The Operational Amplifier

(Op-Amp)

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Chapter Goals
• Develop understanding of linear amplification
concepts such as:
– Voltage gain, current gain, and power gain
– Gain conversion to decibel representation
– Input and output resistances
– Biasing for linear amplification
– Distortion in amplifiers
– Two-port representations of amplifiers
– Understand behavior and characteristics of ideal differential
and op amps.
– Demonstrate circuit analysis techniques for ideal op amps.
– Characterize inverting, non-inverting amplifiers.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Amplification
Introduction

A complex periodic signal can be represented as the sum of many

individual sine waves. We consider only one component with
amplitude Vs = 1 mV and frequency ωs with 0 phase (signal is
used as reference):

Amplifier output is sinusoidal with same frequency but different

amplitude Vo and phase θ:

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Amplification
Introduction (cont.)
Amplifier output power is:

Here, we desire PO = 100 W with RL = 8 Ω and Vs = 1 mV

Output power also requires output current which is:

Input current is given by

Output phase is zero because circuit is purely resistive.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Amplification
Voltage Gain & Current Gain

• Voltage Gain:
Magnitude and phase of voltage gain are given by
and

For our example,

• Current Gain:

Magnitude of current gain is given by

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Amplification
Power Gain

• Power Gain:

For our example,

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Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Amplification
Expressing Gain in Decibels (dB)
The logarithmic decibel or dB scale compresses the huge numeric range of
gains encountered in real systems.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Amplification
Expressing Gain in dB - Example
For our example:

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Mismatched Source and Load
Resistances
 In introductory circuit theory, the maximum power transfer
theorem is usually discussed.
 Maximum power transfer occurs when the source and load
resistances are matched (equal in value).
 In most amplifier applications, however, the opposite situation is
desired.
 A completely mismatched condition is used at both the input and
output ports of the amplifier.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Mismatched Source and Load
Resistances
For the voltage amplifier shown

If Rin >> Rs and Rout<< RL, then

In an ideal voltage amplifier,

and Rout = 0

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Distortion in Amplifiers
• In this graph,
different gains for
positive and
negative values of
the input cause
distortion in the
output.
• Total Harmonic
Distortion (THD) is
a measure of signal
distortion that
compares
undesired harmonic
content of a signal
to the desired
component.
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Total Harmonic Distortion

dc desired 2nd harmonic 3rd harmonic

output distortion distortion

Numerator = rms amplitude of distortion terms

Denominator = desired component

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Differential Amplifier
Basic Model

An ideal differential amplifier produces an vo= A vid

output that depends on the voltage A = open-circuit voltage gain
difference between its two input terminals.
vid = (v+- v-) = differential input
Signal developed at amplifier output is in signal voltage
phase with the voltage applied at + input Rid = amplifier input resistance
(non-inverting) terminal and 180o out of Ro = amplifier output
phase with that applied at - input (inverting) resistance
terminal.
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Differential Amplifier Model
Impact of Source and Load
RL = load resistance
RS = Thevenin equivalent
resistance of signal source
vs = Thevenin equivalent voltage
of signal source

•Op amp circuits are mostly dc-coupled amplifiers. Signals vo and vs may have
a dc component representing a dc shift of the input away from the Q-point.
•Op-amp amplifies both dc and ac components.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Differential Amplifier Model
Example including Source and Load Resistances

• Problem: Calculate voltage gain for an amplifier

• Given Data: A = 100, Rid = 100kΩ, Ro = 100Ω, RS = 10kΩ, RL =

1000Ω

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Differential Amplifier Model
Example including Source and Load Resistances
• Analysis:

• An ideal amplifier’s output depends only on the input voltage

difference and not on the source and load resistances. This can
be achieved by using a fully mismatched resistance condition
(Rid >> RS or infinite Rid, and Ro << RL or zero Ro ). Then:

• A = open-loop gain (maximum voltage gain available from the

device)

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Operational Amplifers

Op-amp is an electronic device that amplify the difference of voltage

at its two inputs.
Most op-amps operate from plus and minus supply voltages, which
may or may not be shown on the schematic symbol.
Very high gain dc coupled amplifiers with differential inputs.
One of the inputs is called the inverting input (−); the other is called the
non-inverting input. Usually there is a single output.

+V

8 –
20 1 1
8 8
1 1
DIP DIP SMT SMT +

–V

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 The Ideal Op-Amp

Ideally, op-amps have characteristics (used in circuit analysis):

 Infinite voltage gain
 Infinite input impedance (does not load the driving sources)
 Zero output impedance (drive any load)
 Infinite bandwidth (flat magnitude response, zero phase shift)
 Zero input offset voltage.

The ideal op-amp has characteristics that

simplify analysis of op-amp circuits. –

Vin Zin = ‘ AvVin Vout

The concept of infinite input impedance is Av = ‘
Zout = 0

particularly a valuable analysis tool for +

several op-amp configurations.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 The Practical Op-Amp

Real op-amps differ from the ideal model in various respects.

In addition to finite gain, bandwidth, and input impedance,
they have other limitations.

 Finite open loop gain.

 Finite input impedance. –

 Non-zero output impedance. Vin Zin AvVin Vout

 Input current. Zout

 Input offset voltage. +

 Temperature effects.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Internal Block Diagram of an Op-Amp

Internally, the typical op-amp has a differential input, a

voltage amplifier, and a push-pull output. Recall from the
discussion in Section 6-7 of the text that the differential
amplifier amplifies the difference in the two inputs.

+
Push-pull
Differential Voltage
amplifier
Vin amplifier amplifier(s) Vout
output
– input stage gain stage
stage

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Input Signal modes

 As the input stage of an op-amp is a differential amplifier,

there are two input modes possible: differential mode
and common mode.
 In differential mode any one of the two scenarios can
occur.
 Either one input is applied to one input while the other
input is grounded (single-ended).
 Or opposite polarity signals are applied to the inputs
(double-ended).

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Differential Mode Operation

Vin

Vout
+

Single-ended differential amplifier

–
Vin Vout
+

Double-ended differential amplifier

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Common Mode Operation

 In common mode, two signals voltages of the same

amplitude, frequency and phase are applied to the two
inputs.
 The same input tend to cancel Vin

each other and the output is –

zero. Vout
+
 This is called common-mode Vin
rejection.

 This is useful to reject unwanted signal that appears to both

inputs. It is cancelled and does not appear at the output

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Op-Amp parametrs
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
The ability of an amplifier to amplify differential signals and
reject common-mode signals is called the common-mode
rejection ratio (CMRR).
A where Aol is the open-loop
CMRR is defined as CMRR = ol differential-gain and Acm is
Acm the common-mode gain.
Acm is zero in ideal op-amp and much less than 1
is practical op-amps.
Aol ranges up to 200,000 (106dB)
CMRR = 100,000 means that desired signal is amplified 100,000 times
more than un wanted noise signal.
 Aol 
CMRR can also be expressed in decibels as CMRR = 20 log  
 cm 
A
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Example

Common-Mode Rejection Ratio

What is CMRR in decibels for a typical 741C op-amp?

The typical open-loop differential gain for the 741C is 200,000 and the
typical common-mode gain is 6.3.

 Aol 
CMRR = 20 log  
 cm 
A
200, 000
= 20
= log 90 dB
6.3
(The minimum specified CMRR is 70 dB.)

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Maximum Output Voltage Swing

VO(p-p): The maximum output voltage swing is determined

by the op-amp and the power supply voltages
With no input signal, the output of an op-amp is ideally 0 V.
This is called the quiescent output voltage.
When an input signal is applied, the ideal limits of the peak-
to-peak output signal are ± VCC .
In practice, however, this ideal can be approached but never
reached (varies with load resistance).

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Input Offset Voltage

 Ideal op-amp produces zero output voltage if the

differential input is zero
 But practical op-amp produces a non-zero output voltage
when there is no differential input applied. This output
voltage is termed VOUT(error).
 It is due to unavoidable mismatches in the differential
stage of the op amp.
 The amount of differential input voltage required
between the inputs to force the output to zero volts is the
input offset voltage VOS .
 Typical value of VOS is about 2mV.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Input Bias Current (IBIAS )

The input bias current is the

average of the two dc currents
required to bias the differential
amplifier
I1 + I 2
Ideally, input bias current is zero. I BIAS =
2

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Input Impedance

 The input impedance of an op-amp is –

specified in two ways:

ZIN(d)

 Differential input impedance and

common-mode input impedance. +

 Differential input impedance, ZIN(d),

is the total resistance between –
inverting and noninverting input.
ZIN(cm)
 Common-mode input impedance,
ZIN(c), is the resistance between each +

input and ground.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Input offset Current IOS

Ideally, the two input bias currents are equal, and thus their
difference is zero

The input offset current is

the difference of the input
bias currents 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝐼𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐼2

The offset voltage developed by the input offset current is

𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
The output error volt is
𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈(𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒) = 𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Output Impedance

Zout : The output impedance is the resistance viewed from the

output of the circuit.

–
Zout

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Slew Rate

The slew rate is the maximum

rate of change of the output
voltage in response to a step input
voltage (V/µs)
Slew rate is measured with an op-
amp connected as shown and is
given as

The slew rate is dependent upon

the high-frequency response of
the amplifier stages within the
op-amp.
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Example

Determine the slew rate for the

output response to a step input
shown.

Since this response is not

ideal, the limits are taken
at the 90% points.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Negative Feedback

Negative feedback is the process of returning a portion of

the output signal of an amplifier to the input with a phase
angle that is opposite to the input signal.

The advantage of negative

feedback is that precise
values of amplifier gain Vin +
Vout
can be set. In addition,
Vf –
bandwidth and input and Internal inversion makes Vf
output impedances can be 180° out of phase with Vin.

Negative
controlled. feedback
circuit

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Importance of Negative Feedback

 The inherent open-loop voltage gain of a typical op-amp is

very high. Therefore, an extremely small input voltage (even
the input offset voltage) drives the op-amp into saturation.

 The usefulness of an op-

amp operated without
negative feedback is
generally limited to
comparator applications
 With negative feedback the gain of op-amp (called close-
loop gain Acl) can be reduced and controlled so that an
op-amp can function as a linear amplifier.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Op-Amps with Negative Feedback

 An op-amp can be connected using negative feedback to

stabilize the gain and increase frequency response.
 This close-loop gain (Acl ) is usually much less than the open-
loop gain (Aol).
 The close-loop voltage gain is the voltage of an op-amp with
external feedback.
 The amplifier circuit consists of an op-amp and an external
negative feedback circuit.
 The feedback from the output is connected to the inverting input
of the op-amp.
 The negative feedback is determined and controlled by external
components.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Noninverting Amplifier

A noninverting amplifier is a configuration in which the

signal is on the noninverting input and a portion of the
output is returned to the inverting input.
The feedback circuit is formed by input resistance Ri and
feedback resistance Rf .
This feedback creates a +
voltage divider circuit Vout
Vin –
which reduces Vout and Rf
Vf
connects the reduced Feedback
circuit
voltage Vf to the Ri

inverting input and can

be expressed as:
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Noninverting Amplifier

The differential input is

amplified by the open-
loop gain and produces
the output voltage as:

The attenuation, B, of
the feedback circuit is

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Noninverting Amplifier

Substituting BVout for Vf , we get

The overall voltage gain of the amplifier can be expressed

as

The product AolB is typically much greater than 1, so the

equation simplifies to
Rf
Which means Acl (NI) = 1 +
Ri

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Noninverting Amplifier

Determine the gain of the noninverting amplifier shown.

Vin +
Rf Vout
Acl (NI) = 1 + –
Ri Rf
82 kΩ
82 kΩ
= 1+
3.3 kΩ Ri
3.3 kΩ
= 25.8

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Voltage Follower

A special case of the inverting amplifier is when Rf =0 and

Ri = ∞. This forms a voltage follower or unity gain buffer
with a gain of 1.
Vin +

This configuration offers very Vout

high input impedance and its very – Rf

82 kΩ
low output impedance.
These features make it a Ri
3.3 kΩ
nearly ideal buffer amplifier for
interfacing high-impedance
sources and low-impedance loads

It produces an excellent circuit for isolating one circuit stage from another,
which avoids "loading" effects.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Inverting Amplifier

We have: and

Since Iin = If , then

The overall gain is

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Example

Inverting Amplifier

Determine the gain of the inverting amplifier shown.

Rf

Rf 82 kΩ
Acl (I) = −
Ri Ri
–
82 kΩ 3.3 kΩ
= − Vout
3.3 kΩ Vin +

= −24.8

The minus sign

indicates inversion.
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Analysis of the2.2.1.
inverting configuration. The circled numbers indicate
the order of the analysis steps.
Closed-Loop Gain

• question: how will we…

– step #4: define vOut in terms of closed-loop
current flowing across R2
– step #5: substitute vin / R1 for gain
i1. G = -R2/R1

Oxford University Publishing

© 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Microelectronic
Electronic Circuits
Devices, 9th by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C. Smith (0195323033)
edition
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain

• Q: How does the gain expression change if open

loop gain (A) is not assumed to be infinite?
– A: One must employ analysis similar to the
previous, result is presented below…

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain

Collecting terms, the closed-loop

gain G is found as

GA = ∞

vOut −R2 / R1 R2
G= = ≠−
 1 + (R2 / R1 ) 
A<∞
vIn R1
1+ 

 A 
if A=∞ then the previous
gain expression is yielded
non-ideal gain ideal gain
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain

• Q: Under what condition can G = -R2 / R1 be

employed over the more complex expression?
– A: If 1 + (R2/R1) << A, then simpler expression
may be used.
R2 R2 −R2 / R1
if 1 + << A then GA=∞ = − else GA<∞ =
R1 R1  1 + (R2 / R1 ) 
1+ 
 A 

ideal gain non-ideal gain

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012Oxford
PearsonUniversity Publishing
Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Microelectronic
All rights reserved. Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and
Thomas L. Floyd
 Impedances of the Noninverting Amplifier

Input Impedance

From the Figure we get

Substituting IinZin = Vd , where Zin is open loop input impedance

Z in (NI)= (1 + Aol B ) Zin

The input impedance of the noninverting amplifier with negative
feedback is much greater than the internal open-loop input
impedance of the op-amp.
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Impedances of the Noninverting Amplifier

Output Impedance

Referring to the shown Figure,

after some mathematical
manipulations (Floyd 620) it
can be shown that the output
impedance of a noninverting
(NI) amplifier can be given as
Z out
Z out (NI) =
(1 + Aol B )
The output impedance of the noninverting amplifier with
negative feedback is much less than the internal open-loop input
impedance of the op-amp.
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Impedances of the Voltage-Follower

Since voltage-follower is a special case on noninverting

amplifier, the same formulas are used with B = 1, therfore

The input impedance of voltage-follower is very high, it can be

seen that it is extremely high as compared to the noninverting
amplifier as the feedback attenuation B = 1.
The same is true for the output impedance where the factor of
is removed so it becomes even less than the output impedance of
the noninverting amplifier.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Impedances of the Inverting Amplifier

Input Impedance

The input impedance of the inverting (I) amplifier is

This is because the input is in series with Ri and that is connected

to virtual ground so that is the only resistance seen by input.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Impedances of the Inverting Amplifier

Output Impedance

As with the noninverting amplifier, the output impedance of an

inverting (I) amplifier is decreased by the negative feedback.
In fact the the expression is the same as for the noninverting case.

The output impedance of the both noninverting and inverting

amplifier is low. In fact, practically it can be considered zero..

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Impedances

Noninverting amplifier:
Z in (NI)= (1 + Aol B ) Zin Generally, assumed to be ∞
Z out
Z out (NI) = Generally, assumed to be 0
(1 + Aol B )
Inverting amplifier:
Z in (I) ≅ Ri Generally, assumed to be Ri
Z out
Z out (I) = Generally, assumed to be 0
(1 + Aol B )
Note that the output impedance has the same form for both amplifiers.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Example

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 Solution

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 Example

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Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
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 Determine the closed-loop gain of each amplifier in Figure.

(a) 11 (b) 101 (c) 47.8 (d) 23

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 If a signal voltage of 10 mVrms is applied to each amplifier in
Figure, what are the output voltages and what is there phase
relationship with inputs?.

(a) Vout ≅ Vin = 10 mV, in phase (b) Vout = AclVin = – 10 mV, 180º out of
phase (c) Vout = 233 mV, in phase (d) Vout = – 100 mV, 180º out of phase
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Effect of Input Bias Current - Inverting Amplifier

An inverting amplifier with zero input voltage is shown.

Ideally, the current through Ri is zero because the input voltage
is zero and the voltage at the inverting terminal is zero.
The small input bias current, I1, is through Rf from the output
terminal. This produces an output error voltage I1Rf when it
should be zero

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Effect of Input Bias Current – Voltage Follower

A voltage-follower with zero input voltage and a source

resistance, Rs is shown.
In this case, an input bias current, I1, produces a drop across
Rs and creates an output voltage error -I1 Rs as shown.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Effect of Input Bias Current - Noninverting Amplifier

Consider a noninverting amplifier with zero input voltage.

The input bias current, I1, produces a voltage drop across
Rf and thus creates an output error voltage of I1Rf

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Bias Current Compensation – Voltage Follower

The output error voltage due to bias currents in a voltage-

follower can be sufficiently reduced by adding a resistor,
Rf , equal to the source resistance, Rs , in the feedback
path.
The voltage drop created by I1 across the added resistor
subtracts from the output error voltage (if I1 = I2 ).

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Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Bias Current Compensation – Inverting and Noninverting

To compensate for the effect of bias current in Inverting

and Noninverting Amplifiers, a resistor Rc is added at the
noninverting terminal.
The compensating resistor value equals the parallel
combination of Ri and Rf.
The input current creates a voltage drop across Rc that
offsets the voltage across the combination of Ri and Rf ,
thus sufficiently reducing the output error voltage.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Bias Current Compensation – Inverting and Noninverting

Rf Rf

Ri
– –
Vout Vout
Ri + Vin +

Rc = Ri || Rf Rc = Ri || Rf

Vin Noninverting
Inverting
amplifier
amplifier

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Effect of Input Offset Voltage

 The output of an op-amp should be zero when the

differential input is zero.
 Practically this is not the case. There is always an output
error voltage present whose range is typically in
microvolts to millivolts.
 This is due to the imbalances within the internal op-amp
transistors
 This output error voltage is aside from the one produced
by the input bias

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Input Offset Voltage Compensation

Most ICs provide a mean of compensating for offset voltage.

An external potentiometer to the offset null pins of IC package

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Bandwidth Limitations

 Frequency response of amplifiers is shown in a plot called Bode

Plot.
 In Bode plot, the frequency is on the horizontal axis and is in
logarithmic scale. It means that the frequency change is not
linear but ten-times. This ten-time change in frequency is called
a decade.
 The vertical axis shows the voltage gain in decibel (dB).
 The maximum gain on the plot is called the midrange gain.
 The point in the frequency response of amplifiers where the
gain is 3dB less than the midrange gain is called the critical
frequency.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Bandwidth Limitations

Aol (dB)
Midrange
106
100

75
–20 dB/decade roll-off

50

25
Unity-gain frequency (fT)
Critical frequency

0 f (Hz)
1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Bandwidth Limitations

 An open-loop response curve (Bode plot) for a certain op-amp

is shown.
 The differential open-loop gain Aol of an op amp is not
infinite; rather, it is finite and decreases with frequency.
 Note that although the gain is quite high at dc and low
frequencies, it starts to fall off at a rather low frequency.
 The process of modifying the open-loop gain is termed
frequency compensation, and its purpose is to ensure that op-
amp circuits will be stable (as opposed to oscillatory).
 These are units that have a network (usually a single
capacitor) included within the same IC chip whose function is
to cause the op-amp gain to have the single-time-constant
low-pass response shown.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Gain-Versus-Frequency Analysis

The RC lag (low-pass) circuits within an

op-amp are responsible for the roll-off in
gain as the frequency increases, just as for
the discrete amplifiers. The attenuation of
an RC lag circuit shown is expressed as:

The critical frequency of an RC circuit is:

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Gain-Versus-Frequency Analysis

If an op-amp is represented by a voltage gain element with a

gain of Aol(mid) plus a single RC lag circuit, as shown, it is
known as a compensated op-amp. The total open-loop gain of
the op-amp is the product of the midrange open-loop gain,
Aol(mid), and the attenuation of the RC circuit as:

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Phase Shift

An RC circuit causes a propagation delay from input to

output, thus creating a phase shift between the input signal
and the output signal. An RC lag circuit such as found in an
op-amp stage causes the output signal voltage to lag the input.
The phase shift, θ, is given by:

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Overall Frequency Response

 Most op-amps have a constant roll-off of -20 dB/decade

above its critical frequency. The more complex IC
operational amplifier may consist of two or more
cascaded amplifier stages.
 The gain of each stage is frequency dependent and rolls
off at above its critical frequency. Therefore, the total
response of an op-amp is a composite of the individual
responses of the internal stages. dB gains are added and
phase lags of the stages are added as shown in next slide
for a three stage op-amp.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 closed-loop frequency response

 Op-amps are usually used in a closed-loop configuration

with negative feedback in order to achieve precise
control of gain and bandwidth.
 Midrange gain of an op-amp is reduced by negative
feedback as we have already seen in previous sections.
 Now we will see its effects on bandwidth.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Effect of Negative Feedback on Bandwidth

 The closed-loop critical frequency of an op-amp is given by:

𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐) = 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑙 (1 + 𝐵𝐵𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 )
Where B is the feedback attenuation of the closed-loop op-amp.
 The above expression shows that the closed-loop critical
frequency, 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐) , is higher than the open-loop critical
frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 by a factor of (1 + 𝐵𝐵𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 )
 Since 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐) equals bandwidth therefore the closed-loop
bandwidth, 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 , is also increased:
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑙 (1 + 𝐵𝐵𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 )

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

Bandwidth Limitations
The Figure shows the concept of closed-loop response. When the open-
loop gain is reduced due to negative feedback, the bandwidth is
increased. A v
Open-loop gain
Aol(mid )

This means that you can

achieve a higher BW by
accepting less gain.
Closed-loop gain
Acl(mid )

f
0 fc(ol) fc(cl )

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Gain-Bandwidth Product

 An increase in the closed-loop gain causes a decrease in the

bandwidth and vice versa, such that the product of gain and
bandwidth is constant.
 If 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is the gain of an op-amp with 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐) bandwidth then:
𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐) = 𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐(𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑙)
 The equation, Acl fc(cl) = Aol fc(ol) shows that the product of the
gain and bandwidth are constant.
 The gain-bandwidth product is always equal to the frequency
at which the op-amp’s open-loop gain is unity or 0 dB (unity
gain bandwidth, 𝑓𝑓𝑇𝑇 )
𝑓𝑓𝑇𝑇 = 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐)

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Example

Determine the bandwidth of each of the amplifiers shown.

Both op-amps have an open-loop gain of 100 dB and a unity-
gain bandwidth (fT ) of 3 MHz.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Solution

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Selected Key Terms
Oper ational A type of amplifier that has very high voltage
amplifier gain, very high input impedance, very low
output impedance and good rejection of
common-mode signals.

Differential A mode of op-amp operation in which two

mode opposite-polarity signals voltages are applied to
the two inputs (double-ended) or in which a
signal is applied to one input and ground to the
other input (single-ended).

Common mode A condition characterized by the presence of

the same signal on both inputs

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Selected Key Terms
Open-loop The voltage gain of an op-amp without external
voltage gain feedback.

Negative The process of returning a portion of the output

feedback signal to the input of an amplifier such that it is
out of phase with the input.

Closed-loop The voltage gain of an op-amp with external

voltage gain feedback.

Gain- A constant parameter which is always equal to

bandwidth the frequency at which the op-amp’s open-loop
product gain is unity (1).

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

1. The ideal op-amp has

a. zero input impedance and zero output impedance
b. zero input impedance and infinite output impedance
c. infinite input impedance and zero output impedance
d. infinite input impedance and infinite output
impedance

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

2. The type of signal represented in the figure is a

a. single-ended common-mode signal
b. single-ended differential signal
c. double-ended common-mode signal
d. double-ended differential signal

–
Vin Vout
+

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

3. CMRR can be expressed in

a. amps
b. volts
c. ohms
d. none of the above

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

4. The difference in the two dc currents required to bias the

differential amplifier in an op-amp is called the
a. differential bias current
b. input offset current
c. input bias current
d. none of the above

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

5. To measure the slew rate of an op-amp, the input signal is a

a. pulse
b. triangle wave
c. sine wave
d. none of the above

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

6. The input impedance of a noninverting amplifier is

a. nearly 0 ohms
b. approximately equal to Ri
c. approximately equal to Rf
d. extremely large

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

7. The noninverting amplifier has a gain of 11. Assume that

Vin = 1.0 V. The approximate value of Vf is
a. 0 V
Vin +

b. 100 mV Vout

Vf – Rf
c. 1.0 V 10 kΩ

d. 11 V Ri
1.0 kΩ

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

8. The inverting amplifier has a gain of −10. Assume that

Vin = 1.0 V. The approximate value of the voltage at the
inverting terminal of the op-amp is
a. 0 V Rf

10 kΩ
b. 100 mV Ri
–
1.0 kΩ
c. 1.0 V Vout
Vin +
d. 10 V

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

9. To compensate for bias current, the value of Rc should

be equal to
a. Ri Rf

b. Rf
Ri
–
c. Ri||Rf
Vout

d. Ri + Rf Vin +

Rc

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

10. Given a noninverting amplifier with a gain of 10 and a

gain-bandwidth product of 1.0 MHz, the expected high
critical frequency is
a. 100 Hz
b. 1.0 kHz
c. 10 kHz
d. 100 kHz

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

Answers:
1. c 6. d
2. d 7. c
3. d 8. a
4. b 9. c
5. a 10. d

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.