Wireless Communications

and Networks

William Stallings
Chapter 2: Transmission
Fundamentals
◼ Basic overview of transmission topics
◼ Data communications concepts
◼ Includes techniques of analog and digital data
transmission
◼ Channel capacity
◼ Transmission media
◼ Multiplexing
Transmission Fundamentals

Chapter 2
Time-Domain Concepts
◼ Analog signal - signal intensity varies in a smooth
fashion over time
◼ No breaks or discontinuities in the signal
◼ Digital signal - signal intensity maintains a
constant level for some period of time and then
changes to another constant level
◼ Periodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern
that repeats over time
◼ s(t +T ) = s(t ) -¥< t < +¥
◼ where T is the period of the signal
Time-Domain Concepts
◼ Aperiodic signal - analog or digital signal
pattern that doesn't repeat over time
◼ Peak amplitude (A) - maximum value or
strength of the signal over time; typically
measured in volts
◼ Frequency (f )
◼ Rate, in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz) at
which the signal repeats
Time-Domain Concepts
◼ Period (T ) - amount of time it takes for one
repetition of the signal
◼ T = 1/f
◼ Phase () - measure of the relative position in time
within a single period of a signal
◼ Wavelength () - distance occupied by a single
cycle of the signal
◼ Or, the distance between two points of corresponding
phase of two consecutive cycles
Sine Wave Parameters
◼ General sine wave
◼ s(t ) = A sin(2ft + )
◼ Figure 2.3 shows the effect of varying each of the
three parameters
◼ (a) A = 1, f = 1 Hz,  = 0; thus T = 1s
◼ (b) Reduced peak amplitude; A=0.5
◼ (c) Increased frequency; f = 2, thus T = ½
◼ (d) Phase shift;  = /4 radians (45 degrees)
◼ note: 2 radians = 360° = 1 period
Sine Wave Parameters
Frequency-Domain Concepts
◼ Fundamental frequency - when all frequency
components of a signal are integer multiples of
one frequency, it’s referred to as the fundamental
frequency
◼ Spectrum - range of frequencies that a signal
contains
◼ Absolute bandwidth - width of the spectrum of a
signal
◼ Effective bandwidth (or just bandwidth) - narrow
band of frequencies that most of the signal’s
energy is contained in
Frequency-Domain Concepts
◼ Any electromagnetic signal can be shown to
consist of a collection of periodic analog
signals (sine waves) at different amplitudes,
frequencies, and phases
◼ The period of the total signal is equal to the
period of the fundamental frequency
Relationship between Data Rate
and Bandwidth
◼ The greater the bandwidth, the higher the
information-carrying capacity
◼ Conclusions
◼ Any digital waveform will have infinite bandwidth
◼ BUT the transmission system will limit the bandwidth
that can be transmitted
◼ AND, for any given medium, the greater the bandwidth
transmitted, the greater the cost
◼ HOWEVER, limiting the bandwidth creates distortions
Data Communication Terms
◼ Data - entities that convey meaning, or
information
◼ Signals - electric or electromagnetic
representations of data
◼ Transmission - communication of data by
the propagation and processing of signals
Examples of Analog and Digital
Data
◼ Analog
◼ Video
◼ Audio
◼ Digital
◼ Text
◼ Integers
Analog Signals
◼ A continuously varying electromagnetic wave that
may be propagated over a variety of media,
depending on frequency
◼ Examples of media:
◼ Copper wire media (twisted pair and coaxial cable)
◼ Fiber optic cable
◼ Atmosphere or space propagation
◼ Analog signals can propagate analog and digital
data
Digital Signals
◼ A sequence of voltage pulses that may be
transmitted over a copper wire medium
◼ Generally cheaper than analog signaling
◼ Less susceptible to noise interference
◼ Suffer more from attenuation
◼ Digital signals can propagate analog and
digital data
Analog Signaling
Digital Signaling
Difference
Difference
Reasons for Choosing Data and
Signal Combinations
◼ Digital data, digital signal
◼ Equipment for encoding is less expensive than digital-
to-analog equipment
◼ Analog data, digital signal
◼ Conversion permits use of modern digital transmission
and switching equipment
◼ Digital data, analog signal
◼ Some transmission media will only propagate analog
signals
◼ Examples include optical fiber and satellite
◼ Analog data, analog signal
◼ Analog data easily converted to analog signal
Analog Transmission
◼ Transmit analog signals without regard to
content
◼ Attenuation limits length of transmission
link
◼ Cascaded amplifiers boost signal’s energy
for longer distances but cause distortion
◼ Introduces errors in digital data
Digital Transmission
◼ Concerned with the content of the signal
◼ Attenuation endangers integrity of data
◼ Digital Signal
◼ Repeaters achieve greater distance
◼ Repeaters recover the signal and retransmit
◼ Analog signal carrying digital data
◼ Retransmission device recovers the digital data from
analog signal
◼ Generates new, clean analog signal
About Channel Capacity
◼ Impairments, such as noise, limit data rate
that can be achieved
◼ For digital data, to what extent do
impairments limit data rate?
◼ Channel Capacity – the maximum rate at
which data can be transmitted over a given
communication path, or channel, under
given conditions
Concepts Related to Channel
Capacity
◼ Data rate - rate at which data can be
communicated (bps)
◼ Bandwidth - the bandwidth of the transmitted
signal as constrained by the transmitter and the
nature of the transmission medium (Hertz)
◼ Noise - average level of noise over the
communications path
◼ Error rate - rate at which errors occur
◼ Error = transmit 1 and receive 0;
transmit 0 and receive 1
Nyquist Bandwidth
◼ For binary signals (two voltage levels)
◼ C = 2B
◼ With multilevel signaling
◼ C = 2B log2 M
◼ M = number of discrete signal or voltage levels
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
◼ Ratio of the power in a signal to the power
contained in the noise that’s present at a particular
point in the transmission
◼ Typically measured at a receiver
◼ Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR, or S/N)
signal
power
(
SNR
)
dB=
10
log
10
noise
power
◼ A high SNR means a high-quality signal, low
number of required intermediate repeaters
◼ SNR sets upper bound on achievable data rate
Shannon Capacity Formula
◼ Equation:
C=B (1
log
2 + )
SNR
◼ Represents theoretical maximum that can be
achieved
◼ In practice, only much lower rates achieved
◼ Formula assumes white noise (thermal noise)
◼ Impulse noise is not accounted for
◼ Attenuation distortion or delay distortion not accounted
for
Example of Nyquist and Shannon
Formulations
◼ Spectrum of a channel between 3 MHz and
4 MHz ; SNRdB = 24 dB
=
B4 −
MHz
3 =
MHz
1
MHz
=
SNR
dB24=
dB10 (
log )
SNR
10

=
SNR
251
◼ Using Shannon’s formula

=
C
10 (+
log
1
2 )

6
251
=
10
88
Mb 6
Example of Nyquist and Shannon
Formulations
◼ How many signaling levels are required?

C=2Blog
2M
6
( )
810=210log
2M
6

4=log
2M

M=16
Classifications of Transmission
Media
◼ Transmission Medium
◼ Physical path between transmitter and receiver
◼ Guided Media
◼ Waves are guided along a solid medium
◼ E.g., copper twisted pair, copper coaxial cable, optical
fiber
◼ Unguided Media
◼ Provides means of transmission but does not guide
electromagnetic signals
◼ Usually referred to as wireless transmission
◼ E.g., atmosphere, outer space
Unguided Media
◼ Transmission and reception are achieved by
means of an antenna
◼ Configurations for wireless transmission
◼ Directional
◼ Omnidirectional
General Frequency Ranges
◼ Microwave frequency range
◼ 1 GHz to 40 GHz
◼ Directional beams possible
◼ Suitable for point-to-point transmission
◼ Used for satellite communications
◼ Radio frequency range
◼ 30 MHz to 1 GHz
◼ Suitable for omnidirectional applications
◼ Infrared frequency range
◼ Roughly, 3x1011 to 2x1014 Hz
◼ Useful in local point-to-point multipoint applications
within confined areas
Terrestrial Microwave
◼ Description of common microwave antenna
◼ Parabolic "dish", 3 m in diameter
◼ Fixed rigidly and focuses a narrow beam
◼ Achieves line-of-sight transmission to receiving
antenna
◼ Located at substantial heights above ground level
◼ Applications
◼ Long haul telecommunications service
◼ Short point-to-point links between buildings
Satellite Microwave
◼ Description of communication satellite
◼ Microwave relay station
◼ Used to link two or more ground-based microwave
transmitter/receivers
◼ Receives transmissions on one frequency band (uplink),
amplifies or repeats the signal, and transmits it on
another frequency (downlink)
◼ Applications
◼ Television distribution
◼ Long-distance telephone transmission
◼ Private business networks
Broadcast Radio
◼ Description of broadcast radio antennas
◼ Omnidirectional
◼ Antennas not required to be dish-shaped
◼ Antennas need not be rigidly mounted to a precise
alignment
◼ Applications
◼ Broadcast radio
◼ VHF and part of the UHF band; 30 MHZ to 1GHz
◼ Covers FM radio and UHF and VHF television
Multiplexing
◼ Capacity of transmission medium usually
exceeds capacity required for transmission
of a single signal
◼ Multiplexing - carrying multiple signals on
a single medium
◼ More efficient use of transmission medium
Multiplexing
Multiplexing Techniques
◼ Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
◼ Takes advantage of the fact that the useful
bandwidth of the medium exceeds the required
bandwidth of a given signal
◼ Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
◼ Takes advantage of the fact that the achievable
bit rate of the medium exceeds the required data
rate of a digital signal
Frequency-division Multiplexing
Time-division Multiplexing