accurately represent a three-dimensional object in
the plane of a sheet of paper, which can only represent two dimensions correctly
at a time. Circles will appear as ellipses (the workshop may produce an ellipse
and not the required circle!), and rectangles will appear to be as quadrilaterals
with included angles of various sizes (see figure 5.1 in this study unit).

Only someone who is familiar with the usual appearance and use of a table
would be able to correctly interpret the drawing in figure 5.1 below. From the
drawing, the legs appear to be of different lengths. Not everyone is as familiar
with the appearance and usage of all machine components as they are with a
table – and new components have yet to be designed! We cannot remember
things we have not seen, nor can we photograph a new design which does
not yet exist. This means that the descriptions on our drawings must be very
accurate. The workshop must manufacture exactly what we intend.

Pictorial representations are usually very conventionalised and standardised in

order to minimise the risk of misinterpretation. They are used to assist in the
visualisation of solid objects drawn in orthographic projection, in assembly
drawings, exploded views, and by designers to illustrate the basic shapes of
a new design to trainees.

•• Perspective projection: You will be familiar with this type of projection from
works of art and architects’ views of buildings. Distant lines and objects
appear smaller in size than those in the foreground.
•• Isometric projection: This is the most widely used method. In this projection,
the plan is distorted, circles appear as ellipses on all faces, there is a 30º tilt of
the axes, and all three axes make equal angles with the plane of projection.

Note that iso is a Greek prefix, which means “equal”, and metron is the
Greek meaning “measure”. Equal angles, measuring 120º each, occur at the
intersection of the three lines (90º + 30º = 120º, and 3 x 120º = 360º). This
is a very convenient angle, as a 30º/60º set square may be used. See figure
5.2 in this study unit.

Isometric projection is the projection most often used if pictorial representations

are required. It is widely understood, and although it may produce a somewhat
tilted view, it can be rapidly drawn with a T-square and a 30º/60º set square.

•• Oblique projection: the principal view (front face) is drawn as in normal

orthographic projection; the oblique face is at an angle of 45º and is drawn
to half scale in cabinet projection, which we use in this course. Cavalier
projection has the oblique face drawn to full scale. It gives a much distorted
view.

Oblique projections are used from time to time. The front face (the principal
or main view) is chosen as the face with the most curves. These curves will
therefore not appear to be distorted (e.g. a circle will remain a circle on the

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front face and will not be drawn as an ellipse). A circle on the oblique face
will be elliptical.

FIGURE 5.1
Pictorial projection

FIGURE 5.2
Pictorial projection: Perspective, isometric and oblique

5.3.3 Orthographic projection

Orthographic projection is the form of projection most used in engineering
for manufacturing purposes. This is because dimensions and angles remain in
their true relationship. Two and usually three views are however required. As
there are a number of views, the term “multi-view” is sometimes used.

5.3.3.1 Origin of the terms mostly used in chemical drawing

•• “Ortho” means “straight” or “at right angles”
(orthos (Greek) – straight)

•• “Graphic” means “written or drawn”

(graphe (Greek) – writing)

•• “Pro” means “forward/in front of”

(pro (Latin) – in front of)

•• Jacere (Latin) means “to throw”

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Orthographic projection thus means “thrown forward”, or “drawn at right

angles”. The term “orthogonal projection” is occasionally used (gonos (Greek)
– angle), and it means “a straight projection” or “a projection at right angles”.

5.3.3.2 Definition of orthographic projection

Orthographic projection is the method of representing the exact form of an
object in two or more views on planes, usually at right angles to each other,
by lines drawn perpendicular (at right angles) from the object to the planes.

The projection lines are at right angles to the plane on which the drawing is
made. These views should describe the object completely.

5.3.3.3 Important orthographic project concepts

(a) Eye at infinity: parallel lines of sight

In orthographic projection, the eye is assumed to be at an infinite distance

from the object. The rays which meet the eye from the object are thus parallel.
Another way of visualising this is to imagine that the eye is travelling around
the outline of the object and aiming along the edges at right angles, onto
the plane of the paper. In travelling around the outline, the lines of sight are
actually parallel lines (that is, as if the eye is an infinity and perpendicular to
the plane of the object viewed). These parallel lines of sight would thus mark
out a view giving accurate dimensions on a plane surface. These views would
be behind the object in first-angle projection, and in front of the object in
third-angle projection.

(b) Inclined planes, auxiliary views

An object may contain an inclined surface. This inclined surface cannot be

viewed as a true shape in first- or third-angle orthographic projection. When
this occurs, an auxiliary view is drawn on a plane not parallel to the main axis,
but on an auxiliary plane at 90º to the inclined surface.

Inclined and oblique planes appear distorted if projected normally onto any of
the six mutually perpendicular basic planes (e.g. the faces of a cube). Auxiliary
views will, however, make it possible to draw the true shape of inclined or
oblique faces without distortion, with, for example, circles remaining circles.
These inclined and oblique planes (the surfaces of objects or components)
would lie in neither the vertical nor the horizontal planes. In order to project
the true shapes, auxiliary (additional “helping”) views are projected onto planes
parallel to their surfaces. These true shapes are easier to draw, save time, and
make the drawing less prone to misinterpretation.

In addition to the shape not being true, lines lying on inclined or oblique
planes which are not parallel to any of the basic axes will appear foreshortened
(display a shortened perspective) and will be at incorrect angles when projected
orthographically.

The basic problems encountered are, therefore, how to determine:

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•• the true length and angle of an oblique line (use revolved projection and
possibly triangulation)
•• the true length, angle and trace of an oblique line (use auxiliary projection)
•• the true shape of an inclined plane

(c) Choice of views: the natural position of objects

It is imperative that you draw a sufficient number of views of an object so that

you provide a manufacturer of a component with enough information. Do
not draw unnecessary views; draw the minimum number of views that will
provide sufficient clarity and avoid misunderstanding. The views chosen should
also depict as few hidden lines as possible. The object should be oriented
(positioned) so that the views show the object in its normal, natural position.
For example, when you are drawing a T-square, the plan view should show
the T-square as it is normally seen on the drawing board. This would be the
“easily understood” natural position.

If you have to draw a die (the plural of this word is “dice”), you would have to
draw six views because all the sides are different.

(d) The three dimensions in space

The three dimensions of space are height, depth and width. These are illustrated
in figure 5.3 below.

FIGURE 5.3
The three dimensions of space (French & Vierck, 1975:139)

(e) The four quadrants in space

The four quadrants into which space is divided are shown in figures 5.4 and 5.5.

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FIGURE 5.4
The four quadrants in space and first-angle projection (Helsel & Coover, 1979:37)

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FIGURE 5.5
First-angle and third-angle projection.

(f) First-angle orthographic projection and third-angle orthographic projection

First-angle and third-angle projections are projections in the first and third
quadrants. You must be very sure that you fully understand what is meant by
first- and third-angle projection. This is why I explain these concepts to you in
different ways. Simplified forms of the projections of three views in first- and
third-angle projection are shown in figure 5.4. The plane of projection can be
oriented to produce an infinite number of views of an object. However, some
views are more important than others. These are the six mutually perpendicular
views. The principal views are the front, top, left-side, right-side, bottom and
rear. The front view, left view and top view are known as the primary views
in the multi-view drawings.

•• First-angle projection

This method was used extensively in the United Kingdom, Europe and South
Africa. It used to be the British standard method of projection.

In first-angle projection the top view (plan) is at the bottom (figure 5.6). Try
using the following associations of ideas to remember, picture and understand
first-angle projection. Imagine that you are standing in a corner of a room, and
you have a miner’s lamp attached to your forehead. You are looking down
at an object held in your hand. You will see the top of the object, and its
shadow will be below the object on the floor. The top view is drawn below.
The shadow of the front view will be behind the object on the wall in front of
you, the shadow of the left view will be on the wall to the right. So, relative to
the front view, the left view will be to the right of the front view and the top
view will be below the front view.
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FIGURE 5.6
First-angle projection

Note: The association with ‘F’ for first. The symbol for first-angle projection has
the numeral 1, which comes first, even though it is lying down horizontally,
and looks like this: – 0. This is easy to remember.

•• Third-angle projection

This method is used in the USA and Canada, where it is the standard method.
Both methods of projection have now become South African and British
standards. Third-angle projection is more widely used at present.

In third-angle projection, imagine that the object is in a glass box. The top
view is on top of the front view, the left view on the left of the front view, and
the right view on the right of the front view (figure 5.7).

In architectural or civil (building) drawings, the top view is called the plan,
and is usually placed below other views. This is therefore a variation of first-
angle projection.

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FIGURE 5.7
Third-angle projection

5.4 SECTIONAL VIEWS

5.4.1 Introduction
Study the relevant section in chapter 5 of the prescribed textbook. This is very
important and gives you an excellent description of the basics of sectioning.

Sectioning is a method of depicting (illustrating) an object as though it has been

cut through on a given plane with one part removed to disclose (show) the
interior of the other part. It is used when the interior of an object is complicated,
or when the component parts are drawn as assembled. It is also used because
the use of dashed lines in orthographic views could result in a confusing network
of lines which are difficult to draw and almost impossible to interpret.

5.4.2 Application of sectioning

The shape and proportion of machine parts are governed by proved design
principles which have been determined by geometry, practical experience of
part production methods, design calculations of strength, stress analyses and
by standard testing procedures (French & Vierck, 1975:480).

These principles relate particularly to corners (sharp corners and the size of
corner radii), differences in metal thickness, T-sections, ribs, braced ribs and
the other examples given in the figures. Sharp inside corners are unacceptable.
Dangerous overstressing occurs and cracks start at sharp changes of direction
and changes of shape.

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Sections are used to illustrate good and poor design proportions. Good and
poor design proportions are shown in figures 5.8 to 5.83 in this study unit
(French & Vierck, 1975:480–492). These sections are very useful practical
examples which you should remember when drawing and designing.

Figure 5.8 Figure 5.9

Poor design: Sharp corner Good design: Rounded corner

Figure 5.11
Figure 5.10 Good design: Rounded inside
Poor design: Sharp inside corner corner

Figure 5.12
Poor design: Wide difference in Figure 5.13
metal thickness
Good design: Uniform section

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Figure 5.14 Figure 5.15

Good design for small ribs Good design for large ribs

Figure 5.16 Figure 5.17

Poor design: Stiffening ribs, Good design: Stiffening ribs,
unstable geometry stable geometry

Figure 5.18
Good design: Stiffening ribs,
stable geometric shapes

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Figure 5.20
Figure 5.19 Good design: Proper corner radii
Poor design: Corner radii tool
large

Figure 5.22
Good design: Great difference in
Figure 5.21
metal thickness relieved with a
Poor design: Several intersecting hole (compare with figure 5.19)
members produce a great
difference in metal thickness

Figure 5.24
Good proportioning for a
centralised hub: Radius value is
Figure 5.23
maximum
Good proportioning for a corner
rib: Radius value is maximum

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Figure 5.25
Good proportioning for a flared
hub: Radius values are maxima Figure 5.26
Good proportioning for a support
rib: Radius values are maxima

Figure 5.28
Figure 5.27
Good proportioning for a support
Good proportioning for a ribbed rib for unequal body sections:
T-section: Radius values are Radius values are maxima
maxima

Figure 5.30
Figure 5.29 Good proportioning for a flanged
Good proportioning for an end- rib: Radius values are maxima
rib: The radius value is maximum

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Figure 5.31
Good proportioning for a flange
at the end of a tube
Figure 5.32
Good proportioning for extra
material needed for a tapped hole
in a thin wall

Figure 5.34
Figure 5.33 Good proportioning for an
Good proportioning based on the enlarged portion
diameter of hole needed

Figure 5.35
Good proportioning for an
enlarged section

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Figure 5.36 Figure 5.37

Poor design: A machined part Good design: A machined part
with sharp edges with chamfered edges

Figure 5.38
good design: A machined part
with rounded edges

Figure 5.39
Poor design: Key-seat bottom and Figure 5.40
shaft correspond Good design: Clearance between
key-seat bottom and shaft

Figure 5.41 Figure 5.42

Allowable design for lightly Good Design: Round shaft
stressed parts: Necking of a shaft and chamfer on mating part to
to eliminate interference eliminate interference

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Figure 5.43 Figure 5.44

Poor design: Keyway in a position Good design: Keyway in a
that severely weakens the part position does not weaken the part

Figure 5.45 Figure 5.46

Poor design: Hub is weakened by Good design: Extra material
keyways added to hub so that will not
weakened the part

Figure 5.48
Figure 5.47
Good design: Seat for bolt or
Poor design: No finished surface screw provided by a finished boss
for bolt or screw seat

Figure 5.49
Good design: Seat for bolt or
screw provided by spotface

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 S T U DY U N I T 5:   M a c hi n e d r aw i n g

Figure 5.51
Figure 5.50
Good design: Centre portion
Good design: Full finished surface
of hub base recessed to save
on base of hub when a complete
machining
flat surface is needed

Figure 5.52 Figure 5.53

Poor design: Drilled hole at an Good design: Normal surface
angle to the part surface provided for drilled hole

Figure 5.54 Figure 5.55

Poor design: Formed sheet-metal Good design: Formed sheet-metal
part with 90° bends and small part with bends less than 90° and
bend radii bend radii (internal) greater than
the metal thickness

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Figure 5.56 Figure 5.57

Poor design: Sharp-pointed notch Good design: Round-bottomed
notch

Figure 5.58
Good design: All corners of notch
rounded

Figure 5.59
Poor design: No corner notches
for bend relief Figure 5.60
Good design: corner notches
provided for bend relief

Figure 5.61 Figure 5.62

Poor design: Bent flange on round Good design: Notches are used to
corner causes crowding of the relieve the crowding of metal on
metal a bent corner flange

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 S T U DY U N I T 5:   M a c hi n e d r aw i n g

Figure 5.64
Figure 5.63
Good design: Notches on the
Poor design: Formed outside
outside ormed flange on a
flange rounded corner produces
rounded corner prevent material
break in the material
stretching and breakage

Figure 5.66
Figure 5.65
Good design: Spherical part with
Poor design: Spherical part
flange
without flange

Figure 5.67 Figure 5.68

Poor design: Bent portion of part Good design: Bent portion of part
formed by shearing and bending formed by shearing to a terminal
hole and bending

Figure 5.70
Figure 5.69 Good practice punched (or
Good practice drilled hole in drilled) and formed hole in sheet
sheet metal metal

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Figure 5.71 Figure 5.72

Poor design: Hole too close to the Good design: Proper setback for a
edge causes distortion and possi- punched hole in sheet metal
ble breakage

Figure 5.73
Good design: Maximum use of
stock Figure 5.74 Economic design:
Corner relief for a formed sheet-
metal plan

Figure 5.75
Poor design: Irregular blank Figure 5.76
Good design: Simplified shape of
blank

Figure 5.78
Figure 5.77 Adhesive-bonded butt joint:
Adhesive-bonded joint: Weak in Weak in tension because of bond
tension because of peel stretch and lack bond area

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 S T U DY U N I T 5:   M a c hi n e d r aw i n g

Figure 5.80
Figure 5.79 Adhesive-bonded joint: Better in
Adhesive lap joint: Better in tension than the previous joints
tension than the joints above

Figure 5.82
Poor design: adhesive-bonded
Figure 5.81
joint for right angle
Right-angle member flared for
greater area of bond joint

Figure 5.83
Good design: adhesive-bonded
joint for right angle

5.5 TYPES OF SECTIONS

Study the relevant sections in the prescribed textbook.

SUMMARY
(1) full sectional view, front or left or right or top
(2) half sectional view, e.g. half sectional front with the right half in section
(3) staggered or offset sections
(4) part sections
(5) revolved sections
(6) removed sections
(7) successive sections
(8) aligned sections
(9) aligned sections for convenience
(10) auxiliary sections (sections on auxiliary views)

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5.6 SPECIAL CONVENTIONS

Sectioning is the method used to show complex features on a drawing.
Sectioning also saves time and space when commonly occurring features
are being drawn and conventional representations are used. These simplified
conventions have been standardised (SANS 10111: Part 1-1990) so that they
can be correctly understood by everyone reading the drawing.

Study, practise and remember the conventions described in the prescribed

textbook.

5.7 REVISION AND SELF-EVALUATION

For additional questions for revision and assignments, refer to the workbook.

(1) How would you overcome the problem of representing a solid three-
dimensional object on a flat two-dimensional plane?
(2) Which method of projection is most frequently used in engineering
drawing?
(3) In which positions do the top views appear in first- and third-angle
orthographic projection? Why do they appear in different positions? Draw
the symbols for first- and third-angle projections and label them clearly.
(4) What is the meaning of the term “orthographic”?
(5) State the two methods of pictorial projection usually used in engineering
drawing.
(6) What does “iso” mean, and which angles are referred to?
(7) How would you choose which view to make the principal (front) view?
Give reasons for your answer.
(8) Why is “first-angle projection” so called?
(9) How many views are required to describe a die? Why? Think about this
carefully. Sketch the layout of all the views in third-angle orthographic
projection. Check your drawing against figure 5.87 in this chapter, but
only after you have tried on your own.
(10) How many views are usually required as a minimum in orthographic
projection?
(11) Which method of projection is preferred in the SABS code of practice?
(12) Would you complete one orthographic view before beginning to draw
another view? How would you go about your task?
(13) Are centre lines drawn in last or first? Give reasons for your answer.
(14) Are arcs, circles and other curves drawn as finished lines (dark outlines)
before or after the tangents and other straight lines? Why?
(15) When you are in a hurry to complete a drawing, how do you keep track
of the source of projection lines in complicated projections?
(16) Is freehand drawing a useful skill to acquire? Would you need to make a
sketch before doing projections?
(17) How would you go about reading a drawing?
(18) Describe what sectioning is. When is it used?
(19) Make a sketch to show how you should hatch adjacent components.
(20) Make sketches of four different hatching spacings and directions which
are used or unusual shapes.

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 S T U DY U N I T 5:   M a c hi n e d r aw i n g

(21) Use sketches of half sections to show what types of line are used to depict
(illustrate) a centre line. When is each type of line used?
(22) List seven different types of sections.
(23) Describe an offset section in your own words. Illustrate your answer with
two sketches of two different components.
(24) List five items that are represented in sectional drawings in a conventional
manner. Make a sketch of each.
(25) How are thin sections drawn in section? Is hatching used?
(26) Describe where cracks are likely to occur in badly designed components.
Give reasons why this is so. Sketch ten examples of poor and good design
details and indicate the positions at which there is the greatest risk of
cracks forming.
(27) The drawings in figure 5.84 in this study unit are examples of components
drawn in first- and third-angle orthographic projection as well as isometric
views. Study the views very carefully, visualise and understand how each
view is obtained.
(28) Figure 5.85 shows, in third-angle orthographic projection, an outside
front view and an outside top view of an articulating link. Draw in third-
angle orthographic projection, to full scale (1:1), the following two views
of the link
a. a sectional front view on X–X
b. a sectional top view on Y–Y
(29) Study the question and attempt to sketch your own solution before looking
at the model answer in figure 5.86 in this study unit.

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FIGURE 5.84
Components in first- and third-angle orthographic projection
(De Kok & Melck, 1992:59, 0)

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 S T U DY U N I T 5:   M a c hi n e d r aw i n g

FIGURE 5.85
Articulating link scale 1:1, Question. (Watkins 1992: section 15.5, figure 8.12)

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FIGURE 5.86
Articulating link scale 1:1, Answer. (Watkins 1992: section 15.5, figure 8.13)

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 FIGURE 5.87
The sex views of a die third-angle multi-view projection, show in their correct rela-
tionship (Helsel & Coover, 1979:36)

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STUDY UNIT
6 6

6 Drawing techniques

(Chapter 6 of the prescribed textbook)

6.1 OVERVIEW
Pictorial views (oblique, isometric and perspective) are easier to understand
than orthogonal views. These views make it easier to see or visualise just
what an object looks like. Unfortunately these same views cannot be used as
working drawings, but they are valuable nonetheless.

Oblique, isometric and perspective drawings are clearly described in the

prescribed textbook. Numerous examples are given. The notes in this study
guide emphasise and summarise important aspect of different methods of
projection.

6.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After studying the relevant topics in chapter 6 in the prescribed textbook and
this study unit, you should be able to:

•• distinguish between oblique drawings, isometric drawings, one-point

perspective drawings and two-point perspective drawings
•• differentiate between an oblique cavalier drawing and an oblique cabinet
drawing
•• make oblique cabinet drawings with and without circles on the front plane
or parallel to the front plane
•• make isometric drawings of simple objects, with and without circles
•• apply the principles and terminology of one-point perspective drawings
and two-point perspective drawings
•• make two-point perspective drawings of simple dwellings and simple
objects from industry

6.3 A PICTURE WHEN WORDS ARE INADEQUATE

If you want to describe the appearance of an object, and you are unable to
do so in words, you may find it easier to draw a picture. Your picture may not
be a work of art, but in it you try to show the actual shape of the object in
terms of length, width and height (three dimensions) on your two-dimensional
piece of paper.

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 S T U DY U N I T 6:   D r aw i n g te ch ni q u e s

It is sometimes difficult to picture the appearance of an item from an orthogonal

projection (a multi-view drawing). I remember very clearly being faced with
such a problem as a young person. An experienced supervisor drew a neat
pictorial sketch of the culvert in an embankment. The sketch clearly showed
the angles and slopes of the wing-walls in relation to the 1:1½ slope of the soil
of the embankment. Understanding dawned (albeit slowly!).

The value of pictorial drawings should not be underestimated, but unfortunately,

we have only a two-dimensional sheet of paper to work with and so, for
accuracy, we are compelled to produce working drawings using orthogonal
views.

The prescribed textbook offers an excellent discussion of oblique drawings,

isometric drawings as well as one- and two-point perspective drawings.

You should thoroughly master the basics of oblique, isometric and perspective
drawings. You will not be required to produce complicated perspective drawings.

You may also encounter three-point perspective drawings. These are used
when it is necessary to draw a tall object, such as a building, with minimum
distortion. The third vanishing point would not be on the horizon, but above
or below the building (figure 6.1 in this chapter). A single vanishing point view
may also be drawn, as shown in the prescribed textbook.

Figure 6.1 below provides a comprehensive graphic summary of projection

types.

FIGURE 6.1
Projection methods – projection techniques developed along two lines: Parallel
and respective

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6.4 OBLIQUE DRAWINGS

6.4.1 Definition: oblique drawing (projection)

A pictorial view of an object showing its elevation, plan or section all drawn to
scale, with the main side facing the viewer and parallel to the X axis and with
parallel lines projected from the corners, usually at 45°, to show the other sides.

6.4.2 Supplementary notes

•• Reduced scales are used for receding lines to reduce distortion.

Look at figures 6.2 and 6.3 in this study unit for illustrations of cavalier
projection compared with cabinet projection (cabinet oblique). You should
use cabinet oblique projection.

If the receding lines are not reduced in scale, the object appears much distorted.
This is cavalier or cavalier oblique projection. This type of projection will not
be used in this module.

When the receding lines are reduced to half full size, the projection is called
cabinet or cabinet oblique projection. In this module we will just call it oblique
projection, as it is the only one we will use. Less distortion occurs, and it is a
most useful method.

FIGURE 6.2
Reduced scale for receding lines to reduce distortion (Parker & Pickup, 1976:174)

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 S T U DY U N I T 6:   D r aw i n g te ch ni q u e s

FIGURE 6.3
Reduced distortion with cabinet oblique projection (Lewis & Millard, 1963:46)

•• Circles, arcs and curves in oblique drawings

See figure 6.4 below for illustrations of circles, arcs and curves in oblique
drawings.

FIGURE 6.4
Circles and curves in oblique drawings (Lewis & Millard, 1963:46)

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•• The correct positioning of an object

The object should be placed so as to give minimum distortion. As many circles

and arcs as possible should occur on the face which is parallel to the (front)
projection plane. The longest dimension should also be parallel to the projection
plane. The realistic effects of correct positioning, and the great distortion due
to the incorrect positioning, are clearly illustrated in figure 6.5.

Four worked examples of oblique projection refer to the prescribed textbook.

The figures in the prescribed book are self-explanatory, useful worked examples.

FIGURE 6.5
Correct positioning and incorrect positioning of object relative to the projection
plane (Parker & Pickup, 1976:174)

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 S T U DY U N I T 6:   D r aw i n g te ch ni q u e s

6.5 ISOMETRIC DRAWINGS

6.5.1 Definition: isometric drawing (projection)

In a mechanical engineering drawing, a pictorial view of an object (for example
a cube) would have the nearest three edges drawn at 120º to one another,
with the vertical edges drawn vertically. All three edges would thus be seen
in this one isometric view.

In first- and third-angle projection, all three edges would be seen only in
three primary views. An isometric view is not a true perspective, but has the
advantage that the measurements along the edges are true to scale (or can be
drawn to an isometric scale). We use only a true scale in this course.

6.5.2 Supplementary notes

The prescribed textbook provides an excellent introduction to this method of
projection. The figures given in these supplementary notes should be of help
to you. They form a visual summary of the important basics that you need to
know.

•• Locating the axes

–– The angles of an isometric equal measure projection are at 120° to one
another, the vertical lines remain vertical and inclined lines are at 30°
to the horizontal (figure 6.6).
–– Do you remember that in oblique projection, the vertical lines remain
vertical and the inclined lines are at 45° to the horizontal?

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FIGURE 6.6
Isometric, both at 30°; oblique, one at 45° (French & Vierck, 1975:295)

•• Isometric drawings

We will be using a natural scale (true scale) for our isometric drawings. You
do not need to use the isometric scale (81/100 of true scale) or be able to
construct such a scale (see figure 6.7).

The differences are obvious only when the figures drawn to the two scales
are placed side by side. The increased size of true scale isometric drawings
does not really matter, and in fact has the advantage of being quick and easy
to construct. Comparisons are shown in figure 6.8.

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 S T U DY U N I T 6:   D r aw i n g te ch ni q u e s

FIGURE 6.7
Comparison: Isometric scale and true scale (De Kok & Melck, 1992:63)

FIGURE 6.8
Isometric drawing illustrated by means of a cube (French & Vierck, 1975:268)

•• Isometric views of circles, arcs and curves: approximate methods for drawing
ellipses

A helpful step-by-step procedure to draw various views of circles in isometric

drawings is given in figure 6.9.

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Note that:

•• the sharp curves (smallest radii) are included in the acute (sharp) angles
and are opposite each other
•• the flat curves (largest radii) are included in the obtuse (flat) angles and are
also opposite each other

In order to find the centres of the circles, lightly draw straight lines from the
obtuse (flat) angles to the centres of the opposite sides.

The largest radii are centred on the obtuse (flat) angles. The smallest radii are
centred at the intersection of the lines which are closest to the acute (sharpest)
angles.

Thirteen worked examples of isometric projection are given in the prescribed

textbook. These examples show the stages in the construction of isometric
projections from views in first-angle and third-angle projections.

Some of the figures show how ordinates are transferred to an isometric drawing
in order to plot points on a parallel curve.

Also look at figure 6.10 in this study unit which shows a graphic summary of
isometric drawings.

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FIGURE 6.9
Step-by-step procedures to draw various views of circles in isometric drawings
(University of the Witwatersrand, 1988)

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FIGURE 6.10
Isometric drawings: Graphic summary (Lewis & Millard, 1963:45)

6.6 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING

Perspective drawing was developed because of a need to graphically represent
the real world. The method represents three-dimensional objects on two-
dimensional paper in a manner closest to how we see the objects with our eyes.

In oblique and isometric drawings (projection), the projection lines are parallel.
In perspective drawing, the projection lines are not parallel, but converge to
one, two or even three vanishing points.

We know that a roadway has parallel edges, but as it stretches out straight in
front of us on level ground, the edges don’t appear to be parallel; instead, they
seem to converge to a point on the horizon (the vanishing point).

The view of an object can be significantly changed by moving the vanishing

point to the left or right along the horizon line. Try this yourself. You need to
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 S T U DY U N I T 6:   D r aw i n g te ch ni q u e s

understand and be able to sketch and draw basic one- and two-point perspective
views of simple objects. You need to understand, remember and be able to use
the terminology. Study the relevant basic examples in the prescribed textbook,
and see how they can be applied to more complicated shapes.

A simple example of two-point perspective is given in figure 6.11.

FIGURE 6.11
Two-point perspective (Peach, 1987:25)

6.7 SKETCHING: OBLIQUE, ISOMETRIC AND SIMPLE PERSPECTIVE

DRAWINGS
•• Oblique (zero and 45° views) freehand sketching is the easiest to do. This
is because the front view shows the true shape of features. Any circles are
usually selected to be on the front face, as they remain circular. See figure
6.12 in this study unit. If a circle occurs on the oblique face, it would appear
as an ellipse.

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FIGURE 6.12
Sketching some oblique, isometric and perspective views

•• Isometric sketching is also reasonably easy to master. Lines at 30° to the

horizontal (30° being one-third of 90°) are fairly accurately obtained by
subdivision. The 30° angle may be estimated, or isometric paper may be
used.

Hint: The lines on squared paper placed beneath blank sketching paper are
sufficiently visible to assist with horizontal and vertical lines. This procedure
should not inhibit your freedom while you are sketching.

You will be required to produce only simple perspective sketches or drawings,

but you should remember the following basics.

•• Perspective sketching is a method of drawing that gives very realistic results.

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 S T U DY U N I T 6:   D r aw i n g te ch ni q u e s

–– One-point perspective is the simplest form. This method is used to draw

objects with one face at right angles to the viewer. It is used for depict-
ing the interiors of rooms and so forth. Refer to the prescribed textbook.
–– Two-point perspective is used to draw objects which are at an angle
(below, at or above eye level). The position of the vanishing point (VP)
on the horizon to the left (L), (VPL), and right (R), (VPR) determines the
appearance of the object (figure 6.11 in study unit).
–– Proportions: while sketching a solid object, regularly check the shapes
and proportions. Try squinting at a drawing, or look in a mirror, or use a
concave reduction (distance) lens. Another method is to hold a pencil at
arm’s length, shut one eye and measure relative sizes. These are sighted
from the back of the pencil to the position of the thumb. By keeping your
thumb in this position, you can count how many times this length fits into
any of the other lengths of the object (see figure 6.13 in this study unit).

Also note the importance of accurately sketching vertical lines and parallel
receding edges (see figure 6.14 in this study unit).

FIGURE 6.13
Getting the proportions right (Peach, 1987:9)

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FIGURE 6.14
Sketching of vertical lines and receding edges (French & Vierck, 1975:297)

6.8 REVISION AND SELF-EVALUATION

For additional questions for revision and assignments, refer to the workbook.

You should attempt the other exercises in the workbook. Carefully study the
sections related to the exercises. They summarise the most important aspects
already mentioned in the prescribed textbook, in this study unit and in the
figures.

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84
You must dimension all finished drawings. Refer to the previous study units
and the prescribed textbook.

Remember to first sketch the views you have selected, and to plan the layout
of your drawing. Don’t forget the projection symbol.

(1) At what angle to the horizontal is an oblique projection normally drawn?

(2) Are the inclined lines in an oblique projection drawn to ½ scale? Why?
(3) In an oblique projection would you choose the principal (front) view to
contain the most arcs and circles? Would you choose the longest side as
the principal view? Give reasons for your answers.
(4) What scale would you normally use for an isometric drawing?
(5) If you traced the shape of one face of an isometric view of a cube, would
the tracing fit exactly onto the other faces?
(6) Can you scale off correct distances along non-isometric lines?
(7) How many positions of the isometric axis are there? Can you sketch them?
(Use a rectangle as an example.)
(8) Do circles remain circular in isometric views?
(9) Sketch the four steps in approximating an ellipse when drawing circles
on isometric views.
(10) Why is perspective projection not used in engineering drawing?
(11) Are centre lines carried across continuously to other views in orthographic
projection?
(12) How are spatial curves (curves in space on the isometric faces) constructed
in isometric projection?
(13) Sketch the constructions for the three views of circles in isometric drawings
as shown in step 4 of figure 6.9 in this study unit.
(14) Sketch the isometric view of the solid (step 2) which is given as an
illustration in figure 6.9 in this study unit.

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STUDY UNIT
7 7

7 Process and instrument drawings (P&IDs)

7.1 OVERVIEW
Process and instrument drawings (P&IDs) are defined as complex diagrams
that use process symbols to describe a process unit; also called piping and
instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs).

P&IDs display the engineering details of process plant equipment, instruments,

process flow details, process control loops, piping, transmitters, controllers,
pumps, actuators, valves and fittings; their location and their arrangement.

This standard provides criteria for the development of P&IDs as well as the
criteria to assist with the set-up and use of the key items on the P&IDs symbol
library.

P&IDs show information on piping, fittings, equipment, instrumentation, and

process plant in a representative and successive arrangement on the basis
of product flow paths. The P&IDs layout do not necessarily reflect physical
arrangements. P&IDs are normally not drawn to scale.

This study unit discusses and presents the more common flow diagrams
encountered in the chemical process industry. These diagrams develop from the
time a process is considered in the laboratory through the design, construction,
and the many years of plant operation. The most important of these diagrams
are described and discussed in this study unit.

The P&IDs, based on the process flow diagram (PFD), represent the technical
realisation of a process by means of graphical symbols for equipment and
piping together with graphical symbols for process measurement and control
functions.

The utility flow diagram (UFD) is a special type of P&IDs which shows the utility
systems within a process plant presenting all lines and other means required
for the transport, distribution and collection of utilities. The process equipment
in the UFD can be represented as a box with inscription (e.g. identification
number) and with utility connections.

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 S T U DY U N I T 7:   Pr o ce ss a n d i ns t r u m e nt d r aw i n gs ( p & i ds)

7.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After studying the relevant topics in this study unit, you should be able to:

•• describe the different types of chemical process diagrams

•• describe how chemical process flow diagrams represent different scales
of process views
•• identify one consistent method for drawing chemical process flow diagrams
•• identify information that needs to be included in a chemical process flow
diagram

7.3 HOW TO READ P&IDS

Instrumentation detail varies with the degree of design complexity. For example,
conceptual or simplified designs, more often called PDFs, which present less
detail than fully developed P&IDs. Being able to understand instrumentation
symbols appearing on diagrams means understanding instrumentation symbols
and identification standard that defines how each symbol is constructed using
graphical elements, alpha and numeric identification codes, abbreviations,
function blocks, and connecting lines.

7.4 TYPES OF PROCESS DIAGRAMS

Process diagrams can be classified into two major categories: Block diagrams
(BDs), which are a form of PFDs, and P&IDs.

PFDs are simple illustrations that use process symbols to describe the primary
flow path through a unit. PFDs often provide quick snapshots of the operating
units. PFDs include all primary equipment and flows.

A technician or an operator can use this diagram to track down the primary
flow of chemicals through the unit. Minor or secondary flows are not included.
Complex control loops and instrumentations are not involved. The flow diagram
is often used for visitors’ information and new employees’ trainings.

P&IDs are more complex diagrams. The P&IDs include a graphic representations
of the equipment, piping, and instrumentations. Modern process controls can
be distinctly inserted into the drawings to provide process technicians with
a complete picture of instrument and electronic systems. Process technicians
and operators can look at their process and see how the engineering department
has automated the unit. Temperature, pressure, flow, and level control loops
are all included on the unit P&IDs.

7.5 USES AND APPLICATIONS OF P&IDS

There are many uses and applications of P&IDs in the chemical engineering
industries, some of them as mentioned below:

•• develop operational methodology

•• develop safety philosophy and design
•• develop control philosophy

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•• basis for control programming

•• communication document for project
•• serves as design basis for:
–– equipment design
–– piping design
–– estimating
–– purchasing
•• used to evaluate construction progress
•• training basis for operational personnel

7.6 BASIC INSTRUMENT SYMBOLS

Process technicians and operators commonly use P&IDs to identify all of the
equipment, instruments, and piping presented in their units. New technicians
and operators use these drawings during their initial training period. Recognizing
and knowing these symbols is important for new technicians. The chemical
processing industry has allocated a symbol for each type of instrument including
pump, valve, steam turbine, compressor, heat exchanger, cooling tower, basic
instrumentation, distillation column, reactor, furnace, and boiler (figures 7.1-7.6).
There are symbols to represent major and minor process lines and pneumatic,
hydraulic, or electric lines, and there is a wide variety of electrical symbols.

Valves

Gate valve

Needle

Four-way

Angle

Diaphragm

Manual operated valve

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 S T U DY U N I T 7:   Pr o ce ss a n d i ns t r u m e nt d r aw i n gs ( p & i ds)

Valves

Gauge

Solenoid valve closed

Hydraulic

Back pressure regulator

Pneumatic operator

Globe valve

Butterfly

Three-way valve

Ball

Check valve

Plug

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Valves

Bleeder valves

Orifice

Pneumatic operated butterfly valve

Motor

Rotameter

Relief PRV

Safety PSV

FIGURE 7.1
Process and instrument symbols of valves

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 S T U DY U N I T 7:   Pr o ce ss a n d i ns t r u m e nt d r aw i n gs ( p & i ds)

Compressors

Reciprocating compressor

Compressor & silencers

Centrifugal

Rotary compressor

Liquid ring compressor

Centrifugal compressor (turbine

driven)

FIGURE 7.2
Process and instrument symbols of compressors

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Pumps & Turbine

Centrifugal pumps

Vacuum pump

Vertical

Gear pump

Screw pump

Turbine

FIGURE 7.3
Process and instrument symbols of pumps and turbines

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Heat Exchangers

Hairpin exchanger

U-tube heat exchanger

Shell & tube heat exchanger

Single pass heat exchanger

Reboiler

Heater

Condenser

FIGURE 7.4
Process and instrument symbols of heat exchangers

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Vessels

Tank

Mixer

Mixing reactor

Drum or Condenser

Forced-draft cooling tower

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Furnace

Bin

Induced-draft cooling tower

Tower

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Tower with packing

FIGURE 7.5
Process and instrument symbols of vessels

Line Symbols

Future equipment

Major process

Minor process

Pneumatic

Hydraulic

Capillary tubing

Electromagnetic signal

Electric

FIGURE 7.6
Process and instrument symbols of lines

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7.7 DECIPHERING SYMBOLS

The International Society of Automation (ISA) defines four graphical elements
– discrete instruments, shared control/display, computer function, and
programmable logic controller – and groups them into three location categories
(primary location, auxiliary location, and field mounted).

Discrete instruments are indicated by circular elements. Shared control/display

elements are circles surrounded by a square. Computer functions are indicted
by a hexagon and programmable logic controller (PLC) functions are shown
as a triangle inside a square.

Adding a single horizontal bar across any of the four graphical elements
indicates the function resides in the primary location category. A double line
indicates an auxiliary location, and no line places the device or function in
the field. Devices located behind a panel-board in some other inaccessible
location are shown with a dashed horizontal line

To better understand the P&IDs, you need to decipher the symbols used in
the piping and instrumentation diagram.

Letter and number combinations appear inside each graphical element and
letter combinations are clarified by the ISA standard. Numbers are user-assigned
and schemes vary. While some companies use sequential numbering, others
tie the instrument number to the process line number, and still others adopt
unique and sometimes unusual numbering systems. The first letter defines the
measured or initiating variables such as Flow (F), Analysis (A), Temperature
(T), Pressure (P), etc. with following letters defining readout, passive, or output
functions such as Recorder (R), Indicator (I), Transmitter (T), etc. Figures 7.7 and
7.8 below show some piping and instrumentation diagram symbols with letters.

FIGURE 7.7
The meanings of letters and numbers in the instrumentation diagram symbols

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FIGURE 7.8
Piping and instrumentation diagram symbols with letters and numbers

Example (1) shows P&ID diagram

Referring to the example of the P&ID diagram in figure 7.9, FT 101 represents
a field-mounted flow transmitter connected via electrical signals (dotted line)
to flow indicating controller FIC 101 located in a shared control/display device.
A square root extraction of the input signal is applied as part of FIC 101’s
functionality. The output of FIC 101 is an electrical signal to TY 101 located
in an inaccessible or behind-the-panel-board location. The output signal from
TY 101 is a pneumatic signal (line with double forward slash marks) making TY
101 an I/P (current to pneumatic transducer). TT 101 and TIC 101 are similar to
FT 101 and FIC 101 but are measuring, indicating, and controlling temperature.
TIC 101’s output is connected via an internal software or data link (line with
bubbles) to the setpoint (SP) of FIC 101 to form a cascade control strategy.

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FIGURE 7.9
Example of P&ID diagram

Example (2): Look and understand the P&ID symbols in figure 7.10

(1) Main process line

(2) Process instrument piping
(3) Temperature transmitter
(4) Temperature controller
(5) Flow controller
(6) Current to pneumatic transducer
(7) Control valve
(8) Electrical signal
(9) Pneumatic signal
(10) Temperature controller DCS function
(11) Automation shut down PLC unit
(12) Solenoid valve

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FIGURE 7.10
P&ID diagram and symbols

7.8 WHAT SHOULD P&IDS INCLUDE AND NOT INCLUDE?

P&IDs are very common terms used in the world of process industries. Process
and chemical engineers in a manufacturing plant need to create new and/
or modify the already existing P&IDs to the as-is plant modifications. All the
chemical engineering and related engineering students have also learned about
them or at least heard. P&IDs are detailed graphical representations of processes
including the hardware and software (e.g. piping, equipment, instrumentation)
necessary to design, construct and operate the facilities.

P&IDs should include:

•• instrumentation and designations

•• mechanical equipment with names and numbers
•• all valves and their identifications
•• process piping, sizes and identification
•• miscellaneous–vents, drains, special fittings, sampling lines, reducers,
increasers and swagers
•• permanent start-up and flush lines

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•• flow directions
•• interconnections references
•• control inputs and outputs, interlocks
•• seismic category
•• interfaces for class changes
•• quality level
•• annunciation inputs
•• computer control system input
•• vendor and contractor interfaces
•• identification of components and subsystems delivered by others
•• intended physical sequence of the equipment
•• equipment rating or capacity

P&IDs should NOT include:

•• instrument root valves

•• control relays
•• manual switches
•• primary instrument tubing and valves
•• pressure, temperature and flow data;
•• elbow, tees and similar standard fittings
•• extensive explanatory notes

7.9 PREPARATION OF P&IDS

As the P&IDs contain a large amount of plant design information, their revision
will have a big effect on the subsequent engineering works. Accordingly for
the purpose of minimising the revisions and avoiding unnecessary works, the
steps for preparing the P&IDs shall be established. The following steps should
be taken in consideration when preparing the P&IDs. Upon the information
which can be prepared as engineering work proceeds, steps 2, 3 and 4 may
be combined or extended to more steps as required.

•• Step 1: Preparatory step for preparation of the P&IDs

•• Step 2: P&I Diagrams for engineering start
•• Step 3: P&I Diagrams for piping layout
•• Step 4: P&I Diagrams for piping drawings
•• Step 5: P&I Diagrams for construction
•• Step 6: P&I Diagrams as-built

In the case where the P&I diagrams are prepared by the licensor, only a part
of the abovementioned steps is applied and the main contractor shall be
responsible to complete the P&IDs preparation steps. The extent of licensor’s
and contractor’s scope of work will be according to the relevant contracts.

7.10 REVISION AND SELF-EVALUATION

(1) What does P&IDs stand for?
(2) Explain why it is important to understand P&IDs in the chemical process
industry.

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(3) Describe the types of process diagrams.

(4) Briefly explain the uses and applications of P&IDs.
(5) Sketch five basic instrument symbols of the following:
a. valves
b. compressors
c. pumps & turbine
d. heat exchangers
e. vessels
(6) What Should P&IDs include and NOT include?

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STUDY UNIT
8 8

8 An introduction to CAD

(Chapter 13 of the prescribed book)

8.1 OVERVIEW
This study unit is included for the sake of completeness, as CAD is now
introduced at secondary school level. It has also been included to make you
aware of the existence and usefulness of your computer screen as an electronic
drawing board.

Throughout this module, I make comments about the importance of mastering

basic skills and of understanding fundamental principles. You need to be
very familiar with SANS 10111: Part 1-1990, which is your “dictionary of the
international graphic language”. You have to be able to recognise and draw
the various types of lines (the alphabet of lines), projections, standard layouts
and dimensions, various types of sections, conventions and so on.

You must have by now realised that the ability to sketch neatly, design, measure
up and make neat NTS drawings will be very important throughout your career.

•• These skills are the foundation of engineering graphics and design.

•• In acquiring these practical and useful skills you have used manual drawing
equipment and drawing instruments. These are the tools of your trade.
•• With this sound background you are now in the best position to take
advantage of the possibilities offered by a powerful modern tool, namely
the computer, and its application to computer-aided drawing, or CAD.
•• If you have successfully completed the three-year secondary school subject
Engineering Graphics and Design, you will already have mastered the basics.

8.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES

The topics in the prescribed textbook are for reference purposes only. You
need not study them.

After studying this study unit, you should be able to:

•• compare drawing with instruments on paper with drawing using CAD

•• reproduce a typical AutoCAD user interface

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•• apply the functions of the AutoCAD menu bar, tool bars, dialogue boxes,
fly-out menus, shortcut menus, status bar and the drawing area described
in this study unit
•• describe Autodesk Inventor and remember its applications

8.3 INTRODUCTION TO CAD

This study unit is a very basic introduction to CAD. All you need to know at
this stage is included in this study unit. The associated topics in the prescribed
textbook are for reference purposes only.

The author of the prescribed textbook correctly emphasises that this is a subject
on its own. The more familiar you are with the workings of a personal computer
(PC), the easier it will be for you to acquire and apply CAD skills at a later stage.

The prescribed textbook provides an excellent background and reference to

basic computer knowledge of hardware, peripherals and software. You need
not study this reference material.

This study unit merely introduces you to CAD so that, as a student of engineering
drawing, you are not left behind.

AutoCAD is the most widely known and used CAD program. You are therefore
introduced to Autodesk AutoCAD and also Autodesk Inventor in this study
unit. Numerous specialised, fully integrated engineering packages in the
mechanical, civil, surveying, mining/geology, electrical and industrial fields
are compatible with AutoCAD.

Just read (but don’t study) the information about hardware and software in
the prescribed textbook.

If you are interested in obtaining or upgrading a PC and mastering CAD, you

should discuss the hardware requirements for an AutoCAD (student) package
with an AutoCAD specialist. Rapid developments are constantly taking place
in this field, and you need to check the current requirements for the software
package you intend using.

The prescribed textbook is a useful source of general background information.

There are many software products on the market with various applications.

8.4 AUTOCAD
MM (multimedia): See “CAD examples 1 to 26 (NB 10 and 13)” in study unit
15 in the prescribed textbook. The following information was kindly supplied
by Charmaine van Huyssteen of Coastline CAD Solutions and Autodesk Africa.

8.4.1 Introduction to AutoCAD

AutoCAD is the software that engineers use to generate working drawings
accurately and efficiently. The interface (electronic drawing board) allows the

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user easy access to the applications which are required to generate a drawing
skilfully. The software interface looks like figure 8.1 below.

FIGURE 8.1
AutoCAD: software interface

The pencil is replaced with icons and menus, which are selected with the
mouse to execute the command. An example of the AutoCAD toolbar is shown
in figure 8.2 below.

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FIGURE 8.2
Toolbar example

8.4.2 Autodesk Inventor

Autodesk Inventor is a three-dimensional (3-D) modelling software package
which uses the principles of 3-D parametric design to create production-ready
part drawings, assembly drawings and working drawings. An illustration of a
typical part drawing on the Inventor interface is shown in figure 8.3 below. A
simple mechanical application best illustrates its usage.

FIGURE 8.3
Autodesk Inventor: typical part drawing

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Once the parts have been created, they are fitted together using constraints
to generate an assembly drawing. An example of a typical assembly drawing
in Autodesk Inventor is shown in figure 8.4.

Civil engineering details are generated in a similar fashion. The program works
from a 3-D design to the production of 2-D orthographic projection drawings.

FIGURE 8.4
Autodesk Inventor: assembly drawing

Once the parts have been drawn and assembled, the software will assist you
in generating the working drawings of the components. Figure 8.5 below is
an example of a working drawing generated from an Autodesk Inventor part
drawing.

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FIGURE 8.5
Autodesk Inventor: working drawing from a part drawing

8.5 REVISION AND SELF-EVALUATION

For additional questions for revision and assignments, refer to the workbook.

(1) What does CAD stand for?

(2) What are the differences and similarities between drawing with instruments
on paper and drawing using CAD?
(3) What is the name of the most widely known and used CAD software
program?
(4) Make a neat NTS drawing (sketch) of a typical AutoCAD interface.
(5) What types of drawing are you able to generate accurately and efficiently
with AutoCAD?
(6) What is the electronic drawing board called?
(7) List nine main elements on an AutoCAD interface.
(8) What replaces a pencil in CAD?
(9) What is Autodesk Inventor? What principles are used in its application?
What can be created using it?
(10) Can a working drawing be generated from a part drawing using Autodesk
Inventor?
(11) Can hard copies (plans on paper) be generated with CAD for use in
meetings, on site and in the workshop?

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