Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Evolution of Low-Rate Wireless Personal Area Network (LR-WPAN)

Standardization.

The cellular network was a natural extension of the wired telephony network that
became persistent during the mid-20th century. As the need for mobility and the cost of laying
new wires increased, the motivation for a personal connection independent of location to that
network also increased. Coverage of large area is provided through (1-2km) cells that co-operate
with their neighbors to create a seamless network. Cellular standards basically aimed at
facilitating voice communications throughout a metropolitan area. During the mid-1980s, it
turned out that an even smaller coverage area is needed for higher user densities and the
emergent data traffic.

The IEEE 802.11 working group for Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) is
formed, to create a wireless local area network standard. Whereas IEEE 802.11 was concerned
with features such as Ethernet matching speed, long range(100m), complexity to handle seamless
roaming, message forwarding, and data throughput of 2-11Mbps. Wireless personal area
networks (WPANs) are used to convey information over relatively short distances. WPANs are
focused on a space around a person or object that typically extends up to 10m in all directions.

The focus of WPANs is low-cost, low power, short range and very small size.
The IEEE 802.15 working group is formed to create WPAN standard. This group has currently
defined three classes of WPANs that are differentiated by data rate, battery drain and quality of
service (QoS).
 The high data rate WPAN (IEEE 802.15.3) is suitable for multi-media applications that
require very high quality of services.
 Medium rate WPANs (IEEE 802.15.1/Bluetooth) will handle a variety of tasks ranging from
cell phones to PDA communications and have QoS suitable for voice communications.

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 The low rate WPANs (IEEE 802.15.4/LR-WPAN) is intended to serve a set of industrial,
residential and medical applications with very low power consumption, with relaxed needs
for data rate and QoS. The low data rate enables the LR-WPAN to consume very little power.
This feature allows small, power-efficient, inexpensive solutions to be implemented for a
wide range of devices.

1.2 Zigbee and IEEE 802.15.4.

The IEEE 802.15.4 standard is a simple packet data protocol for lightweight
wireless networks and specifies the Physical (PHY) and Medium Access Control (MAC) layers
for Multiple Radio Frequency (RF) bands, including 868 MHz, 915 MHz, and 2.4 GHz. The
IEEE 802.15.4 standard is designed to provide reliable data transmission of modest amounts of
data up to 100 meters or more while consuming very little power. IEEE 802.15.4 is typically less
than 32 kb in size, featuring a 64-bit address space, source and destination addressing, error
detection, and advanced power management.

ZigBee technology takes full advantage of the IEEE 802.15.4 standard and
extends the capabilities of this new radio standard by defining a flexible and secure network
layer that supports a variety of architectures to provide highly reliable wireless communication.
ZigBee technology also offers simplicity and a cost-effective approach to building, construction
and remodeling with wireless technology. ZigBee is all set to provide the consumers with
ultimate flexibility, mobility, and ease of use by building wireless intelligence and capabilities
into every day devices.

ZigBee is expected to provide low cost and low power connectivity for
equipment that needs battery life as long as several months to several years but does not require
data transfer rates as high as those enabled by Bluetooth. This kind of network eliminates use of
physical data buses like USB and Ethernet cables. The devices could include telephones, hand-
held digital assistants, sensors and controls located within a few meters of each other. Thus,
ZigBee technology is a low data rate, low power consumption, low cost; wireless networking
protocol targeted towards automation and remote control applications.

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1.2.1 ZigBee Alliance

The ZigBee Alliance is an association of companies working together to enable

reliable, cost-effective, low-power, wirelessly networked, monitoring and control products based
on an open global standard. The goal of the ZigBee Alliance is to provide the consumer with
ultimate flexibility, mobility, and ease of use by building wireless intelligence and capabilities
into every day devices. ZigBee technology will be embedded in a wide range of products and
applications across consumer, commercial, industrial and government markets worldwide. For
the first time, companies will have a standards-based wireless platform optimized for the unique
needs of remote monitoring and control applications, including simplicity, reliability, low-cost
and low-power.

1.2.2 Why is it called Zigbee?

It has been suggested that the name evokes the haphazard paths that bees follow
as they harvest pollen, similar to the way packets would move through a mesh network. Using
communication system, whereby the bee dances in a zig-zag pattern, worker bee is able to share
information such as the location, distance, And direction of a newly discovered food source to
her fellow colony members. Instinctively implementing the ZigBee Principle, bees around the
world actively sustain productive itchiness and promote future generations of Colony members.

Figure 1.1 ZigBee module.

The €1 coin, shown for size reference, is about 23 mm (0.9 inch) in diameter.

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 Chapter 2
IEEE 802.15.4 WPAN
2.1 General description

A LR-WPAN is a simple, low-cost communication network that allows wireless

connectivity in applications with limited power and relaxed throughput requirements. The main
objectives of an LR-WPAN are ease of installation, reliable data transfer, short range operation,
extremely low cost, and a reasonable battery life, while maintaining a simple and flexible
protocol.

The three license-free frequencies of the IEEE 802.15.4 standard include sixteen
channels at 2.4 GHz, ten channels at 915 MHz, and one channel at 868 MHz, to support global or
regional deployment. The maximum data rates for each band are 250 kbps, 40 kbps and 20 kbps,
respectively. The air interface is direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) using binary phase
shift keying (BPSK) for 868 MHz and 915 MHz and offset-quadrature phase shift keying
(OQPSK) for 2.4 GHz.

Other features of the IEEE 802.15.4 PHY include receiver energy detection, link
quality indication and clear channel assessment. Both contention-based and contention-free
channel access methods are supported. Maximum packet size is 128 bytes, including a variable
payload of up to 104 bytes. IEEE 802.15.4 employs 64-bit IEEE and 16-bit short addresses,
which supports over 65,000 nodes per network.

The IEEE 802.15.4 MAC also enables network association and disassociation, has
an optional super frame structure with beacons for time synchronization, and a guaranteed time
slot (GTS) mechanism for high priority communications. The access method is carrier sense
multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA-CA). Network routing schemes are designed to
ensure power conservation, and low latency through guaranteed time slots. A unique feature of
ZigBee network layer is communication redundancy eliminating “single point of failure” in mesh
networks.

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 IEEE and ZigBee Alliance have been working closely to specify the entire
protocol stack. IEEE 802.15.4 focuses on the specification of the lower two layers of the protocol
(physical and data link layer). On the other hand, ZigBee Alliance aims to provide the upper
layers of the protocol stack (from network to the application layer) for interoperable data
networking, security services and a range of wireless home and building control solutions.

2.2 Zigbee characteristics

The focus of network applications under the IEEE 802.15.4 / ZigBee standard
include the features of low power consumption, needed for only two major modes (Tx/Rx or
Sleep), high density of nodes per network, low costs and simple implementation. These features
are enabled by the following characteristics
 2.4GHz and 868/915 MHz dual PHY modes.
 This represents three license-free bands: 2.4-2.4835 GHz, 868-870 MHz and 902- 928 MHz.
The number of channels allotted to each frequency band is fixed at 16 channels in the 2.45
GHz band, 10 channels in the 915 MHz band, and 1 channel in the 868 MHz band
 Maximum data rates allowed for each of these frequency bands are fixed as 250 kbps @2.4
GHz, 40 kbps @ 915 MHz, and 20 kbps @868 MHz.
 Allocated 16 bit short or 64 bit extended addresses.
 Allocation of guaranteed time slots (GTSs).
 Carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA-CA) channel access yields
high throughput and low latency for low duty cycle devices like sensors and controls.
 Fully “hand-shake” acknowledged protocol for transfer reliability.
 Low power consumption with battery life ranging from months to years.
 Energy detection (ED).
 Link quality indication (LQI).
 Multiple topologies: star, peer-to-peer, mesh topologies.

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2.3 Device Types

ZigBee devices are required to conform to the IEEE 802.15.4-2003 Low-Rate

Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) standard. ZigBee wireless devices are expected to
transmit 10-75 meters, depending on the RF environment and the power output consumption
required for a given application, and will operate in the unlicensed RF worldwide (2.4GHz
global, 915MHz Americas or 868 MHz Europe). The data rate is 250kbps at 2.4GHz, 40kbps at
915MHz and 20kbps at 868MHz.

There are three different ZigBee device types that operate on these layers in any
self organizing application network. These devices have 64-bit IEEE addresses, with option to
enable shorter addresses to reduce packet size, and work in either of two addressing modes – star
and peer-to-peer.

 The ZigBee (PAN) coordinator node: The most capable device, the coordinator
forms the root of the network tree and might bridge to other networks. It is able to store
information about the network.There is one, and only one, ZigBee coordinator in each
network to act as the router to other network. It also acts as the repository for security keys.

 The Full Function Device (FFD): The FFD is an intermediary router transmitting
data from other devices. It needs lesser memory than the ZigBee coordinator node, and
entails lesser manufacturing costs. It can operate in all topologies and can act as a
coordinator.

 The Reduced Function Device (RFD): This device is just capable of talking in the
network; it cannot relay data from other devices. Requiring even less memory, (no flash, very
little ROM and RAM), an RFD will thus be cheaper than an FFD. This device talks only to a
network coordinator and can be implemented very simply in star topology. An FFD can talk
to RFDs or other FFDs, while an RFD can talk only to an FFD. An RFD is intended for
applications that are extremely simple, such as a light switch or a passive infrared sensor;

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 they do not have the need to send large amounts of data and may only associate with a single
FFD at a time. Consequently, the RFD can be implemented using minimal resources and
memory capacity.

2.4 Network Topologies

Figure 2.1 shows 3 types of topologies that ZigBee supports: star topology, peer-
to-peer topology and cluster tree.

2.4.1 Star Topology

In the star topology, the communication is established between devices and a
single central controller, called the PAN coordinator. The PAN coordinator may be mains
powered while the devices will most likely be battery powered. Applications that benefit from
this topology include home automation, personal computer (PC) peripherals, toys and games.
After an FFD is activated for the first time, it may establish its own network and become the
PAN coordinator. Each start network chooses a PAN identifier, which is not currently used by
any other network within the radio sphere of influence. This allows each star network to operate
independently.
Star Topology Network

Reduced function device (sensor,controller , actuator,etc).

PAN Controller

Fig: 2.1 star topology

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2.4.2 Peer-to-peer Topology

In peer-to-peer topology, there is also one PAN coordinator. In contrast to star

topology, any device can communicate with any other device as long as they are in range of one
another. A peer-to-peer network can be ad hoc, self-organizing and self-healing. Applications
such as industrial control and monitoring, wireless sensor networks, asset and inventory tracking
would benefit from such a topology. It also allows multiple hops to route messages from any
device to any other device in the network. It can provide reliability by multipath routing.

Figure 2.2 Peer to peer topology

2.4.3 Cluster-tree Topology

Cluster-tree network is a special case of a peer-to-peer network in which most

devices are FFDs and an RFD may connect to a cluster-tree network as a leave node at the end of
a branch. Any of the FFD can act as a coordinator and provide synchronization services to other
devices and coordinators. Only one of these coordinators however is the PAN coordinator. The
PAN coordinator forms the first cluster by establishing itself as the cluster head (CLH) with a
cluster identifier (CID) of zero, choosing an unused PAN identifier, and broadcasting beacon
frames to neighboring devices.

A candidate device receiving a beacon frame may request to join the network at
the CLH. If the PAN coordinator permits the device to join, it will add this new device as a child
device in its neighbor list. The newly joined device will add the CLH as its parent in its neighbor
list and begin transmitting periodic beacons such that other candidate devices may then join the
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network at that device. Once application or network requirements are met, the PAN coordinator
may instruct a device to become the CLH of a new cluster adjacent to the first one. The
advantage of this clustered structure is the increased coverage area at the cost of increased
message latency.

Figure 2.3 cluster network

2.4.4 Mesh Topology

The structure of the Mesh topology is similar to that of the Tree topology, with
the Co-ordinator at the top of a tree-like structure:

 The coordinator is linked to a set of Routers and End Devices - its children.

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  A Router may then be linked to more Routers and End Devices - its children. This can
continue to a number of levels.

However, the communication rules are more flexible in that Router nodes within range of each
other can communicate directly.

Figure 2.4 Mesh network

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2.5 Architecture

The LR-WPAN architecture is defined in terms of a number of blocks in order to

simplify the standard. These blocks are called layers. Each layer is responsible for one part of the
standard and offers services to the higher layers. The layout of the blocks is based on the open
systems interconnection (OSI) seven-layer model. The interfaces between the layers serve to
define the logical links between layers. The LR-WPAN architecture can be implemented either
as embedded devices or as devices requiring the support of an external device such as a PC.

An LR-WPAN device comprises a PHY, which contains the radio frequency (RF)
transceiver along with its low-level control mechanism, and a MAC sub layer that provides
access to the physical channel for all types of transfer.

Figure 2.5 802.15.4 / ZIGBEE ARCHITECTURE

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2.5.1 Network and Application Support layer:

The network layer permits growth of network sans high power transmitters. This
layer can handle huge numbers of nodes. This level in the ZigBee architecture includes
 The ZigBee Device Object (ZDO).
 User-Defined Application Profile(s)
 The Application Support (APS) Sub-layer.

The APS sub-layer's responsibilities include maintenance of tables that enable

matching between two devices and communication among them, and also discovery, the aspect
that identifies other devices that operate in the operating space of any device. The responsibility
of determining the nature of the device (Coordinator / FFD or RFD) in the network, commencing
and replying to binding requests and ensuring a secure relationship between devices rests with
the ZDO (Zigbee Define Object). The user defined application refers to the end device that
conforms to the ZigBee Standard.

2.5.2 Physical (PHY) layer:

The PHY service enables the transmission and reception of PHY protocol data
units (PPDU) across the physical radio channel. The features of the IEEE 802.15.4 PHY physical
layer are Activation and deactivation of the radio transceiver, energy detection (ED), Link
quality indication (LQI), channel selection, clear channel assessment (CCA) and transmitting as
well as receiving packets across the physical medium.

2.5.3 Media access control (MAC) layer:

The MAC service enables the transmission and reception of MAC protocol data
units (MPDU) across the PHY data service. The features of MAC sub layer are beacon
management, channel access, GTS management, frame validation, acknowledged frame delivery,
association and disassociation.

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 Chapter 3
IEEE 802.15.4 PHY
The PHY provides an interface between the MAC sub layer and the physical radio
channel, via the RF firmware and RF hardware. The PHY conceptually includes a management
entity called the PLME. This entity provides the layer management service interfaces through
which layer management functions may be invoked. The PLME is also responsible for
maintaining a database of managed objects pertaining to the PHY. This database is referred to as
the PHY PAN Information base (PIB).

Figure 3.1 Phy Layer Reference Model

The PHY provides two services, accessed through two SAPs:

The PHY data service accessed through the PHY Data SAP (PD-SAP). The PHY data
service enables the transmission and reception of PHY protocol data units (PPDUs) across the
physical radio channel.

The PHY management service accessed through the PLME’s SAP (PLMESAP).
The features of the PHY are activation and deactivation of the radio transceiver, energy

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detection(ED), link quality indication (LQI), channel selection, clear channel assessment (CCA)
and transmitting as well as receiving packets across the physical medium. The standard offers
two PHY options based on the frequency band. Both are based on direct sequence spread
spectrum (DSSS). The data rate is 250kbps at 2.4GHz, 40kbps at 915MHz and 20kbps at
868MHz. The higher data rate at 2.4GHz is attributed to a higher order modulation scheme.
Lower frequency provides longer range due to lower propagation losses. Low rate can be
translated into better sensitivity and larger coverage area. Higher rate means higher throughput,
lower latency or lower duty cycle. This information is summarized in Figure 3.2.

Table 3.1 Frequency Bands and Data Rates

There is a single channel between 868 and 868.6MHz, 10 channels between 902.0
and 928.0MHz, and 16 channels between 2.4 and 2.4835GHz as shown in Figure 3.3. Several
channels in different frequency bands enable the ability to relocate within spectrum. The
standard also allows dynamic channel selection, a scan function that steps through a list of
supported channels in search of beacon, receiver energy detection, link quality indication,
channel switching.

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 Figure 3.2 Operating Frequency Bands

3.1 Receiver Energy Detection (ED)

The receiver energy detection (ED) measurement is intended for use by a network
layer as part of channel selection algorithm. It is an estimate of the received signal power within
the bandwidth of an IEEE 802.15.4 channel. No attempt is made to identify or decode signals on
the channel. The ED time should be equal to 8 symbol periods. The ED result shall be reported
as an 8-bit integer ranging from 0x00 to 0xff. The minimum ED value (0) shall indicate received
power less than 10dB above the specified receiver sensitivity. The range of received power
spanned by the ED values shall be at least 40dB. Within this range, the mapping from the
received power in decibels to ED values shall be linear with an accuracy of + or − 6dB.

3.2 Link Quality Indication (LQI)

Upon reception of a packet, the PHY sends the PSDU length, PSDU itself and
link quality (LQ) in the PD-DATA Indication primitive. The LQI measurement is a
characterization of the strength and/or quality of a received packet. The measurement may be
implemented using receiver ED, a signal-to-noise estimation or a combination of these methods.
The use of LQI result is up to the network or application layers. The LQI result should be
reported as an integer ranging from 0x00 to 0xff. The minimum and maximum LQI values

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should be associated with the lowest and highest quality IEEE 802.15.4 signals detectable by the
receiver and LQ values should be uniformly distributed between these two limits.

3.3 Clear Channel Assessment (CCA)

The clear channel assessment (CCA) is performed according to at least one of the
following three methods:
 Energy above threshold. CCA shall report a busy medium upon detecting any energy above
the ED threshold.· Carrier sense only. CCA shall report a busy medium only upon the
detection of a signal with the modulation and spreading characteristics of IEEE 802.15.4.
This signal may be above or below the ED threshold.
 Carrier sense with energy above threshold. CCA shall report a busy medium only upon the
detection of a signal with the modulation and spreading characteristics of IEEE 802.15.4 with
energy above the ED threshold.

3.4 PPDU Format

The PPDU packet structure is illustrated in Figure 3.4. Each PPDU packet
consists of the following basic components:
 SHR, which allows a receiving device to synchronize and lock into the bit stream
 PHR, which contains frame length information
 A variable length payload, which carries the MAC sublayer frame.

Figure 3.4 Format of the PPDU

Chapter 4
16
 IEEE 802.15.4 MAC

Figure 4.1 MAC sub layer reference model

Figure 4.1 depicts the components and interfaces of the MAC sub layer.
The MAC sub layer provides an interface between the SSCS and the PHY. The
MAC sub layer conceptually includes a management entity called the MLME. This entity
provides the service interfaces through which layer management functions may be invoked. The
MLME is also responsible for maintaining a database of managed objects pertaining to the MAC
sub layer. This database is referred to as the MAC sub layer PIB.The MAC sub layer provides
two services:
 The MAC data service and The MAC management service interfacing to the MAC sub
layer management entity (MLME) service access point (SAP) (MLMESAP).
 The MAC data service enables the transmission and reception of MAC protocol data
units (MPDU) across the PHY data service.

The features of MAC sub layer are beacon management, channel access, GTS
management, frame validation, acknowledged frame delivery, association and disassociation.
4.1 Super frame Structure

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 LR-WPAN allows the optional use of a super frame structure. The format of the
super frame is defined by the coordinator. The super frame is bounded by network beacons and
is divided into 16 equally sized slots. The beacon frame is sent in the first slot of each super
frame. If a coordinator does not want to use the super frame structure, it may turn off the beacon
transmissions. The beacons are used to synchronize the attached devices, to identify the PAN and
to describe the structure of super frames.

The super frame can have an active and an inactive portion. During the inactive
portion, the coordinator shall not interact with its PAN and may enter a low-power mode. The
active portion consists of contention access period (CAP) and contention free period (CFP). Any
device wishing to communicate during the CAP shall compete with other devices using a slotted
CSMACA mechanism. On the other hand, the CFP contains guaranteed time slots (GTSs). The
GTSs always appear at the end of the active super frame starting at a slot boundary immediately
following the CAP. The PAN coordinator may allocate up to seven of these GTSs and a GTS can
occupy more than one slot period.

Figure 4.2 super frame structure

4.2 CSMA-CA Algorithm

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 If superframe structure is used in the PAN, then slotted CSMA-CA shall be used.
If beacons are not being used in the PAN or a beacon cannot be located in a beacon-enabled
network, unslotted CSMA-CA algorithm is used. In both cases, the algorithm is implemented
using units of time called backoff periods, which is equal to aUnitBackoffPeriod symbols.

In slotted CSMA-CA channel access mechanism, the backoff period boundaries

of every device in the PAN are aligned with the superframe slot boundaries of the PAN
coordinator. In slotted CSMA-CA, each time a device wishes to transmit data frames during the
CAP, it shall locate the boundary of the next backoff period. In unslotted CSMA-CA, the backoff
periods of one device do not need to be synchronized to the backoff periods of another device.

4.3 Traffic Types

ZigBee/IEEE 802.15.4 addresses three typical traffic types. IEEE 802.15.4 MAC
can accommodate all the types.
 Data is periodic. The application dictates the rate, and the sensor activates checks for
data and deactivates.
 Data is intermittent. The application, or other stimulus, determines the rate, as in the case
of say smoke detectors. The device needs to connect to the network only when
communication is necessitated. This type enables optimum saving on energy.
 Data is repetitive, and the rate is fixed a priori. Depending on allotted time slots, called
GTS (guaranteed time slot), devices operate for fixed durations.

ZigBee employs either of two modes, beacon or non-beacon to enable the to-and-
fro data traffic. Beacon mode is used when the coordinator runs on batteries and thus offers
maximum power savings, whereas the non-beacon mode finds favour when the coordinator is
mains-powered.

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4.4 Data Transfer model

Three types of data transfer transactions exist: from a coordinator to a device,

from a device to a coordinator and between two peer devices. The mechanism for each of these
transfers depends on whether the network supports the transmission of beacons. The non-beacon
mode will be included in a system where devices are ‘asleep' nearly always, as in smoke
detectors and burglar alarms. The devices wake up and confirm their continued presence in the
network at random intervals.

When a device wishes to transfer data in a no beacon-enabled network, it simply

transmits its data frame, using the unslotted CSMA-CA, to the coordinator. On detection of
activity, the sensors ‘spring to attention', as it were, and transmit to the ever-waiting coordinator's
receiver (since it is mains-powered). There is also an optional acknowledgement at the end as
shown in Figure 4.3.

Figure 4.3 Communication to a coordinator in a beacon-enabled network

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 In the beacon mode, a device watches out for the coordinator's beacon that gets
transmitted at periodically, locks on and looks for messages addressed to it. If message
transmission is complete, the coordinator dictates a schedule for the next beacon so that the
device ‘goes to sleep'; in fact, the coordinator itself switches to sleep mode. While using the
beacon mode, all the devices in a mesh network know when to communicate with each other. In
this mode, necessarily, the timing circuits have to be quite accurate, or wake up sooner to be sure
not to miss the beacon. This in turn means an increase in power consumption by the coordinator's
receiver, entailing an optimal increase in costs.

When a device wishes to transfer data to a coordinator in a beacon-enabled

network, it first listens for the network beacon. When the beacon is found, it synchronizes to the
superframe structure. At the right time, it transmits its data frame, using slotted CSMACA, to the
coordinator. There is an optional acknowledgement at the end as shown in Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4 Communication to a coordinator in a non beacon-enabled network

The applications transfers are completely controlled by the devices on a PAN

rather than by the coordinator. This provides the energy-conservation feature of the ZigBee
network.

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 When a coordinator wishes to transfer data to a device in a beacon-enabled
network, it indicates in the network beacon that the data message is pending. The device
periodically listens to the network beacon, and if a message is pending, transmits a MAC
command requesting this data, using slotted CSMA-CA. The coordinator optionally
acknowledges the successful transmission of this packet. The pending data frame is then sent
using slotted CSMA-CA. The device acknowledged the successful reception of the data by
transmitting an acknowledgement frame. Upon receiving the acknowledgement, the message is
removed from the list of pending messages in the beacon as shown in Figure 4.5.

Figure 4.5 Communication to a coordinator in a beacon-enabled network

When a coordinator wishes to transfer data to a device in a nonbeacon-enabled
network, it stores the data for the appropriate device to make contact and request data. A device
may make contact by transmitting a MAC command requesting the data, using unslotted CSMA-
CA, to its coordinator at an application-defined rate. The coordinator acknowledges this packet.
If data are pending, the coordinator transmits the data frame using unslotted CSMA-CA. If data
are not pending, the coordinator transmits a data frame with a zero-length payload to indicate
that no data were pending. The device acknowledges this packet as shown in Figure 4.6.

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 Figure 4.6 Communication to a coordinator in a non beacon-enabled network

In a peer-to-peer network, every device can communicate with any other device in
its transmission radius. There are two options for this. In the first case, the node will listen
constantly and transmit its data using un slotted CSMA-CA. In the second case, the nodes
synchronize with each other so that they can save power.

Chapter 5

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 ZIGBEE ROUTING LAYER
5.1 AODV: Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector
AODV is a pure on-demand route acquisition algorithm: nodes that do not lie
on active paths neither maintain any routing information nor participate in any periodic routing table
exchanges. Further, a node does not have to discover and maintain a route to another node until the
two needs to communicate, unless the former node is offering services as an intermediate forwarding
station to maintain connectivity between two other nodes.

The primary objectives of the algorithm are to broadcast discovery packets only when
necessary, to distinguish between local connectivity management and general topology maintenance
and to disseminate information about changes in local connectivity to those neighboring mobile
nodes that are likely to need the information.

When a source node needs to communicate with another node for which it has no
routing information in its table, the Path Discovery process is initiated. Every node maintains two
separate counters: sequence number and broadcast id. The source node initiates path discovery by
broadcasting a route request (RREQ) packet to its neighbors, which includes source addr, source
sequence number, broadcast id, dest addr, dest sequence number, hop cnt. (Source sequence number
is for maintaining freshness information about the reverse route whereas the destination sequence
number is for maintaining freshness of the route to the destination before it can be accepted by the
source.).

The pair source address, broadcast id uniquely identifies a RREQ, where broadcast id
is incremented whenever the source issues a new RREQ. When an intermediate node receives a
RREQ, if it has already received a RREQ with the same broadcast id and source address, it drops the
redundant RREQ and does not rebroadcast it. Otherwise, it rebroadcasts it to its own neighbors after
increasing hop count. Each node keeps the following information: destination IP address, source IP
address, broadcast id, expiration time for reverse path route entry and source node’s sequence
number.
As the RREQ travels from a source to destinations, it automatically sets up the
reverse path from all nodes back to the source. To set up a reverse path, a node records the address of
the neighbor from which it received the first copy of RREQ. These reverse path route entries are

24
maintained for at least enough time for the RREQ to traverse the network and produce a reply to the
sender.

When the RREQ arrives at a node, possibly the destination itself, that possesses a
current route to the destination, the receiving node first checks that the RREQ was received over a bi-
directional link. If this node is not destination but has route to the destination, it determines whether
the route is current by comparing the destination sequence number in its own route entry to the
destination sequence number in the RREQ. If RREQ’s sequence number for the destination is greater
than that recorded by the intermediate node, the intermediate node must not use this route to respond
to the RREQ, instead rebroadcasts the RREQ.

If the route has a destination sequence number that is greater than that contained in
the RREQ or equal to that contained in the RREQ but a smaller hop count, it can uncast a route reply
packet (RREP) back to its neighbor from which it received the RREQ. A RREP contains the
following information: source addr, dest addr, dest sequence number, hop cnt and lifetime. As the
RREP travels back to the source, each node along the path sets up a forward pointer to the node from
which the RREP came, updates its timeout information for route entries to the source and destination,
and records the latest destination sequence number for the requested destination.

Nodes that are along the path determined by the RREP will timeout after route
request expiration timer and will delete the reverse pointers since they are not on the path from
source to destination as shown in Figure 5.1. The value of this timeout time depends on the size of
the ad hoc network.

Figure 5.1 Reverse and Forward path

formation in AODV protocol.

Chapter 6
SUMMARY
25
6.1 Technology Comparisons
Table 6.1 comparison between Zigbee and Bluetooth

6.2 ZigBee Applications

26
 The Zigbee Alliance targets applications "across consumer, commercial,
industrial and government markets worldwide". Unwired applications are highly sought after in
many networks that are characterized by numerous nodes consuming minimum power and
enjoying long battery lives. ZigBee technology is designed to best suit these applications, for the
reason that it enables reduced costs of development, very fast market adoption, and rapid ROI.
With Table 6.1

ZigBee designed to enable two-way communications, not only will the consumer
be able to monitor and keep track of domestic utilities usage, but also feed it to a computer
system for data analysis.

A recent analyst report issued by West Technology Research Solutions estimates

that by the year 2008, "annual shipments for ZigBee chipsets into the home automation segment
alone will exceed 339 million units," and will show up in "light switches, fire and smoke
detectors, thermostats, appliances in the kitchen, video and audio remote controls, landscaping,
and security systems."

Futurists are sure to hold ZigBee up and say, "See, I told you so". The ZigBee
Alliance is nearly 200 strong and growing, with more OEM's signing up. This means that more
and more products and even later, all devices and their controls will be based on this standard.
Since Wireless personal Area Networking applies not only to household devices, but also to
individualized office automation applications, ZigBee is here to stay. It is more than likely the
basis of future home-networking solutions.

The technology is designed to be simpler and cheaper than other WPANs such as
Bluetooth. The most capable ZigBee node type is said to require only about 10% of the software
of a typical Bluetooth or Wireless Internet node, while the simplest nodes are about 2%. ZigBee
is aimed at applications with low data rates and low power consumption.

Chapter 7
27
 CONCLUSION

The ZigBee Standard enables the broad-based deployment of reliable wireless

networks with low complexity, low cost solutions and provides the ability for a product to run
for years on inexpensive primary batteries (for a typical monitoring application). It is also, of
course, capable of inexpensively supporting robust mesh networking technologies ZigBee is all
set to provide the consumers with ultimate flexibility, mobility, and ease of use by building
wireless intelligence and capabilities into every day devices.

The mission of the ZigBee Working Group is to bring about the existence of a
broad range of interoperable consumer devices by establishing open industry specifications for
unlicensed, untethered peripheral, control and entertainment devices requiring the lowest cost
and lowest power consumption communications between compliant devices anywhere in and
around the home.

Chapter 8

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 REFERENCE

1. William stalling ,”wireless communication and networks”, Fourth edition pearson publication
limited,2004
2. Andrew S. Tenenbaum, “Computer Networks”, Fourth Edition Pearson Publication, Limited,
2003.
3. Behrouz A. Frouzan, “Data Communication”, Third Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing,
company Limitted, 2004.
4. http://www.zigbee.org/en/documents/zigbeeoverview4.pdf
5. http://www.jennic.com/elearning/zigbee/files/html/module2/module2-6.htm
6. http://zigbee.hasse.nl/
7. http://scholar.google.co.in/scholar?
q=zigbee+mesh+network&hl=en&as_sdt=0&as_vis=1&oi=scholart
8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eazix_numbered.jpg

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