What Is Radiation Dosimetry?

Radiation dosimetry in the fields of radiation protection is the

measurement, calculation and assessment of the ionizing
radiation dose absorbed by an object, usually the human body.
This applies both internally, due to ingested or inhaled radioactive
substances, or externally due to irradiation by sources of
radiation.
Internal dosimetry assessment relies on a variety of monitoring,
bio-assay or radiation imaging techniques, while external
dosimetry is based on measurements with a dosimeter, or inferred
from measurements made by other radiological protection
instruments.

1
 What Is Radiation Dosimetry?

Dosimetry is used extensively for radiation protection and is

routinely applied to monitor occupational radiation workers, where
irradiation is expected, or where radiation is unexpected, such as in
the aftermath of the Three Mile Island, Chernobyl or Fukushima
radiological release incidents. The public dose take-up is measured
and calculated from a variety of indicators such as ambient
measurements of gamma radiation, radioactive particulate
monitoring, and the measurement of levels of radioactive
contamination.
Other significant areas are medical dosimetry, where the required
treatment absorbed dose and any collateral absorbed dose is
monitored, and in environmental dosimetry, such as radon
monitoring in buildings.
2
 External Exposure

 External Exposure
 Dose exists only
when source
is present
 Dose is related
to: time, distance
and shielding

3
 Internal Exposure

 Internal Exposure
 Inhalation
 Ingestion
 Dermal Absorption
 Wounds
 Nature of Exposure
 Protracted from intake
of radioactivity

4
 External Dose

The external dose is incurred when the radioactive

source is present externally to the body. The dose
discontinues when the source ceases to exist. Thus
the external dose is a snapshot with the presence
of the source.

External dose is proportional to the time duration of the exposure.

5
 Internal Dose
 Unlike the external dose, for internal dose what matters
is the amount of intake (by inhalation or ingestion) to
the human body
 Once enters the body, the body’s physiological
property plus the physical/chemical property of the
radionuclide will determine the amount of radiation
delivered to each affected organ and the dose
received over time.
 The effective dose is the sum of the equivalent
weighted by the tissue weighting factors

Unlike external dose the internal dose incurs once the intake of radioactivity
begins and stays for an extended time period. 6
60/103 Characteristics of Internal
And External Doses
Equivalent Dose

7
 Total Dose Calculation
Total Dose = External Dose + Internal Dose
Dtot = Dex + Din

= DR x T + Din
Where
Dex = External dose
DR = the external dose rate
T = time duration of exposure to external
sources
Din= the “committed” internal dose for a given
source intake (= inhalation dose +
ingestion dose)
8
9
External Dosimetry

10
11
 Basic Elements of External Dosimetry

Source Shielding Receptor

(Dose)
Time & (Attenuation)
Distance

Factors determines external dose: Time, Distance & Shielding

12
 External Dose Protection
Time, Distance & Shielding

13
Types of Radiation and Source

 Alpha Radiation
 Beta Radiation
 X-Ray
 ϒ Radiation
 Neutron Radiation
 Heavy Charged Particles
• Heavy Ions
• Fission Fragments

14
 Medical Applications Radiation Sources by
 X-Ray Application
 Gamma Ray
 Radioactive Source

 Industrial Application
 X-Ray
 Gamma Ray
 Radioactive Source

 Environmental Radiations
 Naturally Occurring Radiations
 Environmental Releases
 Environmental Contamination

15
 Machine Generated Sources
• Medical (diagnostics & treatment)
• X-Ray Machines
• Radioactive Sources
• Industrial Facility & Devices
• X-Ray Machines
• Radioactive Sources
• Research Facilities
• X-Ray Machines
• Radioactive Sources
• Nuclear Power Facilities
• X-Ray, Gamma Ray, Charged Particles,
Neutrons, Fission Products
• Accelerators
• X-Ray, Gamma Ray, Charged Particles,
Neutrons
16
 Manmade Radioactive Sources
A radioactive source is a known quantity of a radionuclide which
emits ionizing radiation; typically one or more of the radiation
types gamma rays, alpha particles, beta particles, and neutron
radiation.
Sources can be used for irradiation, where the radiation performs
a significant ionizing function on a target material, or as a
radiation metrology source, which is used for the calibration of
radiometric process and radiation protection instrumentation.
They are also used for industrial process measurements, such as
thickness gauging in the paper and steel industries. Sources can
be sealed in a container (highly penetrating radiation) or
deposited on a surface (weakly penetrating radiation), or they
can be in a fluid.

17
 Manmade Radioactive Sources

As an irradiation source they are used in medicine for radiation

therapy and in industry for such as industrial radiography, food
irradiation, sterilization, vermin disinfestation, and irradiation
crosslinking of PVC.
Radionuclides are chosen according to the type and character of the
radiation they emit, intensity of emission, and the half-life of their
decay. Common source radionuclides include cobalt-60, iridium-
192, and strontium-90. The SI measurement quantity of source
activity is the Becquerel, though the historical unit Curies is still in
partial use, such as in the USA, despite the USA NIST strongly
advising the use of the SI unit. The SI unit for health purposes is
mandatory in the EU.

18
 Example of Radioactive Source: Co-60

(Excited State)

Activity: 1 Bq = dis/s
1 Ci = 3.7x1010 Bq
dN/dt = - λ N
N(t) = N0 Exp (-λt)
(Stable State)

19
Source Geometries for External Radiation
 Parallel Beam
• Medical
• Industrial
• Research
 Collimated Beam
• Medical
• Industrial
• Research
 Point Source
• Broad Range of
Applications

20
 Source Geometries for External Radiation

 Line/Cylindrical Source
• Industrial
• Research

 Plane (isotropic) Source

• Surface Distributed
Source
• Surface/Land
Contamination

21
 Point Source Configuration

Shield Thickness
For a point source
S0 X
Flux φ (r,x) = Ф0 Exp (-μx), (m-2s-1)
Ф0(r) = unshielded
flux = S0/4πr2 , (m-2s-1)
S0 = Source (radioactivity), (s-1)
r = source to receptor
r distance (cm)
x = shield thickness (cm)

22
 Radiation Shielding

 Radiation Type
 Material
 Density
 Thickness
 Configuration
(The effectiveness of the
shielding is determined by
the total attenuation
coefficient μ)

23
 Radiation Fields: Quantities and units
Quantity Definition Units
Particle rate No. particles passing a point or s-1
(dN/dt) emitted per unit time (dN/dt)
Particle fluence No. particles incident on a cross m-2
(dN/dA) sectional area, (dN/dA)
Particle flux Particle fluence per unit time (F ) m-2s-1
(F)
Energy rate Total amount of energy passing a MeV s-1
(EdN/dt) point or emitted per unit time
(EdN/dt)
Energy fluence Total amount of energy passing MeV m-2
(EdN/dA) through a cross sectional area
(E F), (EdN/dA)
Energy flux Energy fluence per unit time MeV m-2s-1
(E F) (E dF/dt)

24
Units defined by ICRU: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements.
25
Description of Radiation Field

26
 Description of Radiation Field
(Definition of Fluence and Flux)

 Flux φ is the time rate of fluence (the italic symbol φ is used

For fluence.). φ = dФ/dt = d (dN/dA)/dt , Unit: m-2sec-1.
27
Description of Radiation Field
(Energy Fluence)

28
 Photon Attenuation
(Parallel Beam, Slab Geometry)
Flux φ(x) = φ0 Exp (-μx)
φ0 = unshielded flux (photon/s/cm2)
Φ(x) = shielded flux (photon/s/cm2)
μ = linear attenuation coefficient of the shield
material (cm-1)
x = shield thickness (cm) φ 0 φ Exp (-μx)
0

For a parallel beam φ0 = incident photon flux.

29
 Radiation Attenuation

In Unit 2 & 3 we have discussed α, β, and ϒ radiations and learned

that both α and β radiations have short ranges so in practically
terms we like to focus primarily on the attenuation of ϒ rays.
We however do not have time to cover neutrons in this class.
30
Photon Linear Attenuation Coefficients

31
Mass Attenuation Coefficients (μ/ρ)

μ = (μ/ρ)ρ = MAC x ρ

32
 Photon Interaction Mechanisms
(Mass Attenuation Coefficient)
Characteristic
X-Rays

Gamma Ray Regime

Electron Rest (higher energies)
Energy = 0.511
MeV
Photon Cross Section

(Low-Energy
Scattering)
C.S. P.P.
P.E.

33
Linear and Mass Attenuation Coefficient

34
35
Attenuation Coefficients for Dry Air

mass attenuation coefficient

mass energy absorption coefficient

36
 NIST Database
(National Institute of Science and Technology)

https://www.nist.gov/pml/x-ray-and-gamma-ray-data
37
Table 4 Attenuation Coefficients for Elements

38
NIST Database

39
 Topics To Be Covered

More on radiation shielding will be discussed in Unit 8.

40
 Radiation Shielding*

(For X-rays and gammas)

Note: Detailed in shielding will be covered in Unit 8 Radiation

Shielding. Only basic principles will be discussed here.
41
Radiation Shielding
(Attenuation)

(This subject is deferred to Unit 8)

42
Shielding Considerations

43
Beta Particle Shielding

44
Beta Particle Shielding

45
Beta Particle Shielding: Electron Ranges

R= dx/(dE/dx)

= (1/S) dx

46
Variations in Electron Range

47
 Range (R in g/cm2) of Electrons

R = Range in (g/cm2)
T = Electron energy (or maximum beta) (MeV)

(g/cm2)

Or

(g/cm2)

Or
48
Electron Range by Energy

49
Alpha Particle Shielding

50
Energy Straggling of Alpha Particles
Hard collisions with
Soft collisions with
atomic nucleus
atomic electrons
Energy Straggling

51
 Range of Alpha in Air

Rair in cm

Method 1 (Cember)
for range in medium
other than air. Rm in
mg/cm2, Rair in cm.

52
 Alpha Ranges in Media Other than Air
(Method II: The Bragg-Kleeman Scaling Rule)
Bragg-Kleeman Scaling Rule

M is the effective
atomic mass: 1 = air, 2=other

M is the atomic mass, and

ρ is density (g/cm3) of the
absorber. Effective atomic
mass for air M1 = 14.6 g/mole

http://holbert.faculty.asu.edu/eee460/IonizationRange.pdf
53
 Alpha and Beta Shielding

Within the scope of general practices α- and β-particles

do not have substantial ranges that would cause a
concern (e.g., for α the ranges are within a mini-meter
in most materials, for β within 1 cm). Thus unless the
energies involved are in the hundreds of thousands of
MeV (such as in cases of the space radiation) we will
focus our attention on photons.

54
 Energy Absorption of Photons

Energy Deposition and Dose Calculation

55
Photon Energies Transferred to Charged Particles
 Photoelectric Effect:
Maximum energy carried by the ejected electron
is (see Unit 2; E = hν)
Etr = (Kmax is appro.
equal to )
 Compton Scattering:
The photon energy transferred Etr to electrons is:
Etr = Ech = E – E’, (E’ = scattered photon)

(Note here E’ is scattered photon energy)

A photon only loses SOME of its energy to charged particles
on every interaction. 56
 Photon Energies
Transferred to Charged Particles

 Pair Production:
The photon energy (> 1.022 MeV)
transferred to the pair of electron and
positron is

Etr =
= 1.022 MeV
Note: Energy of the rest mass of electron or positron is 0.511 MeV.
And the emitted positron may combine shortly to reemerge as
two 0.511 MeV photons.
57
 Energy Deposition from Photon Interactions

The energy transferred from the three photon

interaction mechanisms will likely to deposit locally as
the electrons (or positions) are scattered by the
incoming photons.
If we assume that the energy transferred is deposited
locally, then this deposited amount of energy will
become the basis for calculating the energy absorbed
by the medium. This assumes
The electrons (or positrons) do not further transport or
are not losing the energy. Based on this assumption, a
concept of KERMA is introduced below.

58
 Definition of KERMA

KERMA is an acronym for "kinetic energy

released per unit mass", defined as the sum of
the initial kinetic energies of all the charged
particles liberated by uncharged ionizing
radiation (i.e., indirectly ionizing radiation such
as photons and neutrons) in a sample of matter
(as in a detector), divided by the mass of the
sample. It is defined by the quotient

K = d Etr / d m .

59
 Energy Transferred and Energy Imparted

In the following slides we will discuss the very

important concepts in radiation dosimetry. This will
involve the concepts of energy transferred and energy
imparted.
Energy transferred is the energy of the indirect
ionization radiation such as photons transferred to
charged particles by collision (via photoelectric,
Compton Scattering and pair production).
Energy imparted is the energy of charged particles
Imparted to matter (or actually absorbed by the
matter).
60
 Differences Between the Energy Transferred
and Energy Imparted
The energy transferred assumes the electrons involved
DO NOT lose its energy once scattered by the incoming
photon. This condition cannot hold under the following
two conditions:
1. The electron is so energetic and it continues to
travel in the medium
2. The electron undergoes radiative energy loss vis
emitting the Bremsstrahlung (and the X-ray
escapes the medium).
These situations are explained below.
61
 Differences Between
Energy Transferred and Energy Imparted
(Energy
Escaped
Ech Ech – Ech’)

(Energy Ech’
E Transferred) E (Energy
(Charged Imparted)
(Incident Particle
Photon) Released)

Energy transferred Energy Imparted

to kinetic energy of to the matter by
charged particle charged particle
Etr = Ech Eim = Ech’ , (Ech’ < Ech)
(Note here Ech is the kinetic energy of the charged particle) 62
 Explanation of Slide No. 63 Above
 The kinetic energy of the charged particle (Ech) is shown in
slide P. 60. Thus Energy transfer Etr = Ech in the left diagram. In
the right diagram, if the particle is energetic enough to escape
the control volume of tissue (or detector) only part of its
energy Eim will deposit within the volume (Eim is called
imparted energy), while the remainder amount (Ech - Eim) will
escape. The amount (Eim) is the actual amount absorbed by
the tissue within the volume of interest.

 The absorbed dose D is defined by the energy imparted Eim by

the mass of the volume m, or D = Eim/m. But since Ech is a lot
easier to calculate, we usually approximate Eim by
Ech (remember Eim < Ech). So KERMA is sometimes used to
approximate the absorbed dose (KERMA is defined as Ech/m;
see P. 64). When charged particle equilibrium exists absorbed
dose is equal to KERMA as will be discussed later in the
lecture.
63
The Concept of KERMA (Energy Transferred)

Ek,1 is not generated

within the volume and
so is not counted into
KERMA.

KERMA is the total kinetic energy generated within the volume of interest.
This is the amount of photon energy transferred to the kinetic energy. 64
 KERMA
Kerma can be directly calculated (energy transfer to
charged particles) while absorbed dose is NOT. So it
is sometimes useful to use Kerma (using )
to approximate absorbed dose (using ).
While kerma approximately equals absorbed dose
( is small) at low energies, kerma is much higher
than absorbed dose at higher photon energies ( is
not negligible, because some energy escapes from
the absorbing volume in the form of bremsstrahlung
(X-rays) or fast-moving electrons, and is not counted
as absorbed dose.
65
 Photon Energy Transfer Coefficient (μtr)

A modified attenuation
coefficient to account for
energy transfer.

Note: < E = hν; thus μtr< μ

66
 Energies Imparted by Radiation

Photons such as X-ray or gamma ray are indirect ionizing radiation

While charged particles such as beta or alpha are direct ionizing radiation.
67
 But We Really Want Is Absorbed Dose
Definition of Absorbed Dose

Energy imparted
Within one unit of mass

 1 rad = 100 erg/g; 1 Gray (Gy) = 1 J/kg; 1 Gy = 100 rad

Note: Energy imparted is the amount of energy from ionizing

radiations absorbed in the matter
68
 KERMA and Absorbed Dose

KERMA can be good surrogate for the energy absorbed but

they are not quite the same. This is because not all the
kinetic energies of the charged particles generated within
the volume are absorbed there. Each charged particle will
traverse through the volume and deposit some portions of
their energies accordingly.

Thus the Absorbed Dose KERMA

In general the Absorbed Dose is < KERMA (or Very close)

69
 Absorbed Dose (Energy Imparted)
The heavy lines (black) represent energy imparted
The light lines (red) are energy transferred.

Count only the

dark segments
within volume V

Energy absorbed in volume V is < energy transferred 70

 KERMA Vs Absorbed Dose

Electron If an electron is released

Depth Dose from V, the amount of
Chart with energy it spends within V
Its Range (shaded area) is counted
as absorbed dose. If the
Entire range lies within V
then the absorbed dose
= KERMA; this means
the electron spends its
r entire kinetic energy
inside V. Thus the absorbed
Released Electron Trajectory of dose is either = or < than
(assumed at the the electron KERMA.
Center)

Sensitive Volume V
Photon Energy Absorption Coefficient (μen)

The energy absorption

coefficient is further
reduced from the energy
transfer coefficient.
Thus μen < μtr 72
Mass Attenuation Coefficient
(Soft Tissue ICRU #44)

mass attenuation coefficient

mass energy absorption coefficient

(µ/ρ)

(µen/ρ)

73
 Absorbed Dose

Absorbed Dose D = K x E x (µen/ρ) x φ

Where
E = Photon energy (MeV)
(µen/ρ) = Energy absorption coefficient (cm2/g)
Φ = Photon flux (photon/cm2/second)
K = Conversion factor (unit to be derived later)
74
 Charged Particle Equilibrium

In radiological physics, charged-particle

equilibrium (CPE) occurs when the number of
charged particles leaving a volume is equal to
the number entering, for each energy and type
of particle. Under this circumstance Kerma
equals to the absorbed dose.

See next page when β = 1; when all charged

particles escaping the volume are EQUALLY
replenished by the incoming charged particles.
75
 (When the photon
Flux does not vary much
Over the range of photons
The CPE can be established.

charged particle equilibrium exists

when the absorbed dose equals to In electronic equilibrium
KERMA the incoming track equals
V The outgoing track in V
76
 Attenuation Coefficient (μ)
and Energy Absorption Coefficient (μen)
μ φ = rate of photon
Interaction per unit
volume (cm-3s-1)
μ
E μen φ = rate of
photon energy
μen absorbed per unit
volume (MeV cm-3s1)

We use this to
calculate the
absorbed dose of
photons
77
 From Photon Interactions to KERMA
to Energy Absorption (Absorbed Dose)
Incident Interaction
Photon (E) (Initial energy
interactions)

(Accounting
Photon for the transfer of
KERMA Energy the kinetic
energy of the
Transfer scattered
electrons)

Absorbed Energy
Dose Absorbed
(Accounting further
the transport of
µ > µ tr > µen the electrons)
78
 Mass Energy-Absorption Coefficient
(Used for Calculating the Absorbed Dose)

79
 Calculating the Absorbed Dose
Absorbed Dose Rate DR:
= (μen/ρ)tissue E φ; (cm2/g) (MeV)((cm-2s-1)
= 1x10-6 (μen/ρ)tissue E φ (erg/g/s)
(1 rad = 100 erg/g
= 1x10-8 (μen/ρ)tissue E φ (rad/s)
Note: E φ is the energy flux
(MeV cm2 s-1)
Absorbed dose = DR x T φ is the photon flux (cm-2 s-1)
E is photon energy in MeV φ(x) = φ(0) exp (-μx)
(μen/ρ) tissue = mass energy absorption
coefficient of tissue (cm2/g)
Ф = photon flux (cm-2 s-1)
T = time duration of exposure (s)

80
 Calculation of Dose
φ(x) =φ(0) exp (-μx)
Shield (X)
Dose Rate DR = (μen/ρ)tissue E φ

φ(0) Dose D = (μen/ρ)tissue E φ T

μ = linear attenuation
coefficient of shield

(μen/ρ)tissue = mass energy

Absorption coefficient
of tissue
81
Use μ/ρ for attenuation
Use (μ/ρ)tissue for dose
calculation

82
Photoelectric
Effect Etr = hν - Ф

Taken from NIST Database

Compton
Scattering
Etr = hν – hν’
Pair Production
Etr = hν - 1.022 MeV

83
 Roentgen: The First Unit to
Quantify ionizing Photons

Radiation creates ion

pairs in the medium
(such as air) thus
Ion Pairs allowing for detection
Incident
of ionizing radiation.
Photons
It takes 34 eV to create
an ion pair in air.
Background: In early times (1908 and the decades that followed ) there was
no definition of the dose, thus quantifying the radiation intensity focuses on
the ionization power of the X-rays in air. This resulted in the definition of
Roentgen that measures the EXPOSURE of the X-rays in air.
84
 Concept of Roentgen
Gamma Exposure in Air
Roentgen: the international unit of x-radiation or gamma
radiation equal to the amount of radiation that produces in
one cubic centimeter of dry air at 0°C and standard
atmospheric pressure ionization of either sign equal to one
electrostatic unit of charge.
The roentgen or röntgen (symbol R) is a legacy unit of
measurement for the exposure of X-rays and gamma rays. It is
defined as the electric charge freed by such radiation in a
specified volume of air divided by the mass of that air. In 1928
it was the first international measurement quantity
(International Commission on Radiation Units and
Measurements, ICRU) for ionizing radiation to be defined for
radiation protection, and was an easily replicated method of
measuring air ionization directly by using an ion chamber. It is
named after the German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen, who
discovered X-rays.
85
 Mean Energy to Produce Ion Pairs in Air
The mean energy required to form an ion pair (W value) is defined as the
mean energy (expressed in eV) spent by the incident particle of energy E for
the formation of a pair of an electron and a positive ion after complete
dissipation of the initial energy, W = E/N, where N is the total number of
produced electron-ion pairs. For high-energy particles in thin media, when
only a fraction of the particle energy (dE) is deposited in a medium, it is
necessary to consider the differential w value, w = dE/dN. For sufficiently
high incident energy, W value is approximately constant, and w = W is a good
approximation. Available data on W or w are often fragmented, dispersed,
and missing systematic, but several compilations and reviews, such as ICRU
Report 31 and IAEA TECDOC 799, provide a basis for assessing the present
knowledge of W values for different charged particles in various gases. Most
available data exist for electrons, and therefore the W value for high-energy
electrons (higher than 10 keV) in dry air is well defined, 33.97 ± 0.05 eV, and
also a dependence on air humidity has been studied. W and w values for
high-energy protons (higher than 20 MeV) have been recently carefully
analyzed and the value of 34.23 eV, with ± 0.4 percent, has been
recommended.
(Source: IAEA) 86
Specific Ionization

87
 The Origin and Definition of Roentgen
In 1928, the International Congress of Radiology (ICRU) defined
the roentgen as "the quantity of X-radiation which, when the
secondary electrons are fully utilized and the wall effect of the
chamber is avoided, produce in 1 cc of atmospheric air at 0 °C and
76 cm of mercury pressure such a degree of conductivity that
1 esu of charge is measured at saturation current." The stated
1 cc of air would have a mass of 1.293 mg at the conditions given,
so in 1937 the ICR rewrote this definition in terms of this mass of
air instead of volume, temperature and pressure. The 1937
definition was also extended to gamma rays, but later capped at
3 MeV in 1950.
Note: Roetgen is not a unit of dose rather is a unit to measure
the “field strength” of the X-ray or gamma ray in air. But due to
Its close approximation to dose it is often used as a surrogate.
88
 The Origin and Definition of Roentgen

The roentgen has its roots in the Villard unit defined in

1908 by the American Roentgen Ray Society as "the
quantity of radiation which liberates by ionization one
esu of electricity per cm3 of air under normal
conditions of temperature and pressure." Using 1 esu ≈
3.33564×10−10 C and the air density of ~1.293 kg/m³ at
0 °C and 101 kPa, this converts to 2.58 × 10−4 C/kg,
which is the modern value given by NIST.
1 esu/cm3 × 3.33564 × 10−10 C/esu × 1,000,000 cm3/m3
÷ 1.293 kg/m3 = 2.58 × 10−4 C/kg (This is the numerical
Definition of a Roentgen).

89
 Derivation of Roentgen (Concept of KERMA)
Using 1 esu ≈ 3.33564×10−10 C and the air density of
~1.293 kg/m³ at 0 °C and 101 kPa, this converts to
2.58 × 10−4 C/kg, which is the modern value given by NIST.
1 esu/cm3 × 3.33564 × 10−10 C/esu × 1,000,000 cm3/m3 ÷
1.293 kg/m3 = 2.58 × 10−4 C/kg
One electron has a charge equivalent of 1.6x10-19
coulomb (C). Or 1 C = 1/1.6x10-19 = 6.242x1018 electrons/C
(or 6.242x1018 ion pairs/C).
It takes 34 eV to produce an ion pair in air, thus
1 R = 2.58 × 10−4 C/kg x 6.242x1018 i.p./C x 34 eV/i.p.
= 5.48 x 1016 eV/kg x1.602x10-19 J/eV = 8.77x10-3 J/kg
= 8.77x10-3 Gray = 8.77x104 erg/kg = 87.7 erg/g of air
1 R = 87.7 erg/g (=0.877 rad) (KERMA in air) (by
definition); (recall 1 rad = 100 erg/g). 90
Roentgen vs Rad (in Air)

This is air absorbed

dose

91
 Approximating Air Absorbed Dose By Roentgen

The air absorbed dose can be calculated by:

Dair = K x (μen/ρ)air x E Ф, (J/kg)

Where E = photon energy (MeV)

(μen/ρ)air = mass energy absorption coefficient of air (cm2/g)
Ф = photon fluence (cm-2)
K = conversion factor = 1.6022x10-10 (J/kg)/(MeV/g)

Let’s assume E = 1.0 MeV, (μen/ρ)air = 0.0278 (cm2/g)

Thus Dair = 1.6022x10-10 (J/kg)/(MeV/g) x 1 (MeV)
x 0.0278 (cm2/g) x Ф, (J/kg)
92
Approximating Air Absorbed Dose By Roentgen
Continuing from above,

Dair = 4.45x10-12 x Ф, (J/kg), or (Gray)

Assume air Kerma = air absorbed dose (electronic equilibrium) =
87.7 rad = 0.877 Gray
Dair = 4.45x10-12 x Ф (Gray), 1 Gray = 0.877 Gray
Thus the equivalent photon fluence to produce 1 R
From 1 MeV photons:
Ф = 0.877/4.45x10-12, (cm-2) = 2 x 1011, (cm-2)
The fluence will of course vary with energy E.
Since (μen/ρ)air is fairly constant around 1 MeV, it would require
less fluence of photons to produce 1 R at higher energy E.
93
Converting Air Dose to Tissue Absorbed Dose
Ratio of mass energy coefficients between water (tissue)
and air (within energy range 0.3 – 2 MeV; see table next
page):
Absorbed Dose
Ratio = (μen/ρ)water/ (μen/ρ)air = (μen/ρ)tissue E φ
= 0.0327/0.0294 Tissue can sometimes
= 1.1122 be approximated by
Water.
Thus Dose (tissue) = 0.876 rad (air) x 1.1122 = 0.97 rad
(tissue) or about 1 rad (tissue)

This means 1 Roentgen in air would produce a dose of

nearly 1 rad in tissue within that energy range of photons .
94
95
96
 Absorbed Dose in Tissue

Absorbed dose rate in tissue DRtissue

= E (μen/ρ)tissue φ
Depends on energy
Absorbed dose = DRtissue x T and material
E is photon energy in MeV
μen/ρ = mass energy absorption coefficient (cm2/g)
Ф = photon flux (cm-2 s-1) Depends on source strength
and geometry configuration
T = time of exposure (s)

97
Use Mass Energy Absorption Coefficient
(Soft Tissue ICRU #44)

mass attenuation coefficient

mass energy absorption coefficient

98
 Roentgen as a Measured Quantity
to Approximate the Absorbed Dose
For years because there was a lack of reliable
measurement method for human doses,
Roentgen (a measured air ionization quantity)
was used conveniently to approximate the
absorbed dose (personal dosimetry was difficult
to measure in the early times). Thus use of
Roentgen as a surrogate for the absorbed dose
has been quite popular, and the practice even
continues as of today.

99
 Specific Gamma Ray Constant
The Derived Air Exposure Rate at 1 m (Г)
(ONLY for Point Source, spherical Geometry)

S0 For a point source the unshielded

flux Ф0(r) = S0/4πr2(m-2s-1)
The air absorbed dose rate is:
DRair(r) = E (μen/ρ)air x S0/4πr2
Given 1 R = 87.7 erg/g
The specific gamma E = photon energy (MeV)
ray constant is: (μen/ρ)air = mass energy absorption
Г = k x DRair(1)/87.7 coefficient (cm2/g)
(R-m2/Ci-h) S0 = source activity (Ci)
k is a constant. r = distance (m)
100
 Definition of Specific Gamma Ray Constant
(Only Defined for a Point Source Geometry)
Specific Gamma Ray Constant Г is defined as the air
exposure rate (R/h) at 1 m from a point source of 1 Curie.

Absorbed Dose Rate in Air (from a point source)

DRair = (μen/ρ)air x (Energy Flux at 1 m)
= (μen/ρ)air x (E x S0/4πr2); (r = 1m)

Let assume the following

(μen/ρ)air is given in (cm2/g), E in MeV, S0 = 1 Ci (3.7x1010 Bq),
and r = 1 m.

101
 Calculation of Specific Gamma Ray Constant
Air Absorbed Dose Rate:
Dair = (μen/ρ)air x E x S0/4πr2

Converted to Exposure rate (Assume S0 = 1 Ci at r = 1 m)

X = (3.7x1010 dis/s) x 3600 (s/h)/4π x 1 m-2 x (μen/ρ)air (cm2/g)

x (10-4 m2/cm2) x (103 g/kg) x E (Mev/dis) x (106 eV/MeV)
/ (34 eV/i.p.) x 1.6x10-19 (C/i.p.)
X = (3.7x1010 x 3600/ 4π x 10-4 x 103 x 106 / 34 x 1.6x10-19 )
x (μen/ρ)air (C/kg/h)
= (3.7x3.6/ 4π /34 x 1.6 x10-1) x (μen/ρ)air x E x S0/r2 (C/kg/h)
X = 5.0 x 10-3 x (μen/ρ)air x E (C/kg-h)
= 19.4 (μen/ρ)air x E (R/h), ( Note: 1 R = 2.58x10-4 C/kg air)

102
 Calculation of Specific Gamma Ray Constant

The specific gamma ray constant Г is therefore given by:

Г = 19.4 Σ (μen/ρ)air, i x Ei (R-m2/Ci-h)
or
Г = 194 Σ (μen/ρ)air, i x Ei (R-cm2/mCi-h)

Where
(μen/ρ)air, i = the photon air energy absorption
coefficient for photon i , (cm2/g)
Ei = photon energy for photon i. (MeV)
103
Specific Gamma Ray Constant
(or Gamma Constant)

104
Gamma Constant

105
Units of Specific Gamma Constant

106
Decay Scheme of Radionuclide
(Example Co-60)

Co-60 emits 2 gammas

Per decay:

E1: 1.1732 MeV (99.88%)

E2: 1.3325 MeV (99.88%
+ 0.12% = 100%)

107
 Specific Gamma Ray Constant (Г ) Is
Calculated for Individual Source of Known Energies

Once Г has been determined, the exposure rate for any

activity (Ci) of the same source at a distance r (m) can
be calculated by:

= Г x S/r2 , (R/h)
Г = 19.4 Σ (μen/ρ)air, i x Ei (R-m2/Ci-h)
S = Source activity, (Ci)
r = source to receptor distance, (m)

108
 Example Co-60

Г = 19.4 Σ (μen/ρ)air,i x Ei , (R/h),

For Co-60 two gammas E and (μen/ρ)air,i are:
E1: 1.17 MeV; 3.5x10-5 cm/ 1.293 x10 -3 (g/cm3) = 2.71x10-2
(cm2/g)
E2: 1.33 MeV: 3.4x10-5 cm/ 1.293 x10 -3 (g/cm3) = 2.63x10-2
(cm2/g)
Г = 19.4 x (2.7x10-2 x 1.17 + 2.63x10-2 x 1.33)
= 19.4 x (3.16x10-2 + 3.50 x10-2)
= 19.4 x 0.067 = 1.29 R-m2/Ci-h (for 1 Ci at 1 m)
Or
Г = 12.9 R-cm2/mCi-h
109
Example Applying Specific Gamma Ray Constant for
Dose Rate Calculation (Co-60)

110
 We Can Instead Also Calculate
the Specific Gamma-Ray Dose (vs. Exposure) Constant
Likewise absorbed dose rate in tissue can be calculated
directly. Once again assume S0 = 1 Ci and at distance r = 1 m.
The tissue absorbed dose rate is:
Dtissue = (μen/ρ)tissue x (Energy Flux at 1 m)
= (μen/ρ)tissue x E x S0/4πr2

Dtissue = (3.7x1010 dis/s) x 3600 (s/h)/4π x 1 m-2 x (μen/ρ)tissue

(cm2/g)
x (10-4 m2/cm2) x (103 g/kg) x E (Mev/dis) x
(1.6x10-13 J/MeV), (J/kg-h)
= (3.7x3.6 / 4π x 1.6) x 10-1 x (μen/ρ)tissue x E, (J/kg-h)
= 0.17 (μen/ρ)tissue x E, (Gray/h) (Note: 1 Gray = 1 J/kg)
111
 Specific Gamma Ray Dose Constant

Thus the specific gamma-ray dose constant is:

Noting 1 Gray = 1 Sv for gamma photons

Г = 0.17 (μen/ρ)tissue x E, (Sv-m2/Ci-h)

= 17 (μen/ρ)tissue x E, (rem-m2/Ci-h)

Or
Г = 170 (μen/ρ)tissue x E, (rem-cm2/mCi-h)

Note: here dose is given in rem rather

that Roentgen R.
112
 Rule of Thumb for Calculating Г
for Dose Rate

Use Г = 17 (μen/ρ)tissue x E, (rem-m2/Ci-h)

The value of (μen/ρ)tissue does not vary much over energy range
From 0.1 to 2 MeV, assumed to be 0.03 (cm2/g)
Thus,
Г = 17 x 0.03 (cm2/g) x E, (rem-m2/Ci-h)
= 0.51 x E , (rem-m2/Ci-h)
Supposed we want to have the dose rate Flat Region
Set at 1 ft (0.3048 m) then
Г = 0.51 x E /(0.3048)2, (rem-ft2/Ci-h)
= 5.5 x E (rem-ft/Ci-h)

113
 Rule of Thumb Formula for Dose Rate

Thus the dose rate at a distance f (ft) can be calculated as:

D = Г x S0/ F2(rem-ft/Ci-h)

D = 5.5 x E x S0 / F2 (rem/h) (Photo energies around 0.1 to 2 MeV)

This is a well known rule of thumb approach to dose rate

calculation, or approximated as:

A rule of thumb for dose rate calculation:

Dose Rate = 6CE/F2 , (rem/h) where C is source in Ci, E is total
photon energy in MeV, and F is distance in ft.
114
Compilation of
Gamma-Ray Dose
Constants

https://www.osti.gov/servlets/
purl/6246345/

Note: the data are expressed

In tissue dose rather than
exposure

115
The following slides contain additional
information on external dosimetry for your
reading interest only.

116
 Evolution of External Dosimetry
For External Dose Estimation
 Erythema Dose: Measure of dose by skin redness due to radiation
exposure.

 Point Measurement: Mostly represented by the use of Roentgen to

measure the gamma ray ionization field strength as a surrogate of the tissue
dose (actually 1 R = 0.877 Rad as we know).

Use of Simple Human Phantoms (computational methods required)

 Infinite Slab Phantom (30-cm thickness): Dose indexes are
derived from dose distribution from the 30-cm infinite phantom.
 Spherical Phantom (30-cm radius): Dose indexes are derived
from dose distribution from the 30-cm spherical phantom.

117
Evolution of Human Tissue Dose Representation (2/4)
For Both Internal and External Dose Estimation
Use of More Sophisticated (Stylized) Human Phantoms
(advanced computational methods required)
 The MIRD (Medical Internal Radiation Dosimetry) phantom was
developed by Fisher and Snyder at Oak Ridge National Laboratory
(ORNL) in 1960s with 22 internal organs and more than 100 sub-
regions. It is the first generation anthropomorphic phantom
representing a hermaphrodite adult for internal dosimetry.

MIRD Phantom
allows the dose
estimation for
individual organs.
Developed in 1960s.

118
 ICRP “Reference Man”
For the Purpose of Setting Standards (3/4)
Report on the Task Group on Reference Man
ICRP Publication 23
1975

Abstract - A unique comprehensive work on the reference male and female,

including data on mass of the various organs of the body, chemical composition of
the body and various tissues and physiological data. While still the major source of
reference data, this report is supplemented and amended by ICRP Publication 89.

119
 Latest Development: Computational Dosimetry
Voxel (second-generation) phantoms:
The stylized phantoms provided only basic information
with a large degree of error. More accurate methods of
simulating a human body were necessary to advance.
To allow further research, the computer technology
had to become more powerful and more readily
available. This did not occur until the 1980s. The real
breakthrough occurred when computed tomography
(CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) devices
could generate highly accurate images of internal
organs in three dimensions and in digital format.
Researchers discovered that they could take that
diagnostic data and transform it into a voxel VIP-Man phantom
developed by RRMDG
(volumetric pixel) format, essentially re-creating the
at Rensselaer
human body in digital form in 3D. Today there are over
Polytechnic Institute in
38 human phantoms in voxel format, for many Troy, NY. Developed in
different uses. the 2000s.
120
Individual Monitoring for External Doses
Individual Monitoring for External Doses
Individual Monitoring for External Doses
Individual Monitoring for External Doses
Individual Monitoring for External Doses
Area Survey: Monitoring the Ambien
Environmental Radiation
The Golden Rule of External Dose Protection
Time, Distance & Shielding

127
 Reading Assignments

Read the related sections in Chapter 5 (5.1, 5.2),

Chapter 9 (Section 9.1 & 9.8) of the textbook by
Michael Stabin.

128
END OF UNIT 4

129