Edexcel Geography A-Level

Fieldwork Section 3 - Data Presentation

Essential Notes

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Introduction

This is a ​comprehensive guide to the many ways of presenting data. It is necessary to take your
raw data and produce ​tables, graphs and use ​statistical analysis techniques (discussed in a
separate document) to discuss relevant data. Very little marks are awarded for your choice of
presentation technique; however, your mark will be limited if there is not a range of presentation
methods used. The techniques we’ll discuss are below:

Graphs and Charts

● Bar charts Cartography
● Pie charts ● GIS
● Radar Graphs ● Map and Image Overlays
● Line Graphs ● Isoline Maps
● Histograms ● Dot Maps
● Box Plots ● Choropleth Maps
● Kite Diagrams ● Flow Lines
● Pictograms
● Triangular Graphs Qualitative Presentation
● Scatter Graphs ● Photographs
● Logarithmic Scales ● Quotes/Mindmaps
● Lorenz Curve
Numerical Analysis
● Central Tendency
● Dispersion

It should be noted that some data within this guide has been created and manipulated to show the
data presentation methods, and is not entirely accurate. Unless the graph has been taken from an
external source (as referenced) it should be assumed that the data within the figure is false. This
data has been manipulated to show clear data presentation methods that will serve as an
educational resource for data presentation, rather than resources you can use as valid sources
within your investigation.

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Graphical Data Presentation Methods

Bar Charts
Bar charts are useful when ​tracking a change (normally over time), or when ​comparing factors
across different groups. The horizontal axis (x) usually contains the independent variable​, which
could be time, or the groups that will be compared.

A ​simple bar chart has the

independent variable on the
horizontal axis and the ​dependent
variables ​on the ​vertical axis​. This is
useful to identify ​relationships or
correlations between a ​subject (e.g.
number of deaths) and a ​factor (e.g.
types of deaths). If the changes in
your data are gradual and your data is
categorical​, you should consider
whether a line graph would be more
suitable to determine trends.

For multiple subjects, a ​stacked bar

chart could be more suited, which
uses a ​colour scheme to separate the
subjects. Ensure the colour scheme is
obvious, has a clear ​key​, and each
subject can be defined in ​greyscale​.

Bar charts can be simplistic and,

although useful, higher level
candidates should also use more
technical data presentation.

Pie Charts
Pie charts are a useful way of presenting a wide range of data, especially that which is from
questionnaires ​and ​foot count/traffic surveys (although useful, ​make sure not to overuse
them​). Sometimes just writing the ​numeric figures is sufficient, or using a ​compound bar graph​,
which could both be used instead of a pie chart. Pie charts allow ​easy interpretation of data by
the reader, but ​can also be misread​. When creating a pie chart it is recommended that:
● It is ​2D
● The ​data is not labelled
● The ​segments have no gaps​ between them

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 ● The ​colours are clear and the different segments could be identified if the document was
printed in greyscale (patterns are useful)
● The ​key is explicit and easy to understand
● There are not ​too many segments

Radar Graphs
Radar graphs are most effective at displaying data from ​environmental quality surveys​, or data
about different locations. Data from various locations can be overlaid or compared on different
charts.
It is important that all of ​the scales are in
the same direction​. All of the positive,
highest scores should be in the same area
of the graph (either all in the middle or all
surrounding the outside). For example,
rather than having quiet, welcoming, and
unsafe all on the outside, it should be
quiet, welcoming, and ​safe ​as shown in
the radar graph. There is no limit to the
amount of data sets that you can use, but
using ​too many sets may make the
graph confusing​.

Similar to a radar graphs, ​rose graphs use

multi-directional axes to represent data, but with bars
instead of lines. Rose graphs use ​compass directions
for the axes directions, and you should define how far
from a central point you are measuring when collecting
the data. They could be useful for assessing forest
cover (light levels), noise levels or wind speed, though
there are many other possibilities. If you were
investigating noise in a city centre area, you could use a
rose graph over a wider area (10 metres in each
direction).

Line Graphs
Line graphs are useful for ​tracking a change, usually over
time​. In line graphs, the change that is being tracked will
usually be a gradual change so that every point can be
joined up in one line. A ​key could be used to track how
several factors change​ over the same period.

Source: ​https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2009/3046/

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Line graphs may be simplistic as stand alone graphs, but can also be used in ​combination
graphs​. For example, Flood Hydrographs use bar charts (precipitation) and line graphs (river
discharge). You can create combination graphs by selecting ‘Combo Chart’ in data formatting
programmes.

Histograms

Histograms are simply ​bar charts of varying

thicknesses​; for data with ​different class
widths​, a histogram is most appropriate. The
area of a histogram’s bar (the ​frequency
density multiplied by the ​class width​) is the
frequency of your reading.
For example, in the figure, the red box
represents a frequency of 15 people between
the height of 90cm and 105cm.
There are histogram generators online, or use
Excel - type all your data into a table, then
highlight the table and click insert statistical
chart. Source: ​www.pythagorasandthat.co.uk

Box Plot
Box plots (sometimes called a Box and Whisker graph) are a pictographic way to represent the
median, range and interquartile range​. They are used to compare the spread of results and can
be used to compare multiple sets of ​continuous data​.
A box plot is easy to draw:
1. Draw an ​appropriate scale horizontally - Make sure your scale includes your maximum
and minimum results, and should be for the variable you measured (e.g. the height of
waves, time taken to erode, etc)

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 2. Draw a ​small vertical line where the median occurs. Repeat this for the maximum,
minimum, upper and lower quartile (see later on how to calculate these values).
3. Join up the median, upper and lower quartile to form a box. Finally, draw a horizontal line
connecting the maximum and minimum to the central box. Your diagram should look similar
to the figure.

Kite Diagram
Kite diagrams show the ​changes in frequency of a factor over a ​measured distance​, usually
along a ​transect​. ​Multiple factors being counted along the same transect can be shown in kite
diagrams, which make them useful for ​comparing spatial distribution - especially of ​plants and
animals​.

Drawing kite diagrams:

Distance along 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
transect (metres)

Plant Daisy 0 12 14 16 8 6 4 2 0 0

Dandelion 0 2 3 4 7 5 8 8 9 10

How a kite diagram works:

1. Y axis - the y axis works like a ​mirror​. In each ​section ​(e.g. the daisy section), the y axis
should be as ​wide as your ​largest piece of data​. In the ​middle of your section is ​zero​,
which is the ​line of symmetry/ mirror line​. Each side of the mirror line goes up to ​half of
the largest piece of data​. In this example, the largest number is ​16​, so each side of the
mirror line goes up to​ 8​ (because 8 is ​half​ ​of 16).

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 2. Plotting points - to plot points, your ​value should be ​halved and each half should be
plotted on ​either side of the mirror line​. This will create a ​symmetrical shape when all
the points are plotted and joined up.

3. Labelling - all of your sections should be ​labelled with the ​factor you are measuring and
the ​distance ​of the transect. On your y axis, you should also label ​numbers​. Make sure to
label the ​zero line (mirror line) and the maximum value (half the highest value). All of the
sections (daisy, dandelion etc.) should be the ​same size so that you can ​compare​. ​Do not
change the size of the sections ​on the same graph. Always use the ​biggest number in
the​ entire​ set of data to work out how wide your section should be.

Pictograms
Pictograms use ​icons or ​pictures to display sets of ​discrete data (data that has a ​finite ​count, i.e.
cannot have a decimal point​). Each icon represents a number, so that a completed pictogram will
show the ​frequency of a factor in different sets of data​. The icon usually resembles what is
being counted. Here is an example of a completed pictogram that has been created from a building
use survey.

A pictogram showing the different types of buildings on Main Street:

Residential 18 Key:

1 1 icon = 1
Industrial building

8
Commercial
E.g. =1
5 house
Entertainment

3 Overall - 41
Public Building buildings on
Main Street
Transport 2

4
Services

Pictograms are useful for presenting ​simple ​counts in interesting and understandable ways.
However, pictograms can become ​confusing when there are ​many ​numbers ​involved because it
would require ​counting ​many ​icons​, which is ​unclear​. To present larger counts, a key could be
used which ​condenses ​down the counts into ​ratios (e.g. 1 icon = 10 buildings) but in doing this,
you must ensure your counts all have the same ​highest common factor​. For example, if you want
to use a key of 1 icon = 10 buildings, your different building counts should all divide by 10. Using
half icons or quarter icons to represent a smaller number becomes ​messy and confusing​, so
generally it is best to stay away from pictograms when many numbers are involved.

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Triangular Graphs
Triangular graphs ​compare the composition of different
data sets by using 3 variables that add to 100%​. Each
data set is ​plotted​ as a point on the triangular axis shown.

Each axis (side of the triangle) goes up to ​100%​. The data

you plot must be composed of ​3 variables that ​collectively
and ​exclusively​ add to make 100%.

For example, a triangular graph could be used to show ​soil

content in 10 different locations (the ​data sets​). In these
10 different areas, the soil content is mainly a mixture of
clay, silt and sand. Here is how some areas would be
plotted on a triangular graph.

Area 1: Clay - 70%, Silt - 20%, Sand - 10%.

Area 2: Clay - 50%, Silt - 10%, Sand - 40%.

The easiest way to ​plot points is to read horizontally from

the left axis, then ​diagonally downwards from the right
axis​, then ​diagonally upwards from the bottom axis​.
Ensure you label each point plotted as well as each axis.

Furthermore, you could split your graph up into

predetermined definable areas​, so that wherever
your points lie indicates what your point could be
defined as. Here is an example:

Source: ​http://oneplan.org/Water/soil-triangle.asp

When your points are plotted, the graph easily show

what the composition of your data set means in a
geographical context​.

Scatter Graphs
Scatter graphs are used to show the ​relationship or
correlation between an ​independent variable and
a ​dependent variable​. Every piece of data is plotted
like a coordinate on an axis: the ​x axis is the
independent variable​, i.e. the ​cause​. The ​y axis is

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the dependent variable​, i.e. the ​effect​. Scatter graphs are useful in proving that a variable has a
definite effect on a factor that is being observed in your investigation. If you are considering using a
scatter graph, ensure that you have enough data collected so that a ​clear ​correlation can be
identified.

If you want to ​compare how ​multiple factors are affected by the ​same independent variable​, the
different factors could be colour coded so your graph is ​clear​. Ensure that you include a ​key ​so
that each factor’s colour code is obvious.

A ​line of best fit ​can be drawn on a scatter graph, which shows the ​average trend of your scatter
graph. A line of best fit can be added on some softwares such as Microsoft Excel, or it can be
drawn by you. A good way to check if a line of best fit is ​accurate ​is if there are approximately an
equal number of points above and below your line​, ​excluding anomalies by circling them.

Bubble charts ​are a type of scatter graph where the size of the plotted point also shows another
variable​.

Source: ​https://www.gapminder.org/tools/#$chart-type=bubbles

This bubble chart from Gapminder uses the size of the dots to show the country’s population size.
Using this type of graph allows 3 separate sets of data to be presented on one graph. However, a
bubble chart should only be used if the information is ​relevant to your investigation. Ensure you
indicate within your key what the size of your bubbles refer to.

Logarithmic Scales
A ​l​ogarithmic scale is a ​non-linear scale where numbers within a ​large range are ​condensed
down into a ​smaller, easier to understand scale.
The ​mathematical function ‘log’ has a ​base number​, which indicates how your raw data is
condensed. The maths can be complicated, but log can be applied to your data by the ​‘log’ button
on your calculator or on a spreadsheet​, meaning all you have to do is ​input your data​.
Different base numbers can be used, but ​log​10 is
​ most commonly used (10 is the base number
here). In instances where log​10 is used, every time your ​raw data increases by 1​10​, your

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logarithmic scale ​goes up by 1​. This table shows the logarithmic scale that would be created
when inputting certain numbers, and it also shows what would appear on your calculator when
typing your raw data in.

Raw number log​10​(x) format Number that

is used in
your scale

10 log​10​(10) 1

100 log​10​(100) 2

1000 log​10​(1000) 3

10000 log​10​(10000) 4

The ​Richter scale is an example of a logarithmic scale , where a ​4.0 magnitude earthquake is ​10
times stronger​ than a​ ​3.0​, ​100 times stronger​ than a​ ​2.0​, and ​1000 times stronger​ than a​ ​1.0​.

This scale is very useful when your raw data has a ​very large range​, because it ensures smaller
numbers are still ​clear​. For example, this scale would be useful if some of your figures were in
triple digits, and other figures were in six digits. In these two graphs, house price data in 5 towns is
being compared. Note how the comparison is much clearer to see on the logarithmic scaled graph.

Without logarithmic scale. With logarithmic scale.

If logarithmic scales are used, make sure that you indicate this to avoid confusion.

Lorenz Curves
A lorenz curve is a ​graphical representation ​of the ​distribution
or ​equality of something. ​A ​straight, diagonal line from the
origin represents ​perfect equality​. The further away the lorenz
curve is from this, the more diverse the sample is and the more
unevenly the values are spread out. From a Lorenz curve, the Gini
Coefficient can be calculated.

1. Rank​ the data

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 2. Order​ the data by Rank
3. Calculate the ​proportion​ (percentage) of each data from the total data
4. Calculate the ​cumulative proportion by increasing rank (calculate the running total from
adding the percentage of each line in turn to the line before it)
5. Graph​ the ranks on the ​x axis​ against the cumulative proportion on the y axis.
6. Draw the ​perfect equality​ diagonal line.

Cartographical Data Presentation Methods

GIS
A GIS (​geographic information system​) is a form of data analysis and presentation. Any ​digital
presentation of data in comparison to its ​location or spatial distribution can be classed as GIS.
For colleges with GIS software, this is often simple to create (so see your teacher for more specific
guidance). For those without specific GIS software, any of the cartographic data presentation
methods may be considered GIS, if you create them ​digitally​ rather than drawn by hand.

GIS is more ​accurate than hand drawing, as it minimises the ​risk of human error in drawing
graphs or pinpointing locations. It can enable you to ​display a large data set​, or multiple variables/
information. For example, for each location sampled, a bar chart could display the average scores
of several questions on an environmental survey or differing demographic characteristics along the
rural-urban continuum. GIS is a key addition to create a high-level fieldwork report that looks
scientific ​and​ ​reliable​.

Map Overlays
Overlaying graphs or other data such as pie charts on to maps can be a powerful tool to easily
display data. This map uses ​proportional pie charts and Google Maps, to display ​footcount
survey data​. The larger the pie chart, the greater the number of people that were surveyed in the
10 minute data collection period at the: Stockholm Town Hall, Riddarholmen Church and
Stockholm Middle-Ages Museum. The various colours represent the ​different proportions of
people by age​ (years) in each survey location.

Key: ​0-15
16-30
31-45
46+

Map Credit (Google, 2018)

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You could also use graphs such as bar charts as an overlay on the map, or even ​qualitative data
such as quotes from questionnaire respondents. These maps are ​high level additions and should
not be overused​. The graphs which you overlay should ​not be too large​, which would obscure
the map, ​or too small so that the segments are difficult to see. Always ensure the data
presentation method can be easily understood. To overlay graphs onto a map, you can create the
graphs digitally, remove any data labels/axis etc. and save them as an image. Then remove the
background using the tools on a programme such as PowerPoint and move the image onto a map.
You can then adjust the size of the image to make them proportional, but make sure that the image
is cropped right to the edges of the pie charts, otherwise this would be inaccurate.

Image Overlays
Similar to map overlays, image overlays may be used to display both a set of values and their
location (often on a ​smaller scale​). Using an image as a background may allow the use of ​3D
graphs - such as 3D bar charts - to display data. For example, you could overlay the rates of
erosion over an image of the coastline studied, hence showing localised variations in erosion rates.

3D graphs may look impressive, however caution must be taken to ensure that 3D graphs don’t
overcomplicate the image or ​disguise trends in data. If it’s difficult to tell the start of the bar (and
so the location of the data taken) or the height of the bars (and so the value of your dependant
variable) - use 2D graphical presentation methods instead.

Isoline Maps
Isoline maps use lines to present areas in which points are of an ​equal value​. Isolines are drawn
using ​geospatial data (data that is specific to a location), and overall they show how the ​value of a
factor changes spatially​.
For example, an isoline map could be drawn to show ​pedestrian density​ in a town centre:

Raw data from several pedestrian counts. Isoline map for pedestrian density.

The isolines shown on the map are ​10, 20, 30, 40, and 50​. Each of these lines show the ​estimated
point at which a pedestrian count would show this number. Note that the lines show ​estimations

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where there is a ​lack of data​, which makes isoline maps useful. However, it is also important to
consider as estimating values can lead to ​inaccuracies​ and may disregard trends.
The ​10 line separates numbers ​10 and below from higher numbers. The ​20 line separates all
values below or equal to 20 but more than 10​. The ​30 line separates all values ​below or equal
to 30 but more than 20​, and so on. To make the isoline map even clearer, a ​colour code could
be added to emphasise the different sections. When using isoline maps, ensure your lines’ values
increase by the same amount (e.g. all of the isolines increase by 10 in this example).

Isoline maps can be used for anything that

shows many ​different geospatial values​,
and they are often used in weather or
topography (the contour lines on maps are
isolines). Take this map of the Cairngorms in
Scotland for example. Each line represents
elevation above sea level, and each isoline
increases by 500m. The isolines get closer
together when the elevation increases
rapidly.
Source:​https://cairngormwanderer.wordpress.com/page/18/

Dot Map
A dot map is a cartographical data presentation technique that uses small dots on a map to show
the ​distribution ​or ​density ​of an ​observation​. Wherever you have a recorded observation, a dot
is marked on that ​exact location on the map​. If you have two observations in the same exact
location, the dot can be placed slightly to the side so that it can still be seen. Eventually, the map
will have enough dots that a clear pattern is shown, which indicates both ​spatial distribution ​of
your observation and the ​density​ of your observation within certain areas.
What to consider when using a dot map:
● Collect a ​large amount of data​. Dot maps are only useful when you have a lot of data so
that a trend in ​density ​can be spotted. If you have a small amount of dots, your trends will
be unclear. Make sure to choose something you are able to make ​hundreds of
observations​ ​in.
● Use ​appropriate dot sizes​. If your dots are too large, they may overlap meaning
observations are lost. Ideally, your dot size should be large enough to create ​density
patterns ​but small enough so that (if you were to zoom in) every dot could be seen.
Compare the two dot maps (​Source:​http://learngis.uk/creating-statistical-dot-density-map-qgis/​). The
first dot map clearly uses dots that are too large, as all of the map is concealed and there is
no density pattern. The second map uses dots that are appropriate for the dot map.

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 ● What do your dots ​represent​? ​1 dot could represent ​1 observation (​1:1​), or it could
represent ​more than 1 observation ​(​1:many​). If you have a ​large amount of data​, it may
be useful to include a ​key where ​1 dot represents more than 1 observation​, e.g. 1:10
ratio, where 1 dot actually represents 10 observations. You may also wish to include a
colour coordinated key​, where the colours of the dots show different observations.
● Is a dot map the most ​appropriate method for your data? If you are recording something
that has a ​yes/no or ​existent/non-existent observation, dot maps can be useful. However,
if you are recording something that ​can be recorded on a continuum or scale​, a
choropleth map​ may be more suited.

Choropleth Map
A choropleth map uses ​colouring or
shading ​in ​predetermined areas to
show the ​average prevalence ​of a
phenomenon​. This factor can be
recorded on a ​scale or ​continuum​,
and each colour indicates a different
section (called ​data classes​) of your
scale.

Source:​https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Countries_by_Population_Density_in_2015.svg
Choropleth maps are useful when analysing the ​intensity/prevalence/frequency ​of a
phenomenon in different areas. ​Patterns ​can be spotted within your map, which makes choropleth
maps useful for analysing factors that vary​ ​spatially​.

Things to consider:
● Borders - your sectioned ​sub-areas should be small enough so that your average value
does not ​ignore ​obvious variances within your data. Your borders should also be large
enough so that you can collect a sufficient amount of data within your ​timeframe​. If you
have many small areas that show the same observation, it may be worth ​condensing
these areas into one larger area.

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 ● Colours and keys - use colours that can be seen in ​greyscale ​and try to choose colours
that can be distinguished from each other clearly. Your key should use quoted numbers
rather than vague interpretations.

Clear numbers. Vague description.

<10% Very Low

10-20% Low

21 - 30% Slightly Low

31 - 40% Average

41 - 50% Slightly High

>50% High

● Number of Data Classes - There should be a ​compromise in the number of data classes
used in the key. If you have ​too few data classes, there may be a ​generalisation of your
data. ​Too many​, and the colours in your choropleth map could be​ indistinguishable​.

Flow Lines​ey
Flow lines can ​represent movement of people, animals etc., to or from a specific place. They are
best ​not confused with desire lines​, which can have a different meaning.

The example below shows the areas of Barcelona which students travel from, to reach St. Peter’s
School Barcelona. The ​width of the arrow is used to represent how many students travel from a
particular area to the school. It is only a generic indication, but can be a useful tool, which could
also represent migration, people travelling to an event etc. and is therefore most likely to be used in
an Urban Environments or Changing Places fieldwork investigation. They are useful for analysis
when ​considered with additional sources​ of data.

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Qualitative Data Presentation Methods

Photographs
If you are using photographs as a method of data presentation then they should be ​clearly
annotated​, with information relating to your hypotheses. You may use ​place names, geographic
theories or observations that you made when taking the photos to give them greater meaning
and relate them to your investigation.

NE Ljubljana as seen from the

Ljubljana Castle - It is appropriate to
state which direction the
photograph is taken from ​if known.

Map Credit: (Google, 2018)

Photographs are a great way to enrich your report and make it more stimulating to read. You may
take pictures of large area, but analysing smaller areas in detail is just as important. You may want
to take images of your survey sites. When taking photos consider:
● The ​angle which you are taking the photograph at - what does it show and what does it not
show? Is it objective?
● Be careful not to photograph individual ​people​ as you do not have their permission.
● What is the area like that you are photographing? Is it ​safe​? If not, it may be advisable to
not take pictures if there is a risk, for example risk of your camera/phone being stolen.

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 ● Can you take pictures in the ​same location with the ​same angle ​at ​different times and
then compare these later?
● Could you find images ​online and then photograph the same place yourself? What are the
differences if there are any?

You can also compare pictures that

you take to maps that may be online.
You can use Bing Maps to find
Ordnance Survey maps, and Google
maps to show terrain and different
places. This creates an insightful
source of data presentation.

Always annotate photographs - no

marks are awarded for ‘pretty picture’!

Quotes/Mind Maps

Mind maps are another useful tool used to present a wide range of ​qualitative (and also
quantitative) data. It may be useful when creating a mindmap to structure it around a part of the
core theory - in the example above, the Hazard Management Cycle. This gives ​clear structure to
the mind map and demonstrates your ​knowledge of the geographical context in your

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investigation. It is important to ensure that you do not put too much information on the mind map,
which would reduce its readability and effectiveness as a data presentation technique. You could
also sort the data based on your hypotheses or the sub areas which you are investigating in your
fieldwork.

A mind map could also take the form

shown on the left, which codes and
splits different areas from an
interview ​into different topic sections,
with each quote linking to the next.
This can be useful not only for data
presentation, but helping you to sort
through the ​relevant sections of an
interview transcript, which is likely to
contain a lot of data raw data that will
be​ hard to analyse​ otherwise.

Word Clouds
Word clouds are very useful for presenting data from qualitative sources such as ​questionnaires​.
It would otherwise be difficult to present this data in an easily viewable form. Websites such as
wordclouds.com allow you to ​paste text​, such as questionnaire and interview transcripts. The
most common words​ will appear larger, so you can easily assess the ​themes​ present.

You can also compare word clouds between different

locations. It may be useful to remove words such as
‘the’,’and’,’I’ etc. as these are frequent, but offer no
benefit when included. You should also be careful as
phrases such as ‘not welcoming’ will be split into ‘not’
and ‘welcoming’ which may incorrectly suggest trends
which are not present. You could hyphenate these
phrases to overcome the problem. It may be best to
include adjectives which provide the greatest insight in
this qualitative format, but using only adjectives may
omit other relevant data.

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Necessary Maths

For some of the graphs discussed previously, some simple maths values are needed for a graph to
be drawn. These values are known as ​measures of central tendency.

The numbers below will be used as an example for each measure of central tendency.

13 25 79 82 1 45 49 45 67 45 1

Mean:
The mean is calculated by ​adding up all the data​ and dividing by the ​number of data items​.
For example, using the numbers above, the sum would be 452 and there 11 numbers, so the mean
would equal 41.1 to 3sf.

Mode:
The ​most appearing number​. In the example above, the mode is 45.

Median:
The median is the ​midpoint​ ​value. The data needs to be ranked first from lowest to highest value.

1 1 13 25 45 45 45 49 67 79 82

● When there is an ​odd number of data items, the ​median is a whole number​. As in the
example above, there are 11 data items, so the median is 45.
● When there is an ​even number of data items, the median lies across the ​two items at the
midpoint. The median is therefore an ​average​ (mean) of the ​two middle items​.

Measures of Dispersion

The term ‘measures of dispersion’ refers to a group of statistical tests that describe data
distribution.

Range:
The range describes the ​spread of the data​. Simply, ​subtract the highest number from the
lowest number​. In the example above, the range would be: 82-1 = 81

Interquartile range:
The interquartile range shows where the middle 50% of the data lie. Anomalies should be ignored
in this calculation.
● Find the​ median ​using the method above. (45)
● Find the ​lower quartile​ by calculating the ​median of the lower half of the data​. (13)
● Find the ​upper quartile​ by calculating the ​median of the upper half of the data​.(67)
● The​ difference ​between the lower and upper quartiles is the interquartile range.(67-13​ ​=​ ​54)

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