Wireless Communications

and Networks

William Stallings
Spread Spectrum

Chapter 5
Spread Spectrum
◼ Input is fed into a channel encoder
◼ Produces analog signal with narrow bandwidth
◼ Signal is further modulated using sequence of digits
◼ Spreading code or spreading sequence
◼ Generated by pseudonoise, or pseudo-random number generator
◼ Effect of modulation is to increase bandwidth of signal to
be transmitted
◼ Spread spectrum is a form of wireless communications in which
the frequency of the transmitted signal is deliberately varied. This
results in a much greater bandwidth than the signal would have if its
frequency were not varied.
Spread Spectrum
◼ On receiving end, digit sequence is used to
demodulate the spread spectrum signal
◼ Signal is fed into a channel decoder to recover
data
Spread Spectrum
Spread Spectrum
◼ What can be gained from apparent waste of
spectrum?
◼ Immunity from various kinds of noise and
multipath distortion
◼ Can be used for hiding and encrypting signals
◼ Several users can independently use the same
higher bandwidth with very little interference
Types of Spread Spectrum
◼ Frequency hopping (FHSS)
◼ Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
➢ Code division multiple access (CDMA)
Frequency Hoping Spread
Spectrum (FHSS)
◼ Signal is broadcast over seemingly random series
of radio frequencies
◼ A number of channels allocated for the FH signal
◼ Width of each channel corresponds to bandwidth of
input signal
◼ Signal hops from frequency to frequency at fixed
intervals
◼ Transmitter operates in one channel at a time
◼ Bits are transmitted using some encoding scheme
◼ At each successive interval, a new carrier frequency is
selected
Frequency Hoping Spread
Spectrum
◼ Channel sequence dictated by spreading code
◼ Receiver, hopping between frequencies in
synchronization with transmitter, picks up
message
◼ Advantages
◼ Eavesdroppers hear only meaningless contents
◼ Attempts to jam signal on one frequency succeed
Frequency Hoping Spread
Spectrum
FHSS Using MFSK
◼ MFSK signal is translated to a new frequency
every Tb seconds by modulating the MFSK signal
with the FHSS carrier signal
◼ For data rate of R:
◼ duration of a bit: T = 1/R seconds
◼ duration of signal element: Tb = LT seconds
◼ Td  Tb - slow-frequency-hop spread spectrum
◼ Td < Tb - fast-frequency-hop spread spectrum
FHSS Using MFSK
Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum (DSSS)
◼ Each bit in original signal is represented by
multiple bits in the transmitted signal
◼ Spreading code spreads signal across a wider
frequency band
◼ Spread is in direct proportion to number of bits used
◼ One technique combines digital information
stream with the spreading code bit stream using
exclusive-OR (Figure 7.6)
Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum (DSSS)
DSSS Using BPSK
◼ Multiply BPSK signal,
sd(t) = A d(t) cos(2 fct)
by c(t) [takes values +1, -1] to get
s(t) = A d(t)c(t) cos(2 fct)
◼ A = amplitude of signal
◼ fc = carrier frequency
◼ d(t) = discrete function [+1, -1]
◼ At receiver, incoming signal multiplied by c(t)
◼ Since, c(t) x c(t) = 1, incoming signal is recovered
DSSS Using BPSK
Code-Division Multiple Access
(CDMA)
◼ Basic Principles of CDMA
◼ D = rate of data signal
◼ Break each bit into k chips
◼ Chips are a user-specific fixed pattern
◼ Chip data rate of new channel = kD
CDMA Example
◼ If k=6 and code is a sequence of 1s and -1s
◼ For a ‘1’ bit, A sends code as chip pattern
◼ <c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6>
◼ For a ‘0’ bit, A sends complement of code
◼ <-c1, -c2, -c3, -c4, -c5, -c6>
◼ Receiver knows sender’s code and performs
electronic decode function
(
S
d
u)
=
d
1+
c
1
d
2+
c
2
d
3+
c
3
d
4+
c
4
d
5+
c
5
d
6c
6
◼ <d1, d2, d3, d4, d5, d6> = received chip pattern
◼ <c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6> = sender’s code
CDMA Example
◼ User A code = <1, –1, –1, 1, –1, 1>
◼ To send a 1 bit = <1, –1, –1, 1, –1, 1>
◼ To send a 0 bit = <–1, 1, 1, –1, 1, –1>
◼ User B code = <1, 1, –1, – 1, 1, 1>
◼ To send a 1 bit = <1, 1, –1, –1, 1, 1>
◼ Receiver receiving with A’s code
◼ (A’s code) x (received chip pattern)
◼ User A ‘1’ bit: 6 -> 1
◼ User A ‘0’ bit: -6 -> 0
◼ User B ‘1’ bit: 0 -> unwanted signal ignored
CDMA for Direct Sequence
Spread Spectrum
Categories of Spreading
Sequences
◼ Spreading Sequence Categories
◼ PN sequences
◼ Orthogonal codes
◼ For FHSS systems
◼ PN sequences most common
◼ For DSSS systems not employing CDMA
◼ PN sequences most common
◼ For DSSS CDMA systems
◼ PN sequences
◼ Orthogonal codes
PN Sequences
◼ PN generator produces periodic sequence that
appears to be random
◼ PN Sequences
◼ Generated by an algorithm using initial seed
◼ Sequence isn’t statistically random but will pass many
test of randomness
◼ Sequences referred to as pseudorandom numbers or
pseudo-noise sequences
◼ Even algorithm and seed are known, the sequence is
impossible to predict
Orthogonal Codes
◼ Orthogonal codes
◼ Fixed- and variable-length codes used in CDMA
systems
◼ For CDMA application, each mobile user uses one
sequence in the set as a spreading code
◼ Types
◼ Welsh codes
◼ Variable-Length Orthogonal codes
Walsh Codes
◼ Set of Walsh codes of length n consists of the n
rows of an n x n Walsh matrix:
Wn Wn
◼ W1 = (0) W
2n=
W W
2


 n n

◼ n = dimension of the matrix