D Modals 1 : ability, requests and offers

Form
+ 1/You/He/She/ lt/We/They can go.
- 1/You/He/She/lt/We/They can't (= cannot) go.
? Can 1/you/he/she/it/we/they/go?

Uses
1 We use can and could to:
• make requests.
Can I make a phone call?
Could you tell me the time, please? (a little more formal)
• give or refuse permission.
You can use my mobile phone.
You can't go in there. It's private.
• make an offer.
Can I help you?
I can take you to the station if you like.
• describe ability.
Paola can speak Chinese.
When he was younger, he could (= was able to) run a marathon in under three hours.
• say that something is possible or impossible.
You can make a lot ofmoney ifyou work hard.
I can't get through to them. Their phone's always engaged.
2 We also use could to refer to future possibilities.
I think we could increase our market share in the long term.
3 We use would to:
• make requests.
Would you open the door for me, please?
• make offers.
Would you like a glass of water?
• describe imaginary situations.
I would buy a Ferrari if I had enough money.

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IJ Present simple and present continuous

Present simple
Form
+ 1 /You/We/They work.
He/She/It works.
- 1 /You/We/They don't (= do not) work.
He/She/It doesn't (= does not) work.
? Do 1/you/we/they work?
Does he/she/it work?

Uses
1 We use the present simple to:
• give factual information about permanent activities.
Valentino makes luxury chocolates.
• describe a state that doesn't change.
He looks like his father.
Nothing succeeds like success.
• talk about routine activities, repeated actions or habits. This use of the present simple is
associated with adverbs of frequency.
We usually have our weekly sales meeting on Mondays.
I often travel abroad on business.
We sometimes get complaints, but not many.
2 There are verbs that we normally use only in simple tenses, not in continuous tenses.
For example believe, belong, depend, know, like, love, mean, own, remember, understand, want, etc.
These verbs describe states, not actions.
It depends on the exchange rate (NOT *It is depending ...)
The premises don't belong to them. (NOT *The premises aren't belonging ...)
What do they want? (NOT * What are they wanting ...)

Present continuous
Form
+ I am working.
He/She/It is working.
You/We/They are working.
-
I am not working.
He/She/It isn't (= is not) working.
You/We/They aren't (= are not) working.
? Am I working?
Is he/she/it working?
Are you/we/they working?

Uses
We use the present continuous to:
• describe activities in progress at the moment of speaking.
She's talking to him on the phone right now.
• describe temporary situations.
The delegation is staying at the Hilton until Friday.
• refer to future arrangements.
He's starting a new job next week.
• describe changing situations.
We're developing a new marketing strategy.

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II Modals 2: must, need to, have to, should

1 We often use must, need to and has/have to to say that something is compulsory o r necessary.
We must be patient when our goals are for the long term.
Companies have to advertise to let consumers know they exist.
I need to have the figures before next Monday's meeting.
2 We use had to to refer to a past obligation.
When / lived in Tokyo, I had to learn Japanese.
3 We use should and shouldn't to give advice or to suggest the right course of action.
A CV should be printed on good·quality notepaper.
It shouldn't be more than two pages long.
Should often follows the verbs suggest and think.
I suggest/think we should aim at the top end of the market.

4 We use should to say that something is likely in the future.

Interest rates should come down soon - that's what the economists are predicting.
5 We use don't have to and don't need to if something is not necessary.
You don't have to queue up when you buy online.
Ifyou buy now, you don't need to pay anything until next year.
6 We use mustn't I must not when things are forbidden or against the law.
Drivers must not park their vehicles by a traffic light.
Compare the uses of mustn't and don't have to in this sentence.
In many companies, employees mustn't wear jeans, but they don't have to dress formally.
7 We use must to say we are sure of something because of what we know.
He must be very rich - he drives a Ferrari.
8 Have to is more common in questions than must.
Do we have to make a decision now?

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II Past simple and past continuous

Past simple
Form
+ 1/You/He/She/lt/We/They worked.
- 1/You/He/She/lt/We/They didn't (= did not) work.
? Did 1/you/he/she/it/we/they work?

Uses
1 We use the past simple to refer to states and actions which finished in the past.
He left for Australia yesterday.
When I was young, I wanted to be a pilot.
2 The action can be short, long or repeated.
They took a taxi to get here.
The flight lasted 10 hours.
I took the same train every day.
3 Remember that some verbs are normally used in simple tenses only (see Section 2, page 140).
They owned five shops in Madrid alone. (NOT *They were owning ...)
We didn't know the market forecast. (NOT *We weren't knowing ) ...

Did our guests like the food? (NOT *Were our guests liking ...)

Past continuous
Form
+ 1/He/She/lt was working.
You/We/They were working.
- 1/He/She/lt wasn't (= was not) working.
You/We/They weren't (= were not) working.
? Was 1/he/she/it working?
Were you/we/they working?

Uses
We use the past continuous to:
• talk about actions that were not yet finished and continued over a period of time.
At that time, we were still trying to solve our recruitment problem.
Sometimes this period of time includes another event which is completed.
She had an accident while she was driving to work.
I was talking to him on the phone when I heard an explosion.
• refer to situations that were changing over time in the past.
During the 1 980s, many of the older industries were closing down.
At that time, we were coming out of recession and things were improving.

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II Past simple and present perfect

Present perfect
Form
+ 1/You/We/They have worked.
He/She/It has worked.
- 1/You/He/She/lt/We/They haven't (= have not) worked.
? Have 1/you/we/they worked?
Has he/she/it worked?

Uses
1 We use the present perfect to:
• talk about actions that continue from the past to the present.
We have been in this business for over 50 years. (= We are still in business.)
• talk about past events that have an impact in the present.
Recently, profits have fallen sharply because ofstrong competition.
Genova has had to cut costs by reorganising the workforce.
• talk about life experiences.
He's worked in a number of different firms.
I've been to London on many occasions.
She's never had to lead a team before. (= in her life up to now)
Because the time reference includes the present, we use time expressions that refer
to both present and past.
So far, we have captured 30% ofthe market.
This week, I've written three long reports.
Over the last few days, I have had too much work to do.

Present perfect versus past simple

1 We use the past simple for completed actions that happened in the past.
Andrew Mason set up Groupon in 2008.
2 Because the time reference is past, we use time expressions that refer to finished past time.
Last year, we increased turnover by 15%.
Five years ago, we didn't have an overseas subsidiary.
She joined the company three months ago.
3 The decision to use the past simple or present perfect depends on how we see the event. I f we see
it as related to the present, we use the present perfect. If we see it as completed and in the past,
we use the past simple.
I've known Bill for many years. (= We are still in touch.)
I knew Bill when I was at college. (= We don't keep in touch.)

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�� M ultiword verbs

1 A multiword verb is a combination of a verb and one or two particles (e.g. at, away, down, in, on, up).
2 Types of multiword verbs
• without an object
The photocopier has broken down.
Something has come up. (= happened)
• with an object - separable
The direct object can come after the verb or before the particle.
Could you turn on the coffee machine? I Could you turn the coffee machine on?
• with an object- inseparable
The director cannot do without his secretary. (NOT *The director cannot do his secretary without.)
3 In many cases, the multiword verb is more informal than its synonym.
How did you find out? (= discover the information)
We set offearly. (= departed)
4 Many multiword verbs are idiomatic; in other words, their meaning is difficult to i n terpret.
However, it can help if you understand the meanings of the particles. For example:
• away (creating distance)
I'm going away next week.
Don't run away. I need to talk to you.
• on (continuing)
Carry on the good work!
The meeting went on until seven o'clock.
• over (considering)
I need time to think it over.
Come and see me, and we'll talk it over.
• up (completing)
Some urgent matters need clearing up.
Drink up. We've got to go.
(For further information, consult the Longman Dictionary ofPhrasal Verbs.)

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IJ Time clauses

1 We use time clauses to provide information about actions and events in the past, present and future.
Do you remember when you hod your first interview? (past time)
When your customers are unhappy, they'll usually tell at least 20 otherpeople. (true all the time)
When I find the missing documents, I'll bring them to you. (future time)
2 We use a present tense, not will, to refer to future time in a time clause.
Until inflation is under control, planning will be difficult. (NOT *will be under control)
Once we finish the project, we'll have more time. (NOT *will finish the project)
Can you look at this before you leave? (NOT *will /eave)
The share price will rise as soon as we announce the merger.
I'll see you when the meeting finishes.
3 Note that:
• a present perfect in a time clause refers to a future situation.
I'll get back to you as soon as we hove decided what to do.
She'll write to you after/when she's spoken to her boss.
We won't know the results until we've received all the sales reports.
• while means 'during the time that' or 'at the same time as'.
/ like to listen to music while I'm working.
I was working late at the office while she was out socialising.
While I was in Italy, I went to see Alessandro.

for/since/during
1 We use both for and during with periods of time, but the is usually used after during.
I haven't seen her for a month. (NOT *during a month)
What are you planning to do during the vacation?
He fell asleep during the meeting.
2 We use since with points in time.
The company has expanded fast since it was founded.
Since Martin joined the company two years ago, profits have risen dramatically.

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IJ Questions

Yes/No questions
I n questions that can be answered with either yes or no, we put an auxiliary verb before the subject.
Are you coming? Yes, I am. I No, I'm not.
Can you drive a truck? Yes, I can. I No, I can't.
Do you know his name? Yes, I do. I No, I don't.
Did you arrive on time? Yes, I did. I No, I didn't.
Have you heard the news? Yes, I have. I No, I haven't.
Will you have time? Yes, I will. I No, I won't.

Open questions
1 We use question words such as what, who, where, when, why and how to ask for more information.
The question word comes before the auxiliary verb.
To ask about: We use:
a thing What is the brand name?
Which door is it?
a person Who is the ChiefExecutive?
a place Where do you come from?
a reason Why are you putting up your prices?
a moment in time What time did the meeting start?
When did the goods arrive?
a period of time How long did you stay in Beijing?
the number of times How many times have you been to China?
quantity (with plural nouns) How many cases did you order?
quantity (with uncountable nouns) How much money do you have on you?
the way you do something How do you manage to read so quickly?
2 We use what if there are many possible answers and which if there are fewer possible answers.
What is their policy?
Which of these cases is yours?
3 If who or what is the subject of the sentence, the word order is the same as in a statement.
Who looks after the travel arrangements?
What happens when things go wrong?
4 If who, what o r which asks about the object, we put the auxiliary before the subject.
Who shall / get in touch with?
What number did you ring?
Which restaurant have you chosen?
5 The question word how can be followed by an adjective or adverb.
How big is the warehouse?
How good is your Spanish?
How well do you speak Spanish?
How far is the hotel from here?
How often do you travel abroad?

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IJ Talking about future plans

1 We use the present continuous for future arrangements.
What are you doing next weekend?
We 're visiting our suppliers next week.
2 We also use going to for arrangements, plans and intentions.
What are you going to do next weekend?
We re going to visit our suppliers next week.
'

I'm going to talk to you today about my company.

3 But we do NOT use the present continuous to make predictions for the future. Compare:
The transport strike is going to cause a real problem. (= This is anticipated for the future.)
The transport strike is causing a real problem. (= The strike has started and the effects are present.)
4 Some verbs, like anticipate, expect, look forward to, hope and plan, automatically refer to the future.
These verbs can be used in either the simple or continuous form.
/ look forward to seeing you soon.
I am looking forward to seeing you soon.
We hope to do better next year.
We are hoping to do better next year.
We plan to attract more foreign investment.
We are planning to attract more foreign investment.

Other future forms

1 Will is very often used for predictions.
The forecast says that tomorrow will be warm and sunny.
I don't think they will complain.
She won't like what you've written about her.
2 We use the contracted form 'II to make spontaneous offers.
I'll help you write the report ifyou like.
(= I'll help you now, o r when you want me to help you.)

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II!] Reported speech

We use reporting verbs like say, tell and ask to report what other people say.
1 Reporting words just said
In this case, the situation is still present.
The boss says she wants to see you immediately.
2 Reporting words said in the past
• Words that are said in one place at one particular time may be reported in another
place at another time. Because of the change in time, there may be a change of tense
or modal auxiliary. A different pronoun is used to suit the context.
Actual words Reported words
'We are not going to panic.' He said they were not going to panic.
'I left my briefcase at work.' She said she (had) left her briefcase at work.
'I've already spoken to her.' He said he had already spoken to her.
'We won't know before Friday.' She said they wouldn't know before Friday.
'I can't give you a lower price.' He said he couldn't give me a lower price.
• Would, could and should do not change.
'I would tell you if I could.' She said she would tell me if she could.
'You should be more careful.' He said I should be more careful.
3 Say versus tell
• We do not usually use a person object (me, us, etc.) after say.
She said she would come later. (NOT *She said me ...)
• But after tell, we indicate who receives the information.
She told me she would come later. (NOT *She told she would ...)
• We can use that directly after say, but not directly after tell.
He said that he understood the reason. (NOT *He told that .. .)
• Tell also means 'to inform' or 'to instruct'.
He told me he was interested in my proposal.
She told me to hurry up.
4 Reporting questions
We use ask (with or without an object) to report questions.
Note the word order in the reported question: (1) question word (2) subject (3) verb.
Actual words Reported words
• in open questions (When /Why /How /What /etc.):
'When do you want to take your vacation?' He asked (him) when he wanted to take his vacation.
'How long is the conference?' He asked (her) how long the conference was.
• in yes /no questions:
'Do you want to take your vacation in He asked (him) if /whether he wanted to take his
July or August?' vacation in july or August.
'Will you be able to attend the conference?' He asked (her) if/whether she would be able to
attend the conference.

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m Conditionals

First conditional
(if+ present simple, will + infinitive without to)
In these two examples, the speaker feels that there is a real possibility that they will increase
their order and that their visitors will be late.
If we increase our order, they'll give us a higher discount.
If our visitors are late, we won't be able to take them to the theatre.

Second conditional
(if+ past simple, would + infinitive without to)
1 When the situation is less likely to happen or be accepted, we use the second conditional.
If we had more money to spend, we would be interested. (but we don't)
2 Sometimes the condition is logically impossible to fulfil.
If he was the Queen of England, he' d sell Buckingham Palace.

Points to remember
1 The position of the if clause and the main clause can be changed.
I would lend him some money if he needed it.
Ifhe needed it, I would lend him some money.
2 We cannot use will or would in the if clause.
*If I will go to Japan, I'll probably go to a tea ceremony.
knew
*If I weuldkAew the answer, I would tell you.
3 It is possible to use If I were rather than If I was, especially when giving advice.
If I were the Minister of Finance, I'd reduce taxation.
If I were you, I'd buy those shares now.
4 Instead of would, we can use might o r could, depending on the meaning.
If he relaxed more, he might enjoy this new challenge.
If he wanted to, he could become CEO.

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m Passives

Form
+ It's done. It's being done. It was done. It has been done. It will be done.
- It's not done. It's not being done. It wasn't done. It hasn't been done. It won't be done.
? Is it done? Is it being done? Was it done? Has it been done? Will it be done?
Passives can also be formed with modal verbs.
Can it be done?
It can't be done.
It should be done.
It would be done.
It might be done.

Uses
1 We choose a passive structure when we focus on the action itself rather than who
performs the action.
Tea is grown in Sri Lanka.
Our quality procedures are strictly monitored.
The new machine has been installed.
2 We can use by to mention who performs an action.
All her clothes are designed by Armani.
The first computer was invented by Alan Turing.
G-Shock is a brand of watch which is manufactured by Cosio.
3 We often use the passive to describe a process, system or procedure,
as in the extract below.
Naming a new product
Before a product is launched, focus groups are set up and a name is chosen.
Potential consumers are asked to give their impressions, and these are matched
against the desired brand image. Once the name has been decided, it must be
registered so that it cannot be used by other manufacturers.
4 We often use the passive in impersonal constructions beginning with it.
These constructions are frequently found in reports and the minutes of meetings.
It was agreed that the budget should be increased.
It was decided to implement the new policy immediately. (or It was decided that
the new policy should be implemented immediately.)
It was felt that an early decision had to be made.

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