CHEM 1451 Lab 1 Measurements Background and Procedure

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

1. Understanding a Measured Number

When you measure the mass of an object on a balance (see Figure 1), it might be obvious to you that
you would not write down the mass of the object on your lab notebook as 2 g or 2.23843 g.

Figure 1: The arrow points to the printed scales (solid lines) of 2 g and 3 g of the balance.

Since the arrow in Figure 1 extends beyond 2 g mark, you should be able to estimate better than just “2 g”.
Although the mass of the object seems fall between 2 g and 3 g, you would not be able to say “2.23843 g” with
five decimal places. The question is then to know the correct number you need to record when you are making
a measurement such as in Figure 1. The rule of thumb is that you typically read to the tenth of the smallest scale
available on an instrument if you can. In other words, you need to guess where the true value may fall between
two scales by imagining ten additional ‘imaginary’ scales between given smallest scales (see Figure 2). You might
record the mass of the object as 2.3 g.

Figure 2: Additional scales (dotted lines) are visually imagined by an experimentalist between two printed scales
(solid lines) of 2 g and 3 g.

When given smallest scales are too close to each other, this rule of thumb is not suitable because you cannot imagine
ten imaginary scales (see Figure 3).

Figure 3: Smallest scales are too close to each other that you cannot visualize additional scales in between.

The best you could do might be to conclude that the true value may fall half between two scales and write:

3.25 cm

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CHEM 1451 Lab 1 Measurements Background and Procedure

The length of an object might fall right on the scale mark (see Figure 4).

Figure 4: The edge of the object seems to fall right on to the 3.2 cm mark.

In such a case, you must not forget to include the digit “0” at the end:

3.20 cm

The important conclusion is that you must understand that unavoidable uncertainty always exists in the last
digit of the significant figures.

Example:

a. The measurement 3.20 cm has the uncertainty of ±0.01 cm.

b. The measurement 3.2 cm has the uncertainty of ±0.1 cm.

The term significant figures refer to the precision of measurement. For example, the measurement (2.5 g) from
Figure 1 has two significant figures and the measurement (3.25 cm) from Figure 3 has three significant figures.

When you count the number of significant figures in a measured number, you must remember that

• Trailing zeros are considered as significant figures as long as the decimal point is present.
• Leading zeros are not considered as significant figures. They are a place holder.

Example:

a. 12.5200 g has six significant figures.

b. 2.0 × 104 g has two significant figures.

c. 200. m has three significant figures. Since the decimal point is written, two trailing zeros are significant.

d. 200 m has one significant figures. Since the decimal point is not written, two trailing zeros are not significant
figures.

e. 0.002010 g has four significant figures since three leading zeros are not significant.

Although you may not always continue using the term significant figures when you make a measurement, you must
remember the uncertainty always exist in the last digit of the significant figures.

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CHEM 1451 Lab 1 Measurements Background and Procedure

Significant Figure Arithmetic Operations

When you report experimental results, you not only inform the measurements with the correct number of significant
figures but you also perform arithmetic operations with the measured quantities to answer questions. For example,
you will perform arithmetic operations to answer prelab questions or post-lab questions. When you do so, you must
use three basic rules that exist for using the significant figures during calculations.

1) Multiplication/Division Rule: The results of calculation should carry the fewest significant figures among
numbers used.

Example: A car drives 278 miles for 11.70 gallons of gasoline. Calculate the mileage in miles per gallon (mpg).

The mileage is calculated by dividing miles by gallons.

278 mi
= 23.7606...mpg
= 23.8 mpg
11.70 gal

The numbers of significant figures in “278 miles” and “11.70 gallons” are three and four respectively. By the
multiplication/division rule, you need to round off the result of the calculation to three significant figures.

2) Addition/Subtraction Rule: The results of calculation should carry the fewest decimal places among numbers
used. This rule is slightly different from the rule used for multiplication/division. Decimal places after the decimal
point are used instead of significant figures.

Example: Answer the following calculations using the correct number of significant figures.

1.113 cm + 108.2 cm + 16 cm

Solution

The decimal places in “1.113 cm”, “108.2 cm” and “16 cm” are three, one and zero respectively. By the
addition/subtraction rule, you need to round off the result of the calculation to zero decimal place.

1.113 cm + 108.2 cm + 16 cm = 125.313 cm = 125 cm

An exception to the addition/subtraction rule occurs when you add a number with trailing zeros that are not
significant as illustrated in the example below.

Example: Answer the following calculation using the correct number of significant figures.

8200 g + 123 g

This is an example of exceptions to the addition/subtraction rule (“fewest decimal places”). The number “8200 g”
has two significant figures because two zeros act as place holders and are not significant. In this case, the results of
the calculation should carry the largest place value of the last significant figure digit.

The last significant figure in “8200 g” is “2” which is in the hundreds place.
The last significant figures in “123 g” is “3” which is in the ones place.

Therefore, the result of the addition should carry to the hundreds place.

8200 g + 123 g = 8323 g = 8300 g

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CHEM 1451 Lab 1 Measurements Background and Procedure

3) Exact Number Rule: Non-measured numbers have an infinite number of significant figures and an infinite
number of decimal places that are not explicitly written out. This rule is the most overlooked rule out of three rules,
and it is often the source of mistakes in your calculations throughout the semester. The following two examples
illustrate common mistakes observed typically in calculations.

Example: If an alloy weighs 72.0 g and contains 47.0 g of copper (Cu), then the percentage of copper in the alloy is
calculated as

47.0 g
% Cu = × 100% = 65.0% Cu
72.0g

A common mistake is to round the answer into 70% Cu because you mistakenly think that 100% has one
significant figure. Remember that “100%” in the formula is a non-measured number, and it has an infinite number
of significant figures.

Example: An irregularly-shaped container is entirely filled with a liquid (density of 1.3 g/mL). You measure the
mass of liquid that fills the container is 24.00 g. Determine the volume of the container.

1 mL
24.00 𝑔𝑔 × � � = 18 mL
1.3 g

A common mistake is to round the answer into 20 mL because you mistakenly think that 1 mL has one
significant figure. You must remember that “per mL” in the unit of the density means that per “exactly” one mL,
which has an infinite number of significant figures.

Sometimes when you solve a problem, you may have to combine all three rules. The following example illustrates
how to approach a problem of mixed operations.

Example: (Mixed Operations) Perform the calculation below. Make sure to take into account
the appropriate use of significant figures.

 29.87 
  + 0.012 =
?
 3.27 

Apply the rules in the same order as the order of operations in the calculation. Calculate the first
term by using the multiplication/division rule. Because “29.87” and “3.27” have 4 significant
figures and 3 significant figures respectively, the result of the division should have 3 significant
figures. However, the result of division (“9.13455657…”) should NOT be rounded off to 3
significant figures YET. It is important that you do not round off numbers during a calculation.
Instead, you underline the last significant figure so that you remember that the position of the last
significant digit.

 29.87 
  +=
0.012 9.13455657... + =
0.012 9.13455657... + 0.012
 3.27 

Now carry out the addition by using the addition/subtraction rule. Because “9.13455657…” and
“0.012” have 2 decimal places and 3 decimal places, the result of addition should have 2 decimal
places. Round off the result to 2 decimal places.

9.13455657… + 0.01

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CHEM 1451 Lab 1 Measurements Background and Procedure

2. Units

Another important aspect of making a correct measurement is to write down a unit of measurement.
A same person can weigh 145 lb or 65.8 kg depending on the units of mass used. You should never assume that you
or other persons would later remember the unit of measurement used. While recording the measurement, always
write down the unit.

Unit Conversion

Conversion between two different units involves understanding of a conversion factor. For example,
the body weight of a patient is given to be 182 lb. In order to find out how many kilograms are equivalent to 182 lb,
you need to find the numerical relationship between two units: pound and kilogram.

1 kg = 2.205 lb

Note that the digit “1” in the left-hand side is an exact number and has infinite number of significant figures.
The right-hand side has four significant figures. If needed, you could find more accurate relationship that has more
than four significant figures in the right-hand side. From one numerical relationship, you could always make
two conversion factors:

 1kg   2.205lb 
  and  
 2.205lb   1kg 

Then, you need to decide which conversion fact should be used. You should always choose the conversion factor
that has a given unit in the denominator. In this example, the weight in pounds is given. Therefore, you should
choose the first conversion factor and multiply it with a given number.

 1kg 
(
182 lb ) ⋅ 
  =82.5 kg
given

2.205lb 

measurement conversion
factor
The number of significant figures in 182 lb is three, and the denominator of the conversion factor has four
significant figures. The numerator of the conversion factor has the infinite number of significant figures.
The smallest number of significant figures among these three numbers is three. Therefore, when you multiply or
divide with these three numbers, the answer should have three significant figures.

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CHEM 1451 Lab 1 Measurements Background and Procedure

3. Density

A density is an important physical property and used throughout experiments in this book. It is defined as the ratio
of mass over volume:

mass
(Eq. 1) density =
volume

Table 1: Density of Some Metals1

Metal Density (g/cm3)
Aluminum 2.735
Iron 6.98
Nickel 7.81
Copper 8.02
1
CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 77th edition, CRC Press (1996)

Experimentally the density of a substance can be determined by measuring its mass and volume. If an object has a
rectangular cuboid, then you might be able to determine the volume of the object by measuring the length, the depth,
and the height:

Volume = (Length) × (Depth) × (Height)

Example: A metal rectangular block has the length of 1.21 cm, the depth of 2.22 cm, and the height of 1.56 cm. It
weighs 33.61 g. The density of the metal is

33.61g
= 8.02 g/cm3
(1.21cm ) ⋅ ( 2.22 cm ) ⋅ (1.56 cm )
According to the density (See Table 1), the metal might be identified as copper.

If an object has an irregular shape, then you could still determine the volume by immersing the object in water.
We assume that the object sinks to the bottom. Then the volume of displaced water is the volume of the object.

Example: An unknown metal weighing 40.77 g had an irregular shape whose volume needed to be determined.
A 100-mL graduated cylinder was half filled with water. The volume of water was 50.00 mL. Then a metal was
immersed in the water. The volume of water level increased to 55.22 mL. The density of the metal is

40.77 g
= 7.81g/mL
55.22 mL − 50.00 mL

According to the density (See Table 1), the metal might be identified as nickel.

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 CHEM 1451 Lab 1 Measurements Background and Procedure

4. Accuracy vs. Precision

Although in everyday life we may use the terms “accuracy” and “precision” interchangeably, these two terms are
not equivalent. The accuracy of a measurement represents the difference between a measured value and the true
value of the measure quantity. Since true values of measured quantities are not known in many cases
(if known, there is no need to measure them), a reference value such as a well-established number is usually used as
the true value of the quantity being measured. The accuracy of a measurement is reported as the percent error:

x − x0
(Eq. 2) %=
error ×100
x0
where x is the measured value and x0 is the true value (or the reference value).

Remember that the use of bars (“| …|”) represents the absolute value. For example, | −5 | = 5 and | 7 | = 7.

The term “precision” can refers to the reproducibility of a result in measurements. Note that the term “precision”
was used differently on page 3. If the difference between results is small, the measurements have a high precision.
If the difference is large, the measurements have a low precision. One ways to report the precision of a
measurement is the average absolute deviation from the averaged value:

(Eq. 3) Average absolute deviation =

1
n
(
x1 − xavg + x2 − xavg + x3 − xavg + )
where n is the number of measurements, xavg is the average of all n measurements, and xi is the i-th measurement.

Example: The density of copper metal was determined by measuring the masses (the second column) and the
volumes (the third column) of three samples of copper. Results of measurements are summarized in the table below
and the density of copper metal (the fourth column) was calculated according to the definition (Eq. 1).

Results of Density Measurements

Sample Mass (g) Volume (cm3) Density (g/cm3) Absolute Deviation

Measured Measured Calculated (g/cm3) Calculated
1 43.38 5.42 8.00 0.01
2 31.78 3.98 7.98 0.01
3 35.40 4.43 7.99 0.00

The density of copper is reported by using the average of three measurements:

8.00 g/cm3 + 7.98g/cm3 + 7.99 g/cm3

d = 7.99 g/cm3
3
The value of copper density reported by CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics is 8.02 g/cm3 which is used
as the “true” (or reference) value to estimate the accuracy of the average by using (Eq. 2):

7.99 g/cm3 − 8.02 g/cm3

=% error = ×100 0.4%
8.02 g/cm3

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CHEM 1451 Lab 1 Measurements Background and Procedure

In order to estimate the precision of the measurements, the absolute deviation of each measurement from the
averaged value is calculated in the last (the fifth) column of the table.

The absolute deviation for the 1st sample:

| (Calculated density of the 1st sample) − (Calculated average density) |

= | 8.00 g/cm3 − 7.99 g/cm3 | = 0.01 g/cm3

The absolute deviation for the 2nd sample:

| (Calculated density of the 2nd sample) − (Calculated average density) |

= | 7.98 g/cm3 − 7.99 g/cm3 | = 0.01 g/cm3

The absolute deviation for the 3rd sample:

| (Calculated density of the 3rd sample) − (Calculated average density) |

= | 7.99 g/cm3 − 7.99 g/cm3 | = 0.00 g/cm3

Therefore, by (Eq. 3), the precision of measurements are reported as

average absolute deviation=

1
3
( 0.01g/cm3 + 0.01g/cm3 + 0.00 g/cm3 =) 0.01g/cm3
Reference Data

Table 2: Density of Water2

Temperature (°C) Density (g/mL) Temperature (°C) Density (g/mL)

16.0 0.998945 21.0 0.997995
16.5 0.998862 21.5 0.997885
17.0 0.998777 22.0 0.997773
17.5 0.998689 22.5 0.997658
18.0 0.998598 23.0 0.997541
18.5 0.998504 23.5 0.997422
19.0 0.998407 24.0 0.997299
19.5 0.998308 24.5 0.997175
20.0 0.998206 25.0 0.997048
20.5 0.998102 25.5 0.996919
2
CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 77th edition, CRC Press (1996)

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CHEM 1451 Lab 1 Measurements Background and Procedure

PROCEDURE

Materials You Need for Lab 1

You should arrange the following material items for this experiment. Equipment in blue letters is supplied in the lab
kit. You must assemble all the chemicals and other equipment before performing this experiment.

Chemicals

Distilled water (Do not use tap water or purified water.)

Sodium chloride (table salt)
Aluminum foil (Do not use heavy-duty type. Do not use any special kind of aluminum foil.)
Chocolate bar (Unsweetened, 100% Cacao if possible. Do NOT use a chocolate with nuts or fruits mixed.)

Equipment

Balance
Small test tube
250-mL beaker
100-mL graduated cylinder
Three 50-mL beaker
Wash bottle
Thermometer
Ruler
Medical syringe (no needle)
Spatula
Plastic spoons
Measuring spoon (Must measure 1 tablespoon)
Cupcake papers
Plastic cups

9
CHEM 1451 Lab 1 Measurements Background and Procedure

In this experiment, you will learn how to use laboratory equipment through making measurements. It is important to
remember all the techniques you will learn since they will be used for the rest of the experiments in this laboratory
course. You must pay extra attention to the way you record the data that you measure because you will be
graded on the correct use of significant figures and units.

So let’s go over one more time by using some of the instruments included in the lab kit.

Balance

In this course, a top-loading balance is used to measure the mass of an object or chemical reagent. There are two
ways to use the top-loading balance. The first method is used for an object that can sit directly on the balance pan
like a piece of glassware. In this case, you will want to press the zero (tare) button on the balance with the balance
pan empty (this is known as taring the balance). When it reads 0.00 g you will carefully place the object on the
balance pan and record the mass value it gives you. The second way you may use the balance is to find the mass of a
chemical reagent. Chemical reagents can’t be placed directly on the balance pan so you will place a piece of
weighing paper (or a piece of glassware) on the balance pan and then press the zero button so the balance reads 0.00
g with the paper (or glassware) on the pan. You can then carefully add the chemical reagent and measure the mass of
the chemical reagent directly, without having to subtract the mass of the weighing paper (or glassware).

Suppose that you are trying to measure the mass of an object. The digital display of the balance shows the
following.

What should you write down in the data section of the report? You must write (don’t forget the units)

42.01 g

The last significant figure has the error. Therefore, the balance included in the lab kit has the precision (or the error)
of ±0.01 g. Now let’s look at another example. The digital display of the balance shows the following.

What should you write down in the data section of the report? Would you write “53 g”? Or, perhaps “53.0 g”.
Remember that when you write a number “53 g”, that means that the measurement has the error of ±1 g because the
error is present in the last significant figure, that is, in the ones place. When you write a number “53.0 g”, that
means that the measurement has the error of ±0.1 g because the error is present in the last significant figure, that is,
in the tenths place. However, the balance included in the lab kit should have a precision of ±0.01 g. The precision
of an instrument never changes between measurements. Therefore, it is important to write the measurement
including all zeros (don’t forget the units) as

53.00 g

In my experience, removing significant zeros (“53 g” instead of “53.00”) is a common mistake that I observe in a
lab report, and you should always avoid making the same mistake.

Another common mistake is to write “.12 g” instead of “0.12 g”. DO NOT OMIT A ZERO in front of the
decimal point. You don’t want to mislead a reader to think the measurement is “12 g” because the decimal point
without the preceding “0” is difficult to notice. It is a bad habit that you need to avoid in a lab report.

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CHEM 1451 Lab 1 Measurements Background and Procedure

Thermometer

When reading the temperature, you should always read with your eye sightline straight to the thermometer (Not too
high or not too low) as shown below.

Now, what should you write down in the data section of a report? The top of the liquid (blue in this example) is
located between 37°C and 38°C marks. It’s your call to estimate. For example, you may write

37.5°C

Because the error is always present in the last significant figure, the thermometer included in the lab kit has the
precision (or the error) of ±0.1°C. The precision of an instrument never changes between measurements. So as long
as you use the thermometer included in the lab kit to measure temperature, your measurement should always have
the precision (or the error) of ±0.1°C.

Suppose that the thermometer shows that the top of the liquid (blue in this example) is located right on the “37”
mark. What should you write in the data section of a report?

Would you write down 37°C? Remember that the measurement “37°C” has the error of ±1°C because the error is
present in the ones place. However, your thermometer should always have the precision of ±0.1°C. Therefore, it is
important to write the measurement as

37.0°C

You need to inform that the measurement has the error of ±0.1°C and not ±1°C.

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CHEM 1451 Lab 1 Measurements Background and Procedure

Volume Measurements

In this lab, we will use both a graduated cylinder to measure volume. A graduated cylinder is used to measure any
volume up to its maximum capacity. Often you will read the following instructions. “In a graduated cylinder, water
(or a water-based solution) will form a curved surface at the top called a meniscus. When reading the volume you
should always read from the bottom of the meniscus with your eye sightline parallel to the countertop.” (See the
picture below.) However, notice that all of the graduated cylinders included in the lab kit is made of plastic and not
glass. Therefore, you will not see a meniscus form. A surface at the top will be a straight line. You still need to read
with your eye sightline parallel to the countertop, though.

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CHEM 1451 Lab 1 Measurements Background and Procedure

Part A: Basic Measurement

Length

Use a metric ruler to make the following measurements (all in cm).

1. Measure the length of a test tube in cm.

Temperature

1. Add distilled water in a 250-mL beaker to the 150-mL mark.

2. Place the thermometer in a 250-mL beaker and measure the temperature of distilled water (in °C). The
thermometer you use is a partial immersion thermometer. Although you must immerse the thermometer in water up
to the immersion line on the thermometer, you should be able to make sufficiently accurate measurements as long as
the entire tip of the thermometer is immersed in water.

Mass

1. Transfer some table salt to a plastic cup. Never use a chemical directly from the original package. Always take
out some portion from the original container to a plastic cup and use it from the plastic cup.

2. Place the balance on a flat stable surface. Turn on the balance. After initialization, the balance should display
“0.00”. Make sure that the unit displayed on the top margin of the display is “g”. If the display does not show
“0.00”, then press the tare function button.

3. Place a cupcake paper on the balance. The cupcake paper is used as a weighing paper in this course. Never
weight chemicals directly on the balance.

4. Press the tare function button. By using the tare function, you will measure the mass without including the mass
of the cupcake paper.

5. Scoop out table salt with a one-tablespoon (tbsp) measuring spoon from the plastic cup. Do not heap salt above
the sides of the spoon. Make sure to level salt to the sides of the spoon.

6. Transfer salt slowly without spilling to the cupcake paper. Wait until the number on the display becomes stable.
Record the number. Remember to write the unit (in g).

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CHEM 1451 Lab 1 Measurements Background and Procedure

Part B: Density
Density of chocolate

1. Obtain a small piece of chocolate that can fit into a 100-mL graduated cylinder. As long as they fit into the
graduated cylinder without touching the side of the cylinder (but don’t make it too small), its shape does not matter.
Measure the mass (in g) of the piece of chocolate.

2. Half-fill a 100-mL graduated cylinder with distilled water. Add water approximately to the 50-mL mark. Record
the volume of water (in mL) to one decimal place.

3. Slowly slide the piece of chocolate into the graduated cylinder. After chocolate sinks to the bottom, record the
volume (in mL) to one decimal place. Since you add the piece of chocolate, the volume (water + chocolate) should
increase.

4. Empty the cylinder, and clean and dry it.

Estimating the thickness of aluminum foil

1. Cut out aluminum foil into a square (approximately 5 cm by 5cm). Record the sizes (the length and the width in
cm) of the square of aluminum foil that you create.

2. Measure the mass (in g) of the square of aluminum foil.

Part C: Determine the Accuracy and Precision of the Medical Syringe

1. Fill a 250-mL beaker with distilled water to the 250-mL mark. Leave it for five minutes and then measure the
temperature of the water. Do not discard the water.

2. Prepare three 50-mL Beakers. Make sure that they are dry and label them A through C with the maker.

Repeat steps 3 – 6 with each beaker.

3. Place the empty beaker on the balance and then tare the balance.

4. From the 250-mL beaker, load the syringe with water by pulling back the plunger slowly. Aim to load as closely
to 10 mL as you could, because you would assume that the volume of water is 10.0 mL.

5. Transfer water to the beaker on the balance. Record the mass (in g) of water transferred. Record the volume of
water as 10.0 mL.

6. Dry the syringe thoroughly.

14