7-QC Tools

1) Run Chart:
A run chart is a line graph of data plotted over time. By collecting and charting data over time, you
can find trends or patterns in the process. Because they do not use control limits, run charts cannot
tell you if a process is stable. However, they can show you how the process is running. The run chart
can be a valuable tool at the beginning of a project, as it reveals important information about a
process before you have collected enough data to create reliable control limits.

2) Pareto Diagram or chart:

The Pareto Principle states that 80% of the results are determined by 20% of the causes. Therefore,
you should try to find the 20% of defect types that are causing 80% of all defects. While the 80/20
rule does not apply perfectly to the example above, focusing on just 2 types of defects (Button and
Pocket) has the potential to remove the majority of all defects (66%).

A Pareto Chart is a graph that indicates the frequency of defects, as well as their cumulative impact.
Pareto Charts are useful to find the defects to prioritize in order to observe the greatest overall
improvement. A Pareto Chart is a combination of a bar graph and a line graph. Notice the presence of
both bars and a line on the Pareto Chart below.
3) Fish bone diagram or Ishikawa diagram:
The fishbone diagram or Ishikawa diagram is a cause-and-effect diagram that helps managers to track
down the reasons for imperfections, variations, defects, or failures.

4) Histogram:
A frequency distribution shows how often each different value in a set of data occurs. A histogram is the most
commonly used graph to show frequency distributions.
Use a histogram when:
- The data are numerical
- You want to see the shape of the data’s distribution, especially when determining whether the
output of a process is distributed approximately normally.
- Analyzing whether a process can meet the customer’s requirements.
- Analyzing what the output from a supplier’s process looks like.
- Seeing whether a process change has occurred from one time period to another.
- Determining whether the outputs of two or more processes are different.
- You wish to communicate the distribution of data quickly and easily to others

5) Control chart or Shewhart chart:

The control chart is a graph used to study how a process changes over time. Data are plotted in time
order. A control chart always has a central line for the average, an upper line for the upper control
limit, and a lower line for the lower control limit. These lines are determined from historical data. By
comparing current data to these lines, you can draw conclusions about whether the process variation
is consistent (in control) or is unpredictable (out of control, affected by special causes of variation).

Control charts for variable data are used in pairs. The top chart monitors the average, or the
centering of the distribution of data from the process. The bottom chart monitors the range, or the
 width of the distribution. If your data were shots in target practice, the average is where the shots
are clustering, and the range is how tightly they are clustered. Control charts for attribute data are
used singly.

6) Scatter diagram:
A scatter diagram (Also known as scatter plot, scatter graph, and correlation chart) is a tool for
analyzing relationships between two variables for determining how closely the two variables are
related. One variable is plotted on the horizontal axis and the other is plotted on the vertical axis. The
pattern of their intersecting points can graphically show relationship patterns.
Most often a scatter diagram is used to prove or disprove cause-and-effect relationships. While the
diagram shows relationships, it does not by itself prove that one variable causes the other. Thus, we
can use a scatter diagram to examine theories about cause-and-effect relationships and to search for
root causes of an identified problem.
For example, we can analyze the pattern of motorcycle accidents on a highway. You select the two
variables: motorcycle speed and number of accidents and draw the diagram. Once the diagram is
completed, you notice that as the speed of vehicle increases, the number of accidents also goes up.
This shows that there is a relationship between the speed of vehicles and accidents happening on the
highway.
7) Check sheet:
The Check Sheet is a simple document that is used for collecting data in real time and at the location
where the data is generated. The document is typically a blank form that is designed for the quick,
easy, and efficient recording of the desired information, which can be either quantitative or
qualitative. When the information is quantitative, the check sheet is sometimes called a tally sheet.

A defining characteristic of a check sheet is that data is recorded by making marks (“checks”) on it. A
typical check sheet is divided into regions, and marks made in different regions have different
significance. Data is read by observing the location and number of marks on the sheet. Five basic
types of check sheets include:
- Classification check sheet
- Defect location check sheet
- Frequency check sheet
- Measurement scale check sheet
- Check list

 Accuracy & Precision:

- Accuracy is how close a measured value is to the actual (true) value.
- Precision is how close the measured values are to each other.

High Accuracy Low Accuracy High Accuracy

Low Precision High Precision High Precision

 GD & T:
Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T) is a precise language of engineering symbols that
clearly communicate the design intent of the part. The result is an improvement in communication
and part quality. Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T) is a language of symbols used to
describe a part’s nominal geometry and the allowable tolerance for variation. When applied properly
the design engineer can concisely define a features location, size, shape and orientation on the part.
GD&T is intended as an addition to the coordinate dimensioning system, not as a complete
replacement.  The GD&T methodology takes into consideration the function of a part and how that
part functions with related parts. Therefore, for proper application of GD&T you must have a
thorough understanding of the function of the part within an assembly. GD&T has established
standards used throughout the world. The proper application of GD&T is defined within an American
Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) standard used primarily in the United States and within an
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standard used by many European countries.
The Datum Reference Frame (DRF) in design engineering is a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate
system. It’s arguably the most important concept in GD&T. The DRF is the skeleton of the geometric
system—it’s the frame of reference to which all referenced geometric specifications are related and
the origin of all dimensions and geometric specifications related to it.
A DRF establishes Six Degrees of Freedom (DOF), three translational and three rotational. In order to
design, manufacture, and verify parts, the necessary DOF must be constrained. Parts are mated to
the DRF so measurements, processing, and calculations can be made.
There’s an important distinction between datums and datum features. Datums are points, axes
(lines), and planes, or some combination of these components, that make up the DRF. Datum
features are the actual, physical features (holes, faces, slots, etc.) on the part. They’re not perfect—
they have variation. The illustrations below are provided to emphasize that Datums (left) are
theoretical (perfect) and datum features (right) are real (imperfect).
 Process Capability (Cp & Cpk):
Cp – Process capability
Cpk – Process capability index
Process capability analysis is carried out to measure the ability of a process to meet specification.

Process capability – Cp:  This is defined as the tolerance width divided by the total spread of process
(6 Sigma). Cp indicates the spread of variation present in a process.

Process Capability Index – Cpk:  This is the capability index that accounts for the centering of the
process and is defined as the minimum of Cpk upper and Cpk lower.
Cpk is a measure of process performance capability.
Cpk indicates shifting or closeness of process average from the target or mean value.
 Interpretations of Cp and Cpk
When the Cp >1: The process spread is less and all products fall within the specification limit. Here
the process is said to be quite capable of meeting the specification limit.
When the Cp =1: The process spread is little wide but running within the designed specification limit.
Here the process is said to be just capable of meeting the specification limit.
When the Cp <1: The process spread is large and most of the products fall outside the specification
limit. Here the process is said to be incapable.
When Cp=Cpk: The Process means is said to be at centre.
When the Cpk <1: Indicates that the mean of the process is shifted from target and defects will be
produced.
When the Cpk >1: The center or mean of the process may be shifted from target but still the process
is capable of meeting design specification.
In order to achieve Six Sigma quality in the organization, we must reduce the variation in the process
so as to achieve the desired value of Cp.
Note: Cp ≥ 1.33 during the normal production process. And the recommended value of Cp is ≥
1.67 during the new product development-NPD stage.

 Quality Core tools:

1) Advanced Product Quality Planning (APQP) – 2nd Edition (2008)
2) Failure Mode & Effects Analysis (FMEA) – 4th Edition
3) Measurement System Analysis (MSA) – 4th Edition
4) Statistical Process Control (SPC)
5) Production Part Approval Process (PPAP) – 4th Edition

 Cost of Quality (COQ):

Cost of quality (COQ) is defined as a methodology that allows an organization to determine the
extent to which its resources are used for activities that prevent poor quality, that appraise the
quality of the organization’s products or services, and that result from internal and external failures.
Having such information allows an organization to determine the potential savings to be gained by
implementing process improvements.

 Cost of Poor Quality (COPQ):

Cost of poor quality (COPQ) is defined as the costs associated with providing poor quality products or
services. There are three categories:
 1) Appraisal costs are costs incurred to determine the degree of conformance to quality
requirements.
2) Internal failure costs are costs associated with defects found before the customer receives the
product or service.
3) External failure costs are costs associated with defects found after the customer receives the
product or service.
Quality-related activities that incur costs may be divided into prevention costs, appraisal costs, and
internal and external failure costs.

 Production Part Approval Process (PPAP):

Production Part Approval Process (PPAP) is a valuable tool for establishing confidence in component
suppliers and their production processes. PPAP defines the approval process for new or revised parts,
or parts produced from new or significantly revised production methods.
The PPAP process verifies that the supplier understands all customer engineering design
specifications and requirements and that the process is capable of consistently producing product
meeting those requirements during an actual production run at the quoted production rate.
 Level 1 – Part Submission Warrant (PSW) only submitted to the customer
 Level 2 – PSW with product samples and limited supporting data
 Level 3 – PSW with product samples and complete supporting data
 Level 4 – PSW and other requirements as defined by the customer
 Level 5 – PSW with product samples and complete supporting data available for review at the
supplier’s manufacturing location
 Elements of PPAP:
1. Design records
2. Authorized Engineering Change (note) Documents
3. Engineering Approval
4. DFMEA
5. Process flow diagram
6. PFMEA
7. Control plan
8. Measurement system analysis (MSA)
9. Dimensional results
10. Records of material / performance tests
11. Initial sample inspection report
12. Statistical process control (SPC)
13. Qualified laboratory documentation
14. Appearance approval report
15. Sample production parts
16. Master sample
17. Checking aids
18. Customer specific requirements
19. Part Submission Warrant (PSW)

 Advanced Product Quality Planning (APQP):

APQP is a structured approach to product and process design. This framework is a standardized set of
quality requirements that enable suppliers to design a product that satisfies the customer. It is similar
to Design for Six Sigma (DFSS).
Objectives:
- Facilitate effective communication with everyone involved in APQP process.
 - Timely completion of required steps.
- No or minimal quality complaints.
- Assure product quality, process quality & performance.
- Meeting customer’s requirements.

5 – Phases of APQP:
1) Plan & define program
2) Product design & development
3) Process design & development
4) Product & process validation
5) Feedback, Assessment & corrective action

 ISO 9001:2015:
Clauses:
1. Scope
2. Normative reference
3. Terms & definitions
4. Context of the organization
5. Leadership
6. Planning
7. Support
8. Operation
9. Performance evaluation
10. Improvement
7- Quality management principles:
- Customer focus
- Leadership
- Engagement of people
- Process approach
- Improvement
- Evidence-based decision making
- Relationship management