DATABASE ADMINISTRATION

MySQL
server

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INTRODUCTION TO MYSQL
MySQL is an SQL (Structured Query Language) based relational database
management system (DBMS)
In a relational database:
 A Data element stored in a column with attributes
 A Row is collection of columns
 A Table is a collection rows
 A Database is a collection tables
MySQL is compatible with standard SQL
MySQL is frequently used by PHP and Perl
MySQL server can interact with many databases
MySQL Can run under many operating systems
(FreeBSD, Linux, OS/2 Warp, UNIX, Windows 2000/XP…)
MySQL has both a duel licensing GPL and Commercial
GPL (GNU Public License) free to use if following GPL
Commercial license costs money
MySQL is a very popular, open source database, Handles very large
databases, with very fast performance.
Why are we using MySQL?
 Free (much cheaper than Oracle!)
 Each student can install MySQL locally.
 Easy to use Shell for creating tables, querying tables, etc.
 Easy to use with Java JDBC…
Entering & Editing commands
 Prompt mysql>
 issue a command
 Mysql sends it to the server for execution
 displays the results
 prints another mysql>
 a command could span multiple lines
A command normally consists of SQL statement followed by a semicolon.

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Command prompt

MySQL commands
Help: \h
Quit/exit: \q
Cancel the command: \c …etc
Info about databases and tables
Listing the databases on the MySQL server host
show databases;
Access/change database
Use database_name;
Showing the current selected database
select database();
Showing tables in the current database
show tables;
Showing the structure of a table
describe table_name;

Basic MySQL Operations

Create table
Insert records
Load data
Retrieve records
Update records
Delete records

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Modify table
Join table
Drop table
Optimize table
Count, Like, Order by, Group by
More advanced ones (sub-queries, stored procedures, triggers, views …)
Basic Queries
Once logged in, you can try some simple queries. For example:
SELECT VERSION(), CURRENT_DATE;
Note that most MySQL commands end with a semicolon (;)
MySQL returns the total number of rows found, and the total time to execute
the query. Keywords may be entered in any lettercase, so the following
queries are equivalent:
SELECT VERSION(), CURRENT_DATE;
select version(), current_date;
SeLeCtvErSiOn(), current_DATE;

Mysql architecture
The Mysql database system operates using the client/server architecture. The
server is the central program that manages database content, and client
programs connect to the server to retrieve or modify data.
Mysql Architecture overview
Application Layer:
 Users and clients interact with the Mysql RDBMS
 Three components: Administrators, clients and query users
 Query users interact with Mysql RDBMS using “mysql”
 Administrators use various administrative interface and utilities like
mysqladmin
 Clients communicate with the Mysql RDBMS through various interfaces
and utilities like the Mysql APIs
 “mysql” is actually a query interface. It is a monitor that allows users to
issue SQL statements and view the results.
Logical Layer:
 The logical layer of Mysql architecture is divided into various
subsystems: Query processor, Transaction Management,
Recovery Management and Storage Management.

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  These sub systems work together to process the requests issued to the
Mysql database server.

Phisical Layer:
Mainly deals with storage of a variety of information, which is kept in
secondary storage and accessed via the storage manager. The types of data
kept in the system are:
 Data file, which stores the user data in the database
 Data dictionary, which stores metadata about the structure of the database
 Indices, which provides fast access to data items that hold particular values
 Statistical data, which store statistical information about the data in the
database, it is used by the query processor to select efficient ways to
execute a query
 Log information, used to keep track of executed queries such that the
recovery manager can use the information to successfully recover the
database in the case of a system crash.

Communication Protocols
 A Mysql client program can connect to a server running on the same
machine or another machine

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  Mysql supports connections between clients and the server using several
network protocols
 Some protocols are applicable for connecting to either local or remote
servers. Others can be used only for local servers.

Connectors and Mysql Server

Basic Database Server Concepts

 Database runs as a server
 Attaches to either a default port or an administrator specified port
 Clients connect to database
 For secure systems
* authenticated connections
*usernames and passwords
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  Clients make queries on the database
 Retrieve content
 Insert content
 SQL (Structured Query Language) is the language used to insert
and retrieve content.
Database Management System
Manages the storage and retrieval of data to and from the database and hides
the complexity of what is actually going on from the user.
MySQL is a relational database management system

Database
User Management System Database
phpMyAdmin
 MySQL can be controlled through a simple command-line interface;
however, we can use phpMyAdmin as an interface to MySQL.
 phpMyAdmin is a very powerful tool; it provides a large number of
facilities for customising a database management system.
Data Administration/Administrator (DA)
 DA (sometimes called data architect or even business analyst) is a type
of professional that resides in the IS function or in a unit interfacing with
the IS function.
 Focus on informing in function of business, users (reports, output forms,
queries) rather than IT
 Data definition and integration (e.g., Customer entity in CRM
systems cutting across Sales, Marketing, R+D…).
 Decision support.
 Ideas for system design, involvement in system development.
 Data governance and security.
Database Administrator (DBA)
 DBA is focused on technology.
1. DBA actively participates in DB system life cycle (plan, develop,
install, manage, upgrade…).
2. DBA manages DB system:
2.1 Users: Creating user accounts, assigning use privileges
2.2 System performance: Monitoring and tuning

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 2.3 Backup & recovery: Supervising backups & system restoration
after crashes
2.4 Security: Monitoring
Definitions
 Data Administration: A high-level function that is responsible for the
overall management of data resources in an organization, including
maintaining corporate-wide definitions and standards.
 Database Administration: A technical function that is responsible for
physical database design and for dealing with technical issues such as
security enforcement, database performance, and backup and recovery.
A DBA functional organization

DBA’s Task 1 - System Planning & Design

 Estimation & Design (logical, physical)
 Data storage requirements, forms & reports needed (costs of
development), hardware needs, matching organizational needs
with DBMS products
 Time, labor & cost to develop
 Data modeling – coordinates with Data Analyst in the domain of
logical design (e.g., class diagrams, user interface). Also DA and
DBA cooperate on schemas.
 In charge of technicalities of physical design (types of files, access
structures, DBMS product, hardware)
DBA: System Development & Deployment
 Defining technology standards:
 Programming standards.
 Layout and techniques.
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  Variable & object definition.
 User interface.
 System testing techniques.
 Loading databases.
 Backup and recovery plans.
 User and operator training.
DBA: System Upgrade
 Determines need for change
 Size and speed of the DB system
 Usage patterns
 System output:
 Additional reports & queries (coop. with DA and business
analysts)
 Forecasting needs
DBA’s Task 2.1 - Users’ Access
 Control via:
 1. Operating system
 Access to directories
 Access to files
 Assigned to individuals or groups.
 2. DBMS functions
(Read, write, modify… data; Administer system)
SQL Security Commands
 GRANT privileges
 REVOKE privileges
 Privileges include
 SELECT
 DELETE
 INSERT
 UPDATE
 Objects include
 Table
 Table columns
 Query
 Users include
 Name/Group

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  PUBLIC
DBA: User Identification
 User identification
 Accounts
 Individual
 Groups
 Passwords
 Alternative identification
 Finger & hand print readers
 Voice…
 Disposable passwords
DBA’s Task 2.3 - Database Backup
 Backups are crucial
 Offsite storage needed
 Types of backup
 Full – in longer intervals (e.g., once a week);
a copy of all tables made
 Partial (Differential) – in shorter intervals (e.g., day);
just new data are backed up; more frequent backups reduced loss
risk but cost more

DBA: 2.3 Database Recovery

 Recovery needed if there are problems with software, hardware,
incorrect user input, viruses, natural causes…
 Recovery (the D-aspect of ACID principle) = durable database in spite of
crashes (ex.: transferring and from savings to checking account)
 Key facilities:
 Recovery Manager (part of DBMS)

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  Transactions log (TL) file
 ROLLBACK procedure (delete incomplete transaction or part after
Savepoint.

DBA’s Task 2.4 - Database Security

 Security Aspects:
1. Privacy (ownership, access rights & violations)
2. Physical security
 Protecting hardware
 Protecting software and data.
3. Logical security
 Unauthorized actions
Security Threats
 Employees
 Programmers
 Visitors
 Consultants
 Business partnerships
1. Strategic sharing
2. EDI (Electronic Data Interchange & other inter-org.
networks)
 Hackers (Internet)
STARTING MYSQL AS A WINDOWS SERVICE
On Windows, the recommended way to run MySQL is to install it as a
Windows service, whereby MySQL starts and stops automatically when
Windows starts and stops. A MySQL server installed as a service can also be
controlled from the command line using NET commands, or with the graphical

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Services utility. Generally, to install MySQL as a Windows service you should
be logged in using an account that has administrator rights
C:\> "C:\Program Files\MySQL\MySQL Server 5.5\bin\mysqladmin" -u root shutdown
Note:
If the MySQL root user account has a password, you need to invoke
mysqladmin with the -p option and supply the password when prompted. This
command invokes the MySQL administrative utility mysqladmin to connect to
the server and tell it to shut down. The command connects as the MySQL root
user, which is the default administrative account in the MySQL grant system.
Note that users in the MySQL grant system are wholly independent from any
login users under Windows.
MySQL client programs that connect to the MySQL server:
MySQL Client Programs
• mysql: The command-line tool for interactively entering SQL statements or
executing them from a file in batch mode. “mysql is The MySQL
Command-Line Tool”.
• mysqladmin: A client that performs administrative operations, such as
creating or dropping databases, reloading the grant tables, flushing tables to
disk, and reopening log files. mysqladmin can also be used to retrieve version,
process, and status information from the server. “mysqladmin is a Client
for Administering a MySQL Server”.
• mysqlcheck: A table-maintenance client that checks, repairs, analyzes, and
optimizes tables. “mysqlcheck is a Table Maintenance Program”.
• mysqldump: A client that dumps a MySQL database into a file as SQL, text,
or XML. “mysqldump is a Database Backup Program”.
• mysqlimport: A client that imports text files into their respective tables
using LOAD DATA INFILE. “mysqlimport is a Data Import Program”.
• mysqlshow: A client that displays information about databases, tables,
columns, and indexes. “mysqlshow is a Display Database, Table, and
Column Information”.
• mysqlslap: A client that is designed to emulate client load for a MySQL
server and report the timing of each stage. It works as if multiple clients are
accessing the server. “mysqlslap is a Load Emulation Client”.
You can use mysqladmin to check the server's configuration and current
status, to create and drop databases, and more. Invoke mysqladmin like this:

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C:\wamp\bin\mysql\mysql5.5.8\bin> mysqladmin [options] command
[command-arg] [command [command-arg]] ...
mysqladmin supports the following commands. Some of the commands take
an argument following the command name.
• create db_name: Create a new database named db_name.
• debug: Tell the server to write debug information to the error log.
This includes information about the Event Scheduler.“Event Scheduler Status”.
• drop db_name: Delete the database named db_name and all its tables.
• extended-status: Display the server status variables and their values.
• flush-hosts: Flush all information in the host cache.
• flush-logs: Flush all logs.
• flush-privileges: Reload the grant tables (same as reload).
• flush-status: Clear status variables.
• flush-tables: Flush all tables.
• flush-threads: Flush the thread cache.
Connecting to the MySQL Server
For a client program to be able to connect to the MySQL server, it must use
the proper connection parameters, such as the name of the host where the
server is running and the user name and password of your MySQL account.
Each connection parameter has a default value, but you can override them as
necessary using program options specified either on the command line or in
an option file. The examples here use the mysql client program, but the
principles apply to other clients such as mysqldump, mysqladmin, or
mysqlshow.

CONFIGURATION OF MYSQL SERVER

Running and Shutting down MySQL Server
First check if your MySQL server is running or not. Now, if you want to
shut down an already running MySQL server, then you can do it by using the
following command:
C:\wamp\bin\mysql\mysql5.5.8\bin> mysqladmin -u root -p shutdown
Enter password: ******
SETTING UP A MYSQL USER ACCOUNT
Go to the bin folder of the server installed (WAMP/XAMP …) in drive C, copy
the path “C:\wamp\bin\mysql\mysql5.5.8\bin” from the address bar, open
your windows command line interface and change the current directory,

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From the command prompt: Cd C:\wamp\bin\mysql\mysql5.5.8\bin
Connect as root :
C:\wamp\bin\mysql\mysql5.5.8\bin> mysql -u root - p -h localhost
Enter password: ****** (if no password, press enter key)
mysql> use mysql;
Database changed
mysql> INSERT INTO user
(host, user, password, select_priv, insert_priv, update_priv)
VALUES ('localhost', 'guest', 'mypass'), 'Y', 'Y', 'Y');
mysql> FLUSH PRIVILEGES;
The CREATE USER command can also enable us to create an account.
To display the user account if the user_name is known:
mysql> SELECT host, user, password FROM user WHERE user = 'guest';
To display all the user account of the localhost:
mysql> SELECT host, user, password FROM user WHERE host = 'localhost';

ADMINISTRATIVE MYSQL COMMAND

Here is the list of the important MySQL commands, which you will use time to
time to work with MySQL database:
 USE Database_name: This will be used to select a database in the
MySQL work area.
 SHOW DATABASES: Lists out the databases that are accessible by the
MySQL DBMS.
 SHOW TABLES: Shows the tables in the database once a database has
been selected with the use command.
 SHOW COLUMNS FROM table_name: Shows the attributes, types of
attributes, key information, whether NULL is permitted, defaults, and
other information for a table.
 SHOW INDEX FROM table_name: Presents the details of all
indexes on the table, including the PRIMARY KEY.
 SHOW TABLE STATUS LIKE tablename\G: Reports details of
the MySQL DBMS performance and statistics. Etc…

MANAGEMENT OF USERS AND SECURITY

CREATE USER Syntax
mysql> CREATE USER 'user_name'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'password';

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The CREATE USER statement creates new MySQL accounts. To use it, you
must have the global CREATE USER privilege or the INSERT privilege for the
mysql database. For each account, CREATE USER creates a new row in the
mysql.user table and assigns the account no privileges. An error occurs if the
account already exists. If you specify only the user name part of the account
name, a host name part of '%' is used. The user specification may indicate
how the user should authenticate when connecting to the server:
• To enable the user to connect with no password (which is insecure), include
no IDENTIFIED BY clause:
mysql> CREATE USER 'user_name'@'localhost';
RENAME USER Syntax
mysql> RENAME USER 'user_name1'@'localhost' TO 'user_name2'@'127.0.0.1';
The RENAME USER statement renames existing MySQL accounts. To use it,
you must have the global CREATE USER privilege or the UPDATE privilege for
the mysql database. An error occurs if any old account does not exist or any
new account exists. RENAME USER causes the privileges held by the old user
to be those held by the new user. However, RENAME USER does not
automatically drop or invalidate databases or objects within them that the old
user created.
DROP USER Syntax
mysql> DROP USER 'user_name'@'localhost';
The DROP USER statement removes one or more MySQL accounts and their
privileges. It removes privilege rows for the account from all grant tables. To
use this statement, you must have the global CREATE USER privilege or the
DELETE privilege for the mysql database.
Note:
DROP USER does not automatically close any open user sessions. Rather, in
the event that a user with an open session is dropped, the statement does not
take effect until that user's session is closed. Once the session is closed, the
user is dropped, and that user's next attempt to log in will fail. This is by
design. DROP USER does not automatically drop or invalidate databases or
objects within them that the old user created.
GRANT Syntax
The GRANT statement grants privileges to MySQL user accounts. GRANT also
serves to specify other account characteristics such as use of secure
connections and limits on access to server resources. To use GRANT, you

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must have the GRANT OPTION privilege, and you must have the privileges
that you are granting.
Normally, a database administrator first uses CREATE USER to create an
account, then GRANT to define its privileges and characteristics. For example:
mysql> CREATE USER 'user_name'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'mypass';
mysql> GRANT ALL ON db1.* TO ' user_name '@'localhost';
mysql> GRANT SELECT ON db2.table1 TO 'user_name'@'localhost';
mysql> GRANT USAGE ON *.* TO 'user_name'@'localhost' WITH MAX_QUERIES_PER_HOUR 90;
PRIVILEGES SUPPORTED BY MYSQL
The following table summarizes the permissible priv_type privilege types that
can be specified for the GRANT and REVOKE statements.

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In GRANT statements, the ALL [PRIVILEGES] or PROXY privilege must be
named by itself and cannot be specified along with other privileges. ALL
[PRIVILEGES] stands for all privileges available for the level at which
privileges are to be granted except for the GRANT OPTION and PROXY
privileges.
USAGE can be specified to create a user that has no privileges, or to specify
the REQUIRE or WITH clauses for an account without changing its existing
privileges. MySQL account information is stored in the tables of the mysql
database.
Privileges can be granted at several levels, depending on the syntax used for
the ON clause. For REVOKE, the same ON syntax specifies which privileges to
take away. The examples shown here include no IDENTIFIED BY 'password'
clause for brevity, but you should include one if the account does not already
exist, to avoid creating an insecure account that has no password.
LEVEL OF PRIVILEGES
Global Privileges
Global privileges are administrative or apply to all databases on a given server,
the user root has all privileges. To assign global privileges, use ON *.* syntax:
mysql> GRANT ALL ON *.* TO 'user_name'@'localhost';
mysql> GRANT SELECT, INSERT ON *.* TO 'user_name'@'localhost';
The CREATE TABLESPACE, CREATE USER, FILE, PROCESS, RELOAD,
REPLICATION CLIENT, REPLICATION SLAVE, SHOW DATABASES, SHUTDOWN,
and SUPER privileges are administrative and can only be granted globally.

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Other privileges can be granted globally or at more specific levels.
MySQL stores global privileges in the mysql.user table.
mysql> SELECT Host, User, Password FROM mysql.user;
Database Privileges
Database privileges apply to all objects in a given database. To assign
database-level privileges, use ON db_name.* syntax:
mysql> GRANT ALL ON database_name.* TO 'user_name'@'localhost';
mysql> GRANT SELECT, INSERT ON database_name.* TO 'user_name'@'localhost';
mysql> GRANT USAGE ON database_name.* TO 'user_name'@'localhost';
If you use ON * syntax (rather than ON *.* and you have selected a default
database, privileges are assigned at the database level for the default
database. An error occurs if there is no default database.
The CREATE, DROP, EVENT, and GRANT OPTION privileges can be specified
at the database level. Table or routine privileges also can be specified at the
database level, in which case they apply to all tables or routines in the
database. MySQL stores database privileges in the mysql.db table.
To display the databases granted:
mysql> SELECT Host, Db, User FROM mysql.db;
Table Privileges
Table privileges apply to all columns in a given table. To assign table-level
privileges, use ON db_name.tbl_name syntax:
mysql> GRANT ALL ON mydb.mytbl TO 'user_name'@'localhost';
mysql> GRANT SELECT, INSERT ON mydb.mytbl TO 'user_name'@'localhost';
If you specify tbl_name rather than db_name.tbl_name, the statement applies
to tbl_name in the default database. An error occurs if there is no default
database.
The permissible column-level priv_type values are ALTER, CREATE VIEW,
CREATE, DELETE, DROP, GRANT OPTION, INDEX, INSERT, SELECT, SHOW VIEW,
TRIGGER, and UPDATE. MySQL stores table privileges in the
mysql.tables_priv table.
Column Privileges
Column privileges apply to single columns in a given table. Each privilege to
be granted at the column level must be followed by the column or columns,
enclosed within parentheses.
mysql> GRANT SELECT (col1), INSERT (col1,col2) ON mydb.mytbl TO
'user_name'@'localhost';

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The permissible priv_type values for a column (that is, when you use a
column_list clause) are INSERT, SELECT, and UPDATE. MySQL stores
column privileges in the mysql.columns_priv table.
The GRANT Privilege
MySQL lets users grant other users the same privileges they have, via the
special WITH GRANT OPTION clause of the GRANT command. When this
clause is added to a GRANT command, users to whom it applies can assign
the same privileges they possess to other users. Consider the following
example:
mysql> GRANT SELECT, DELETE, INSERT, UPDATE, CREATE, DROP, INDEX ON
database_name.* TO 'user_name'@'localhost' WITH GRANT OPTION;
The 'user_name'@'localhost' will now have the GRANTprivilege and can assign
his rights to other users, as clearly demonstrated in the following snippet:
mysql> SELECT Host, Db, User, Grant_priv FROM db WHERE Host = 'localhost';
various commands to display privileges are:
note:
mysql> GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, ON database_name.* TO
'user_name'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'password';
We can accomplish the same task with the following two (equivalent) INSERT
commands:
mysql> INSERT INTO user (Host, User, Password) VALUES ('localhost',
'user_name','password');
mysql>INSERT INTO db (Host, Db, User, Select_priv, Insert_priv, Update_priv,
Delete_priv, Create_priv, Drop_priv) VALUES ('localhost', 'database_name',
'user_name', 'Y', 'Y', 'Y', 'Y', 'N', 'N');
mysql>FLUSH PRIVILEGES;

REVOKING PRIVILEGES
REVOKE Syntax
The REVOKE statement enables system administrators to revoke privileges
from MySQL accounts. MySQL does not automatically revoke any privileges
when you drop a database or table.
mysql> REVOKE INSERT ON *.* FROM 'user_name'@'localhost';
To use the first REVOKE syntax, you must have the GRANT OPTION privilege,
and you must have the privileges that you are revoking. To revoke all
privileges, use the second syntax, which drops all global, database, table,
column, and routine privileges for the named user or users:
mysql> REVOKE ALL PRIVILEGES, GRANT OPTION FROM user [, user] ...

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To use this REVOKE syntax, you must have the global CREATE USER privilege
or the UPDATE privilege for the mysql database. REVOKE removes privileges,
but does not drop mysql.user table entries. To remove a user account entirely,
use DROP USER or DELETE.
mysql> DROP USER user [, user] ...
mysql> DROP USER 'user_name'@'localhost';

LIMITING RESOURCE USAGE

New versions of MySQL has the capability to limit resource usage on the
MySQL server, on a per-user basis. This is accomplished by the addition of
three new fields to the user table: max_questions, max_updates, and
max_connections, which can be used to limit the number of queries, table
or record updates, and new connections by a particular user per hour,
respectively. These three fields map into three optional clauses to the GRANT
command.
The first of these is the MAX_QUERIES_PER_HOUR clause, which limits the
number of queries that can be run by a user in an hour. Here’s an example:
mysql>GRANT SELECT ON *.* TO 'user_name'@'localhost' WITH
MAX_QUERIES_PER_HOUR 5;
The MAX_QUERIES_PER_HOUR clause controls the total number of queries
permitted per hour, regardless of whether these are SELECT, INSERT,
UPDATE, DELETE, or other queries. If this is too all-encompassing, you can
also set a limit on the number of queries that change the data in the
database, via the MAX_UPDATES_PER_HOUR clause, as in the following:
mysql> GRANT SELECT ON *.* TO 'user_name'@'localhost' WITH
MAX_UPDATES_PER_HOUR 5;
The number of new connections opened by the named user(s) in an hour can
be controlled via the MAX_CONNECTIONS_PER_HOUR clause, as the following
shows.
mysql> GRANT SELECT ON *.* TO 'user_name'@'localhost' WITH
MAX_CONNECTIONS_PER_HOUR 3;
You can also use these clauses in combination with each other. The following
is a perfectly valid GRANT:
mysql> GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON *.* TO 'user_name'@'localhost' WITH
MAX_QUERIES_PER_HOUR 50 MAX_UPDATES_PER_HOUR 10 MAX_CONNECTIONS_PER_HOUR 4;
Note, such usage limits cannot be specified per-database or per-table. They
can only be specified in the global context, by using an ON *.* clause in the
GRANT command.
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VIEWING PRIVILEGES
MySQL enables you to view the privileges assigned to a particular user with
the SHOW GRANTS command, which accepts a username as argument and
displays a list of all the privileges granted to that user. The following examples
illustrate this:
mysql> SHOW GRANTS FOR 'user_name'@'localhost';
mysql> SHOW GRANTS FOR 'root'@'localhost';
mysql> SELECT Host, Db, User, Grant_priv, Select_priv, Delete_priv,
Update_priv, Create_priv FROM db WHERE Host = 'localhost';
The mysql tables structure
mysql> SHOW CREATE TABLE user;
mysql> SHOW CREATE TABLE db;
mysql> SHOW CREATE TABLE `host`;
mysql> SHOW CREATE TABLE columns_priv;
mysql> SHOW CREATE TABLE tables_priv;
Reloading the Grant Tables
Privileges set using GRANT and REVOKE are immediately activated (as
demonstrated in one of the examples in the preceding section). Privileges set
via regular SQL queries, however, require a server reload to come into effect.
A server reload can be accomplished via the FLUSH PRIVILEGES command, as
in the following:
mysql> FLUSH PRIVILEGES;
NOTE You need the RELOAD privilege to run the FLUSH command.
C:\wamp\bin\mysql\mysql5.5.8\bin> mysqladmin -u root reload

BACKUP AND RECOVERY (EXPORTING/IMPORTING DATA)

It is important to back up your databases so that you can recover your data
and be up and running again in case problems occur, such as system crashes,
hardware failures, or users deleting data by mistake. Backups are also
essential as a safeguard before upgrading a MySQL installation, and they can
be used to transfer a MySQL installation to another system or to set up
replication slave servers. MySQL offers a variety of backup strategies from
which you can choose the methods that best suit the requirements for your
installation. This section discusses several backup and recovery topics with
which you should be familiar:
• Types of backups: Logical versus physical, full versus incremental,
and so forth
• Methods for creating backups
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• Recovery methods, including point-in-time recovery
• Backup scheduling, compression, and encryption
• Table maintenance, to enable recovery of corrupt tables
Making Backups with mysqldump
C:\wamp\bin\mysql\mysql5.5.8\bin>mysqldump
Usage: mysqldump [OPTIONS] database [tables]
OR mysqldump [OPTIONS] --databases [OPTIONS] DB1 [DB2 DB3...]
OR mysqldump [OPTIONS] --all-databases [OPTIONS]
By default, mysqldump writes information as SQL statements to the standard
output. You can save the output in a file:
C:\wamp\bin\mysql\mysql5.5.8\bin> mysqldump [arguments] >
path\file_name.sql (example of path: C:\Users\HP\Desktop\FOLDER)
To dump all databases, invoke mysqldump with the --all-databases option:
C:\wamp\bin\mysql\mysql5.5.8\bin> mysqldump --all-databases >
path\dump.sql
To dump only specific databases, name them on the command line and use
the --databases option:
C:\wamp\bin\mysql\mysql5.5.8\bin> mysqldump --databases db1 db2 db3 >
path\dump.sql
To dump a single database, name it on the command line:
C:\wamp\bin\mysql\mysql5.5.8\bin> mysqldump --databases test >
path\dump.sql or
C:\wamp\bin\mysql\mysql5.5.8\bin> mysqldump test > path\dump.sql
The difference between the two preceding commands is that without --
databases, the dump output contains no CREATE DATABASE or USE
statements.
To dump only specific tables from a database, name them on the command
line following the database name:
C:\wamp\bin\mysql\mysql5.5.8\bin> mysqldump test t1 t3 t7 > path\dump.sql
Reloading SQL-Format Backups
To reload a dump file written by mysqldump that consists of SQL statements,
use it as input to the mysql client. If the dump file was created by mysqldump
with the --all-databases or --databases option, it contains CREATE DATABASE
and USE statements and it is not necessary to specify a default database into
which to load the data:
C:\wamp\bin\mysql\mysql5.5.8\bin> mysql < path\dump.sql

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If the file is a single-database dump not containing CREATE DATABASE and
USE statements, create the database first (if necessary):
C:\wamp\bin\mysql\mysql5.5.8\bin> mysqladmin create db1
Then specify the database name when you load the dump file:
C:\wamp\bin\mysql\mysql5.5.8\bin> mysql db1 < path\dump.sql
Making a Copy of a Database
C:\wamp\bin\mysql\mysql5.5.8\bin> mysqldump db1 > path\dump.sql
C:\wamp\bin\mysql\mysql5.5.8\bin> mysqladmin create db2
C:\wamp\bin\mysql\mysql5.5.8\bin> mysql db2 < path\dump.sql
Alternatively, from within mysql, use a source command:
mysql> source path\dump.sql

TABLE MAINTENANCE STATEMENTS

ANALYZE TABLE Syntax
mysql> analyze table table_name;
ANALYZE TABLE analyzes and stores the key distribution for a table. During
the analysis, the table is locked with a read lock for MyISAM and InnoDB. This
statement works with MyISAM and InnoDB tables.
This statement requires SELECT and INSERT privileges for the table. ANALYZE
TABLE is supported for partitioned tables, and you can use ALTER TABLE ...
ANALYZE PARTITION to analyse one or more partitions.
CHECK TABLE Syntax
mysql> check table table_name;
CHECK TABLE checks a table or tables for errors. CHECK TABLE works for
MyISAM, InnoDB, ARCHIVE, and CSV tables. For MyISAM tables, the key
statistics are updated as well. To check a table, you must have some privilege
for it. CHECK TABLE can also check views for problems, such as tables that
are referenced in the view definition that no longer exist. CHECK TABLE is
supported for partitioned tables, and you can use ALTER TABLE ... CHECK
PARTITION to check one or more partitions;
CHECKSUM TABLE Syntax
mysql> CHECKSUM TABLE tbl_name [, tbl_name] ... [ QUICK | EXTENDED ]
CHECKSUM TABLE reports a table checksum. This statement requires the
SELECT privilege for the table. With QUICK, the live table checksum is
reported if it is available, or NULL otherwise. This is very fast. A live checksum
is enabled by specifying the CHECKSUM=1 table option when you create the
table; currently, this is supported only for MyISAM tables.

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OPTIMIZE TABLE Syntax
mysql> optimize table table_name;
OPTIMIZE TABLE should be used if you have deleted a large part of a table or
if you have made many changes to a table with variable-length rows (tables
that have VARCHAR, VARBINARY, BLOB, or TEXT columns). Deleted rows are
maintained in a linked list and subsequent INSERT operations reuse old row
positions. You can use OPTIMIZE TABLE to reclaim the unused space and to
defragment the data file. After extensive changes to a table, this statement
may also improve performance of statements that use the table, sometimes
significantly. This statement requires SELECT and INSERT privileges for the
table.
OPTIMIZE TABLE is supported for partitioned tables, and you can use ALTER
TABLE ... OPTIMIZE PARTITION to optimize one or more partitions; OPTIMIZE
TABLE works only for MyISAM, InnoDB, and ARCHIVE tables. It does not work
for tables created using any other storage engine.
For MyISAM tables, OPTIMIZE TABLE works as follows:
1. If the table has deleted or split rows, repair the table.
2. If the index pages are not sorted, sort them.
3. If the table's statistics are not up to date (and the repair could not be
accomplished by sorting the index), update them.
For InnoDB tables, OPTIMIZE TABLE is mapped to ALTER TABLE, which
rebuilds the table to update index statistics and free unused space in the
clustered index. This is displayed in the output of OPTIMIZE TABLE when you
run it on an InnoDB table.
REPAIR TABLE Syntax
mysql> repair table table_name;
REPAIR TABLE repairs a possibly corrupted table. REPAIR TABLE works for
MyISAM, ARCHIVE, and CSV tables. This statement requires SELECT and
INSERT privileges for the table.
REPAIR TABLE is supported for partitioned tables. However, the USE_FRM
option cannot be used with this statement on a partitioned table.
You can use ALTER TABLE ... REPAIR PARTITION to repair one or more
partitions; Normally, you should never have to run REPAIR TABLE. However, if
disaster strikes, this statement is very likely to get back all your data from a
MyISAM table. If your tables become corrupted often, you should try to find
the reason for it, to eliminate the need to use REPAIR TABLE.

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To show the status of the table:
mysql> show table status like 'table_name'\G;

MYSQL STORAGE ENGINES

Data in MySQL is stored in files (or memory) using a variety of different
techniques. Each of these techniques employs different storage mechanisms,
indexing facilities, locking levels and ultimately provides a range of different
functions and capabilities. By choosing a different technique you can gain
additional speed or functionality benefits that will improve the overall
functionality of your application. Each of these different techniques and suites
of functionality within the MySQL system is referred to as a storage engine
(also known as a table type).
By default, MySQL comes with a number of different storage engines pre-
configured and enabled in the MySQL server. You can select the storage
engine to use on a server, database and even table basis, providing you with
the maximum amount of flexibility when it comes to choosing how your
information is stored, how it is indexed and what combination of performance
and functionality you want to use with your data.
This flexibility to choose how your data is stored and indexed is a major reason
why MySQL is so popular; other database systems, including most of the
commercial options, support only a single type of database storage.
A MySQL storage engine is a low-level engine inside the database server that
takes care of storing and retrieving data, and can be accessed through an
internal MySQL API or, in some situations be accessed directly by an
application. Note that one application can have more than one storage engine
in use at any given time.

InnoDB is the mostly widely used storage engine for Web/Web 2.0,
eCommerce, Financial Systems, Telecommunications, Health Care and Retail
applications built on MySQL. InnoDB provides highly efficient ACID-compliant
transactional capabilities and includes unique architectural elements that
deliver high performance and scalability. InnoDB is structurally designed to
handle transactional applications that require crash recovery, referential
integrity, high levels of user concurrency and fast response times.
While MyISAM and the other storage engines continue to be readily
available, users can now create applications built on InnoDB without altering

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default configuration settings. All of the capabilities of InnoDB are now
delivered “out of the box” with any MySQL 5.5 deployment.
The ACID properties of InnoDB are configurable, and so users can ensure
ACID-compliance for those workloads demanding the highest levels of data
integrity, suchas ecommerce, while relaxing ACID properties where
throughput is more important. Even with these relaxed properties, benefits
such as crash recovery are still maintained by InnoDB, so users enjoy much
higher levels of protection than they do with MyISAM.
InnoDB to MyISAM Feature Comparison

[a] Compressed MyISAM tables are supported only when using the compressed row format.
[b] Compressed InnoDB tables require the InnoDB Barracuda file format.
[c] Implemented in the server (via encryption functions), rather than in the storage engine.
[d] Implemented in the server, rather than in the storage engine.
InnoDB delivers the best blend of performance, reliability and data integrity
for transactional workloads, with a host of parameters that are configurable,
enabling users to optimize performance and behavior for their specific
workload.

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MyISAM remains a strategic technology for MySQL and its users, and there are
some use cases that are better suited to the characteristics of MyISAM. Full-
text search indexes in MyISAM are useful for many simple read-only web
applications, though often users deploy MySQL and InnoDB with Sphinx or
Lucene for fast text searches as an alternative to MyISAM. It is often the case
that performing full text searches outside of the database will deliver higher
levels of performance and scalability.
Other use cases that are potentially suitable for MyISAM include:
• Applications demanding very high raw INSERT speeds where concurrency is
not a consideration. Performance will always be application dependent, so
benchmarking is necessary to determine the best solution for your own
environment.
• Caches or temporary tables.
• Blogs / Wikis / RSS feeds.
• Read-only tables.
Determining Available Engines
You can determine a list of engines by using the show engines command
within MySQL
mysql> show engines;
mysql> show variables like "have_%";
Using an Engine
There are a number of ways you can specify the storage engine to use. The
simplest method, if you have a preference for a engine type that fits most of
your database needs to set the default engine type within the MySQL
configuration file (using the option storage_engine or when starting the
database server by supplying the --default-storage-engine or --default-table-
type options on the command line). More flexibility is offered by allowing you
specify the storage engine to be used MySQL, the most obvious is to specify
the engine type when creating the table:
mysql> CREATE TABLE mytable (id int, title varchar(20)) ENGINE = MyISAM;
mysql> ALTER TABLE mytable ENGINE = INNODB;
However, you should be careful when altering table types in this way as
making a modification to a type that does not support the same indexes, field
types or sizes may mean that you lose data. If you specify a storage engine
that doesn't exist in the current database then a table of type MyISAM (the
default) is created instead.

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MySQL DATA TYPES

MYSQL TRANSACTIONS
Introducing transactions
In everyday life, people conduct different kind of business transactions
buying products, ordering travels, changing or cancelling orders, buying
tickets to concerts, paying rents, electricity bills, insurance invoices, etc.
Transactions do not relate only to computers, of course. Any type of human
activity comprising a logical unit of work meant to either be executed as a
whole or to be cancelled in its entirety comprises a transaction. Almost all
information systems utilize the services of some database management
system (DBMS) for storing and retrieving data. Today's DBMS products are
technically sophisticated securing data integrity in their databases and
providing fast access to data even to multiple concurrent users. They
provide reliable services to applications for managing persistency of data, but
only if applications use these reliable services properly. This is done by
building the data access parts of the application logic using database
transactions. Improper transaction management and control by the
application software may, for example, result in
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  customer orders, payments, and product shipment orders being lost in
the case of a web store
 failures in the registration of seat reservations or double-bookings
to be made for train/airplane passengers
 lost emergency call registrations at emergency response centers etc.
Problematic situations like the above occur frequently in real life, but the
people in charge often prefer not to reveal the stories to the public.
Transactions are recoverable units of data access tasks in terms of
database content manipulation. They also comprise units of recovery for
the entire database in case of system crashes. They also provide basis
for concurrency management in multi-user environment.
Position of SQL transactions in application layers

The above Figure presents a simplified view of the architecture of a

typical database application, positioning the database transactions on a
different software layer than the user interface layer. From the end user's
point of view, for processing a business transaction one or more use cases
can be defined for the application and implemented as user
transactions. A single user transaction may involve multiple SQL
transactions, some of which will involve retrieval, and usually the final
transaction in the series updating the contents in the database. Retry
wrappers in the application logic comprise the means for implementing
programmatic retry actions in case of concurrency failures of SQL
transactions.

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To properly understand SQL transactions, we need to agree on some basic
concepts concerning the client-server handshaking dialogue. To access a
database, the application needs to initiate a database connection which
sets up the context of an SQL-session. For simplicity, the latter is said to
comprise the SQL-client, and the database server comprises the SQL-
server. From the database server point of view, the application uses
database services in client/server mode by passing SQL commands as
parameters to functions/methods via a data access API (application
programming interface). Regardless of the data access interface used, the
"logical level" dialog with the server is based on the SQL language, and
reliable data access is materialized with the proper use of SQL transactions.

SQL command processing explained

The Figure above explains the "round trip", the processing cycle of an SQL
command, started by the client as a service request to the server
using a middleware stack and network services, for processing by server,
and the returned response to the request. The SQL command may involve one
or more SQL statements. The SQL statement(s) of the command are
parsed, analyzed on the basis of the database metadata, then optimized and
finally executed. To improve the performance degradation due to slow disk
I/O operations, the server retains all the recently used rows in a RAM-
residing buffer pool and all data processing takes place there.
The execution of the entered SQL command in the server is atomic in the
sense that the whole SQL command has to succeed; otherwise the whole

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command will be cancelled (rolled back). As a response to the SQL
command, the server sends diagnostic message(s) reporting of the success
or failures of the command. Command execution errors are reflected to the
client as a sequence of exceptions.
SQL Transactions
When the application logic needs to execute a sequence of SQL commands in
an atomic fashion, then the commands need to be grouped as a logical unit of
work (LUW) called SQL transaction which, while processing the data,
transforms the database from a consistent state to another consistent
state, and thus be considered as unit of consistency. Any successful
execution of the transaction is ended by a COMMIT command, whereas
unsuccessful execution need to be ended by a ROLLBACK command
which automatically recovers from the database all changes made by the
transaction. Thus SQL transaction can also be considered as unit of
recovery. The advantage of the ROLLBACK command is that when the
application logic programmed in the transaction cannot be completed, there is
no need for conducting a series of reverse operations command-by-command,
but the work can be cancelled simply by the ROLLBACK command, the
operation of which will always succeed. Uncommitted transactions in
case of broken connections, or end of program, or at system crash will
be automatically rolled back by the system. Also in case of concurrency
conflicts, some DBMS products will automatically rollback a transaction, as
explained below.
Some DBMS products, for example, SQL Server, MySQL/InnoDB,
PostgreSQL operate by default in the AUTOCOMMIT mode. This means that
the result of every single SQL command will is automatically committed to the
database, thus the effects/changes made to the database by the statement
in question cannot be rolled back. So, in case of errors the
application needs do reverse-operations for the logical unit of work, which
may be impossible after operations of concurrent SQL-clients. Also in
case of broken connections the database might be left in inconsistent
state. In order to use real transactional logic, one needs to start every new
transaction with an explicit start command, like: BEGIN WORK, BEGIN
TRANSACTION, or START TRANSACTION, depending on the DBMS product
used.

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In MySQL/InnoDB, an ongoing SQL session can be set to use either
implicit or explicit transactions by executing the statement:
SET AUTOCOMMIT = 0; or SET AUTOCOMMIT = 1;
where 0 implies the use of implicit transactions, and 1 means operating in
AUTOCOMMIT mode. To display the status of the autocommit variable, we
use SHOW variables like ‘autocommit’;
Concurrent Transactions
Concurrency Problems: Possible Risks of Reliability
Without having proper concurrency control services in the database
product or lacking knowledge on how to use the services properly, the
content in the database or results to our queries might become
corrupted i.e. unreliable. In the following, we cover the typical concurrency
problems (anomalies):
 The lost update problem
 The dirty read problem, i.e. reading of uncommitted data of some
concurrent transaction
 The non-repeatable read problem, i.e. repeated read may not
return all same rows
 The phantom read problem, i.e. during the transaction some
qualifying rows may not be seen by the transaction.

The ACID Principle of Ideal Transaction

The ACID principle, presented by Theo Härder and Andreas Reuter in 1983 at
ACM Computing Surveys, defines the ideal of reliable SQL transactions in
multi-client environment. The ACID acronym comes from initials of the
following four transaction properties:
 Atomic: A transaction needs to be an atomic ("All or nothing") series
of operations which either succeeds and will be committed or all its
operations will be rolled back from the database.
 Consistent: The series of operations will transfer the contents of the
database from a consistent state to another consistent state. So, at
latest, at the commit time, the operations of the transaction have not
violated any database constraints (primary keys, unique keys,
foreign keys, checks).

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  Isolated: The original definition by Härder and Reuter, "Events within a
transaction must be hidden from other transactions running
concurrently" will not be fully satisfied by most DBMS products.
 Durable: The committed results in the database will survive on
disks in spite of possible system failures.
The ACID principle requires that a transaction which does not fulfil these
properties shall not be committed, but either the application or the database
server has to rollback such transactions.
Transaction Isolation Levels
The Isolated property in ACID principle is challenging. Depending on the
concurrency control mechanisms, it can lead to concurrency conflicts and too
long waiting times, slowing down the production use of the database.
The ISO SQL standard does not define how the concurrency control should be
implemented, but based on the concurrency anomalies i.e. bad behaving
phenomena which we have illustrated above, it defines the isolation levels
which need to solve these anomalies as defined in Table below. Some of the
isolation levels are less restrictive and some are more restrictive giving
better isolation, but perhaps at the cost of performance slowdown. It is worth
noticing that isolation levels say nothing about write restrictions. For write
operations some lock protection is typically needed, and a successful
write is always protected against overwriting by others up to the end of
transaction.
ISO SQL transaction isolation levels solving concurrency anomalies

Transaction Isolation Levels of ISO SQL (and DB2) explained

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Concurrency Control Mechanisms
Modern DBMS products are mainly using the following Concurrency Control
(CC) mechanisms for isolation
 Multi-Granular Locking scheme (called MGL or just LSCC)
 Multi-Versioning Concurrency Control (called MVCC)
 Optimistic Concurrency Control (OCC).
Implementation of concurrency transaction with different level of isolation
Concurrency issues
Client1:
Show databases;
Use company;
Show table;
START TRANSACTION;
SELECT * from employee;

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Client2
Show databases;
Use company;
Show table;
SELECT * from employee;
SELECT * from employee where emp_id=101;!
UPDATE employee SET salary = 175000 WHERE emp_id=101;
SELECT * from employee;

Client1
UPDATE employee SET salary = (salary +5000) WHERE emp_id=101;
SELECT * from employee;
COMMIT;
SELECT * from employee;

Show create table table_name;

show variables like '%commit%';
select * from employee
limit 1;
show variables like 'autocommit';
START TRANSACTION;
update employee set salary=150000 where emp_id=100;
select * from employee
limit 1;
rollback;
select * from employee
limit 1;

START TRANSACTION;
select * from employee
limit 1;
update employee set salary=175000 where emp_id=100;
SAVEPOINT SP1;
update employee set salary=180000 where emp_id=100;
select * from employee where emp_id=100;
rollback to SP1;

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select * from employee where emp_id=100;
commit;

show variables like 'tx_isolation';

prompt transaction#1>
use company;
show tables;
select * from employee limit 1;
START TRANSACTION;
update employee set salary=200000 where emp_id=100;
prompt transaction#2>
show variables like 'tx_isolation';
SET tx_isolation = "READ-UNCOMMITTED";
show variables like 'tx_isolation';
use company;
START TRANSACTION;
select * from employee limit 1;

transaction#1>
update employee set salary=250000 where emp_id=100;
transaction#2>
select * from employee limit 1;
transaction#1>
rollback;
transaction#2>
select * from employee limit 1;
transaction#1>
START TRANSACTION;
select * from employee limit 1;
transaction#2>
show variables like 'tx_isolation';
SET tx_isolation = "REPEATABLE-READ";
show variables like 'tx_isolation';
START TRANSACTION;
select * from employee limit 1;

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transaction#1>
update employee set salary=500000 where emp_id=100;
select * from employee limit 1;
transaction#2>
select * from employee limit 1;
transaction#1>
commit;
transaction#2>
select * from employee limit 1;
commit;
select * from employee limit 1;
transaction#1>
START TRANSACTION;
select * from employee limit 1;
transaction#2>
show variables like 'tx_isolation';
SET tx_isolation = "SERIALIZABLE";
show variables like 'tx_isolation';
START TRANSACTION;
select * from employee limit 1;
transaction#1>
update employee set salary=600000 where emp_id=100;
select * from employee limit 1;
transaction#2>
commit;
transaction#1>
commit;

PARTITIONING
This section discusses MySQL's implementation of user-defined partitioning.
You can determine whether your MySQL Server supports partitioning by
means of a SHOW VARIABLES statement such as this one:
mysql> SHOW VARIABLES LIKE '%partition%';
You can also check the output of the SHOW PLUGINS statement, as shown
here:
mysql> SHOW PLUGINS;

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If you do not see the have_partitioning variable with the value YES listed in
the output of an appropriate SHOW VARIABLES statement, or if you do not
see the partition plugin listed with the value ACTIVE for the Status column in
the output of SHOW PLUGINS, then your version of MySQL was not built with
partitioning support.
Partitioning by allows you to distribute portions of individual tables across a
filesystem according to rules which you can set largely as needed. In effect,
different portions of a table are stored as separate tables in different
locations. The user-selected rule by which the division of data is accomplished
is known as a partitioning function, which in MySQL can be the modulus,
simple matching against a set of ranges or value lists, an internal hashing
function, or a linear hashing function. The function is selected according to the
partitioning type specified by the user, and takes as its parameter the value of
a user-supplied expression. This expression can be either an integer column
value, or a function acting on one or more column values and returning an
integer. The value of this expression is passed to the partitioning function,
which returns an integer value representing the number of the partition in
which that particular record should be stored. This function must be non-
constant and non-random. It may not contain any queries, but may use
virtually any SQL expression that is valid in MySQL, so long as that expression
returns a positive integer less than MAXVALUE (the greatest possible positive
integer).
Partitioning Types
RANGE Partitioning
A table that is partitioned by range is partitioned in such a way that each
partition contains rows for which the partitioning expression value lies within a
given range. Ranges should be contiguous but not overlapping, and are
defined using the VALUESLESS THAN operator. For the next few examples,
suppose that you are creating a table such as the following to hold personnel
records for a chain of 20 video stores, numbered 1 through 20:

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CREATE TABLE employees (
id INT NOT NULL,
fname VARCHAR(30),
lname VARCHAR(30),
hired DATE NOT NULL DEFAULT '1970-01-01',
separated DATE NOT NULL DEFAULT '9999-12-31',
job_code INT NOT NULL,
store_id INT NOT NULL
);

This table can be partitioned by range in a number of ways, depending on

your needs. One way would be to use the store_id column. For instance, you
might decide to partition the table 4 ways by adding a PARTITIONBY RANGE
clause as shown here:

ALTER TABLE employees PARTITIONBY RANGE (store_id) (

PARTITION p0 VALUESLESS THAN (6),
PARTITION p1 VALUESLESS THAN (11),
PARTITION p2 VALUESLESS THAN (16),
PARTITION p3 VALUESLESS THAN MAXVALUE
);

MAXVALUE represents an integer value that is always greater than the largest
possible integer value (in mathematical language, it serves as a least upper
bound).
LIST Partitioning
List partitioning is similar to range partitioning in many ways. As in partitioning
by RANGE, each partition must be explicitly defined. The chief difference
between the two types of partitioning is that, in list partitioning, each partition
is defined and selected based on the membership of a column value in one of
a set of value lists, rather than in one of a set of contiguous ranges of values.
This is done by using PARTITIONBY LIST(expr)where expr is a column value
or an expression based on a column value and returning an integer value, and
then defining each partition by means of a VALUES IN (value_list), where
value_list is a comma-separated list of integers. For the examples that follow,

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we assume that the basic definition of the table to be partitioned is provided
by the CREATE TABLE statement shown here:

CREATE TABLE employees (

id INT NOT NULL,
fname VARCHAR(30),
lname VARCHAR(30),
hired DATE NOT NULL DEFAULT '1970-01-01',
separated DATE NOT NULL DEFAULT '9999-12-31',
job_code INT,
store_id INT
);

Suppose that there are 20 video stores distributed among 4 franchises as

shown in the following table.
Region Store ID Numbers
North 3, 5, 6, 9, 17
East 1, 2, 10, 11, 19, 20
West 4, 12, 13, 14, 18
Central 7, 8, 15, 16
To partition this table in such a way that rows for stores belonging to the
same region are stored in the same partition

ALTER TABLE employees PARTITIONBY LIST(store_id) (

PARTITION pNorth VALUES IN (3,5,6,9,17),
PARTITION pEast VALUES IN (1,2,10,11,19,20),
PARTITION pWest VALUES IN (4,12,13,14,18),
PARTITION pCentral VALUES IN (7,8,15,16)
);

HASH Partitioning
Partitioning by HASH is used primarily to ensure an even distribution of data
among a predetermined number of partitions. With range or list partitioning,
you must specify explicitly into which partition a given column value or set of
column values is to be stored; with hash partitioning, MySQL takes care of this
for you, and you need only specify a column value or expression based on a

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column value to be hashed and the number of partitions into which the
partitioned table is to be divided. The following statement creates a table that
uses hashing on the store_id column and is divided into 4 partitions:

CREATE TABLE employees (

id INT NOT NULL,
fname VARCHAR(30),
lname VARCHAR(30),
hired DATE NOT NULL DEFAULT '1970-01-01',
separated DATE NOT NULL DEFAULT '9999-12-31',
job_code INT,
store_id INT
)
PARTITIONBY HASH(store_id)
PARTITIONS 4;
If you do not include a PARTITIONS clause, the number of partitions defaults
to 1.

CASE STUDY
consider the following Company data requirements.
The company is organized into branches. Each branch has a unique number, a
name, and a particular employee who manages it.

The company makes its money by selling to clients. Each client has a name
and a unique number to identify it.

The foundation of the company is its employee. Each employee has a name,
birthday, sex, salary and a unique number.

An employee can work for one branch at a time, and each branch will be
managed by one of the employees that work there. We will also want to keep
track of when the current manager started as manager.

An employee can acts as a supervisor for other employees at the branch, an

employee may also acts as the supervisor for employees at other branches.
An employee can have at most one supervisor.

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A branch may handle a number of clients, with each client having a name and
a unique number to identify it. A single client may only be handled by one
branch at a time.
Employees can work with clients, controlled by their branch to sell their stuff.
If necessary multiple employees can work with the same client. We will want
to keep track of how many francs worth of stuff each employee sells to each
client they work with.

Many branches will need to work with suppliers to buy inventory. For each
supplier, we will keep track of their name and the type of product they are
selling the branch. A single supplier may supply products to multiple branches.

The above information is a Company data requirements document. How

do you go about converting it into a database schema if you are given a
document like this one? The first thing would be to create an Entity-
Relationship diagram.

1. Draw an ER diagram that captures this information, by mapping various

entities, various type of attributes concerned, relationships and identifying
relationships, cardinality ratios, total and partial participations.
2. Covert the diagram above to obtain the relational model
3. implement the physical model to obtain the database.

1. Mapping the ER Model below to a Relational Model

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2. Relational Model

Relational Model with constrains/dependencies

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Physical database

3. Physical implementation of the database

CREATE TABLE employee (

emp_id INT PRIMARY KEY,
first_name VARCHAR (50),
last_name VARCHAR (50),
birth_date DATE,
sex VARCHAR (1),
salary INT,
super_id INT,
branch_id INT
);

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CREATE TABLE branch (
branch_id INT PRIMARY KEY,
branch_name VARCHAR (50),
mgr_id INT,
mgr_start_date DATE,
FOREIGN KEY(mgr_id) REFERENCES employee(emp_id) ON DELETE SET NULL
);

ALTER TABLE employee

ADD FOREIGN KEY(branch_id)
REFERENCES branch(branch_id)
ON DELETE SET NULL;

ALTER TABLE employee

ADD FOREIGN KEY(super_id)
REFERENCES employee(emp_id)
ON DELETE SET NULL;

CREATE TABLE client (

client_id INT PRIMARY KEY,
client_name VARCHAR (50),
branch_id INT,
FOREIGN KEY(branch_id) REFERENCES branch(branch_id) ON DELETE CASCADE
);

CREATE TABLE works_with (

emp_id INT,
client_id INT,
total_sales INT,
PRIMARY KEY(emp_id, client_id),
FOREIGN KEY(emp_id) REFERENCES employee(emp_id) ON DELETE CASCADE,
FOREIGN KEY(client_id) REFERENCES client(client_id) ON DELETE CASCADE
);

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CREATE TABLE branch_supplier (
branch_id INT,
supplier_name VARCHAR(50),
supplier_type VARCHAR(50),
PRIMARY KEY(branch_id, supplier_name),
FOREIGN KEY(branch_id) REFERENCES branch(branch_id) ON DELETE CASCADE
);

INSERT INTO employee VALUES(100, ‘DAVID’, ‘WALANCE’, ‘1967-11-17’, ‘M’, 250000, NULL, NULL);
INSERT INTO branch VALUES(1, ‘Corporate’, 100, ‘2006-02-09’);
UPDATE employee
SET branch_id =1
WHERE emp_id = 100;
INSERT INTO employee VALUES(101, ‘jan’, ‘Levinson’, ‘1961-05-11’, ‘F’, 110000, 100, 1);

INSERT INTO employee VALUES(102, ‘Michael’, ‘Scott’, ‘1964-03-15’, ‘M’, 75000, 100, NULL);
INSERT INTO branch VALUES(2, ‘Scraton’, 102, ‘1992-04-06’);
UPDATE employee
SET branch_id =2
WHERE emp_id = 102;

INSERT INTO employee VALUES(103, ‘Angela’, ‘Martin’, ‘1971-06-25’, ‘F’, 63000, 101, 2);
INSERT INTO employee VALUES(104, ‘Kelly’, ‘kapoor’, ‘1980-02-05’, ‘F’, 55000, 101, 2);
INSERT INTO employee VALUES(105, ‘Stanley’, ‘Hudson’, ‘1958-02-19’, ‘M’, 69000, 101, 2);

INSERT INTO employee VALUES(106, ‘Josh’, ‘Porter’, ‘1969-09-05’, ‘M’, 78000, 100, NULL);
INSERT INTO branch VALUES(3, ‘Stamford’, 106, ‘1998-02-13’);
UPDATE employee
SET branch_id =3
WHERE emp_id = 106;
INSERT INTO employee VALUES(107, ‘Andy’, ‘Bernard’, ‘1973-07-22’, ‘F’, 65000, 102, 3);
INSERT INTO employee VALUES(108, ‘Jim’, ‘Halpert’, ‘1978-01-01’, ‘F’, 71000, 102, 3);

INSERT INTO branch_supplier VALUES(2, ‘Hammer Mill’, ‘Pager’);

INSERT INTO branch_supplier VALUES(2, ‘Uni-ball’, ‘Writing Utensils’);
INSERT INTO branch_supplier VALUES(3, ‘Patriot paper’, ‘Pager’);
INSERT INTO branch_supplier VALUES(2, ‘J. T. Forms & &Labels’, ‘Custum Forms’);
INSERT INTO branch_supplier VALUES(3, ‘Uni-bal’, ‘Writing Utensils’);
INSERT INTO branch_supplier VALUES(3, ‘Hammer Mill’, ‘Pager’);
INSERT INTO branch_supplier VALUES(3, ‘Stamford Labels’, ‘Custom Forms’);

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INSERT INTO client VALUES(400, ‘Dunmore Highschool’, 2);
INSERT INTO client VALUES(401, ‘Lackawana Country’, 2);
INSERT INTO client VALUES(402, ‘FedEx’, 3);
INSERT INTO client VALUES(403, ‘John Daly Law, LLC’, 3);
INSERT INTO client VALUES(404, ‘Scranton Whitepages’, 2);
INSERT INTO client VALUES(405, ‘Times Newspaper’, 3);
INSERT INTO client VALUES(406, ‘FedEx’, 2);

INSERT INTO works_with VALUES(105, 400, 55000);

INSERT INTO works_with VALUES(102, 401, 267000);
INSERT INTO works_with VALUES(108, 402, 22500);
INSERT INTO works_with t VALUES(107, 403, 5000);
INSERT INTO works_with VALUES(108, 403, 12000);
INSERT INTO works_with VALUES(105, 404, 12000);
INSERT INTO works_with VALUES(105, 404, 33000);
INSERT INTO works_with VALUES(107, 405, 26000);
INSERT INTO works_with VALUES(102, 406, 15000);
INSERT INTO works_with VALUES(105, 406, 130000);

Querying the database

-- Find all employee
SELECT *
FROM employee;

-- Find all employee ordered by salary

SELECT *
FROM employee
ORDER BY salary;

-- Find all employee ordered by salary

SELECT *
FROM employee
ORDER BY salary DESC;
SELECT *
FROM employee
ORDER BY sex, first_name, last_name;

-- Find the first 5 employees in the table

SELECT *
FROM employee
LIMIT 5;

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-- Find the forename and surenames names of all employees in the table
SELECT first_name AS forename, last_name AS surname
FROM employee;

-- Find out all the different genders

SELECT DISTINCT sex
FROM employee;

-- Find the number of employees

SELECT COUNT(emp_id)
FROM employee;

SELECT COUNT(super_id)
FROM employee;
-- Find the number of femal employees born after 1st of Jan 1970
SELECT COUNT(emp_id)
FROM employee
WHERE sex= ‘F’ AND birth_date > ‘1970-01-01’;

-- Find Average salary

SELECT AVG(salary)
FROM employee;

-- Find Average salary for male

SELECT AVG(salary)
FROM employee
WHERE sex = ‘M’;

-- Find the sum of all salary

SELECT SUM(salary)
FROM employee;

-- Find out how many males and females are there

SELECT COUNT(sex) , sex
FROM employee
GROUP BY sex;

-- Find the total sales of each salesman

SELECT SUM(total_sales) , emp_id
FROM works_with
GROUP BY emp_id;

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-- Find the total sales of each salesman
SELECT SUM(total_sales) , client_id
FROM works_with
GROUP BY client_id;

-- Find any client’s who are an LLC

SELECT *
FROM client
WHERE client_name LIKE ‘%LLC’;

-- Find any client’s who are an LLC

SELECT *
FROM branch_supplier
WHERE supplier_name LIKE ‘%label%’;

-- Find any employee born in october

SELECT *
FROM employee
WHERE birth_date LIKE ‘____-02%’;

-- Find all employee and their branch

SELECT first_name
FROM employee
UNION
SELECT branch_name
FROM branch;

SELECT client_name, client.branch_id

FROM client
UNION
SELECT supplier_name, branch_supplier.branch_id
FROM branch_supplier;
-- Find all branches and the names of their managers
SELECT employee.emp_id, employee.first_name, branch.branch_name
FROM employee
JOIN branch
ON employee.emp_id = branch.mgr_id;

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-- Find all branches and the names of their managers
SELECT employee.emp_id, employee.first_name, branch.branch_name
FROM employee
LEFT JOIN branch
ON employee.emp_id = branch.mgr_id;

SELECT employee.emp_id, employee.first_name, branch.branch_name

FROM employee
RIGHT JOIN branch
ON employee.emp_id = branch.mgr_id;

-- Find the names of all employees who have sold over 30, 000

SELECT employee.first_name, employee.last_name

FROM employee
WHERE employee.emp_id IN (
SELECT works_with.emp_id
FROM works_with
WHERE works_with.total_sales > 30000
);

-- Find all clients who are handled by the branch that Michael Scott manages, assuming you know his ID
SELECT client.client_name
FROM client
WHERE client.branch_id = (
SELECT branch.branch_id
FROM branch
WHERE branch.mgr_id = 102
LIMIT 1
);

INSERT INTO branch VALUES(4, ‘Buffalo’, NULL, NULL);

DELETE FROM employee

WHERE emp_id = 102;

SELECT * FROM branch;

DELETE FROM branch

WHERE branch_id = 2;

SELECT * FROM branch_supllier;

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