Projectile  motion  –  Mathematics  IA  

 
 
Introduction  
Projectile  motion  is  the  motion  of  an  object  that  is  moving  in  air  and  experiences  
the  force  of  gravity.1  My  interest  in  the  topic  of  projectile  motion  stemmed  from  
the  fact  that  my  favorite  topic  in  physics  class  was  kinematics.  However,  I  
realized  that  the  motion  we  considered  in  class  was  limited  in  the  way  that  it  was  
usually  only  one-­‐dimensional  and  did  not  take  factors  such  as  air  resistance  into  
account.  Therefore,  the  aim  of  this  investigation  is  to  understand  the  motion  in  
air  more  fully,  including  when  it  is  two-­‐dimensional,  and  then  taking  air  
resistance  into  account.    
 
Defining  symbols:  
t:  time  (s)  
s:  displacement  (m)  
a:  acceleration  ( ms−2 )  
g:  acceleration  due  to  gravity  (On  Earth  -­‐9.8 ms−2 )  
u:  initial  velocity  ( ms−1)  
ux:  initial  
€ horizontal  velocity  ( ms )  
−1

uy:  initial  vertical  velocity  ( ms )   €

−1

θ:  angle  o€f  initial  velocity  to  horizontal  (degrees)  

v:  instantaneous  velocity   € ( ms )  
−1

vx:  instantaneous  € horizontal  velocity  ( ms )  

−1

vy:  instantaneous  vertical  velocity  ( ms )  

−1

α:  angle  of  instantaneous  

€ velocity  to  horizontal  (degrees)  
m:  mass  (kg)   €
k:  a  constant  
€
 
In  a  vacuum  
 
 
One-­‐dimensional  motion  
 
In  a  one-­‐dimensional  vacuum,  if  a  ball  is  thrown  vertically  and  caught  at  the  
same  position,  equations  for  the  motion  of  the  ball  over  time  can  be  modeled  
simply.    
 
The  displacement  (s)  and  time  (t)  have  the  relationship:    
1
s = at 2 + ut      (where  a=acceleration,  and  u=initial  velocity)  
2
 
Velocity  is  the  rate  of  change  of  displacement,  and  therefore  is  represented  by:  

€                                                                                                                
1  The  Physics  Classroom.  (2015).  What  is  a  projectile?  Retrieved  February  16,  

2015  from  the  Physics  Classroom:  

http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/vectors/Lesson-­‐2/What-­‐is-­‐a-­‐
Projectile  
  

ds
v= = at + u  
dt
 
The  graphs  below  show  the  vertical  distance  and  velocity  of  a  ball  that  is  thrown  
vertically  with  an  initial  speed  of  10 ms−1.  (Graphs  created  using  LoggerPro)  
€  

 
 
The  gradient  of  the  velocity  represents  the  acceleration.  As  the  only  force  acting  
on  the  object  is  the  acceleration  due  to  gravity,  the  gradient  is  equal  to  -­‐9.8 ms−2  
(assuming  we  are  on  Earth).  
 
 
€
Two-­‐dimensional  motion  
   
When  an  object  is  thrown  at  an  angle  to  the  ground,  it  experiences  projectile  
motion.  In  a  vacuum,  the  only  force  acting  on  the  object  would  be  the  downward  
gravitational  force.  Therefore  the  horizontal  velocity  (ux)  stays  constant  while  
vertical  velocity  (uy,  vy1,  vy2,  )  decelerates  and  then  accelerates  downwards.  The  
resulting  shape  of  the  path  of  the  object  will  be  a  parabola.    
 

 
  

 
 
 
Using  trigonometry,  the  initial  vertical  and  horizontal  velocities  are:  
uy=usinθ  and  ux=ucosθ    
 
For  example,  if  the  initial  velocity  was  10 ms−1  at  a  30  degree  angle  
to  the  ground:  
1
The  vertical  component  of  the  initial  velocity  would  be   10× = 5 ms−1,  and  the  
€ 2
3
horizontal  component  would  be   10× = 8.66 ms .  
−1

2
  €
€1
To  find  the  displacement,  the  same  equation s = at 2 + ut  is  used,  but  the  vertical  
€ 2
and  horizontal  displacements  must  be  thought  of  separately.    
€
Let  x  represent  the  horizontal  displacement,  and  y  represent  the  vertical  
displacement.  
  €
There  is  no  horizontal  force  on  the  object  once  it  is  in  the  air,  so   ax = 0  
Thus,   x = ux t  or   x = ucosθt  

The  acceleration  due  to  gravity  works  vertically,  and  therefore   € ay = g  
€ y = 1 gt€2 + u t  or y = 1 gt2 + usinθt  
y
2 2
 
  €
Finding  the  time  the  object  will  be  in  the  air:  
€ Only  the  €vertical  velocity  will  affect  the  time  that  the  object  is  in  the  air,  as  the  
vertical  displacement  must  be  above  ground  for  it  to  be  in  the  air.    
The  object  will  have  a  vertical  velocity  of  0 ms−1  when  it  is  at  the  highest  point,  as  
it  stops  rising  starts  falling.    
The  acceleration  due  to  gravity  is  -­‐9.8 ms−1.  If  only  the  
time  it  take  for  the  object  to  reach  
€its  highest  point  is  
considered,  it   reduces   t he   vertical   velocity  of  the  object  
by  9.8m  every  second.     €
Therefore,  by  calculating  how  many  times  9.8  goes  into  
uy,  the  time  taken  for  the  object  to  reach  a  maximum  
height  can  be  calculated.  As  g=-­‐9.8,  -­‐g  must  be  used  to  
express  9.8.  
uy usinθ
t pea k = =  
−g −g
 
As  the  path  is  symmetrical,  it  will  take  the  same  amount  of  time  for  the  object  to  
reach  the  highest  point,  and  to  come  back  to  the  starting  height.  Therefore,  the  
€ total  air  time  of  the  object  will  be  twice  that  of  the  time  it  takes  for  the  object  to  
reach  its  peak  height.    
 
2usin θ
tair = 2t peak =
−g
  

 
 
Finding  the  distance  the  object  will  travel:  
Distance=speed×time  
As  the  distance  is  the  horizontal  distance,  only  the  horizontal  velocity  (which  is  
constantly  ux)  is  affects  it.  
 
D = ux × t air
2usin θ
D = ucos θ ×  
g
2u 2
D= cos θ sin θ
g
 
Finding  the  optimal  angle  for  the  maximum  distance:  
 
€ 2
2u  
D= cosθ sinθ
−g   Check:  (Graphically)  
Blue  line:  horizontal  distance  traveled.  
dD 2u 2
2u 2  
= (− sinθ sinθ + cosθ cosθ ) D= cos θ sin θ  
€ dθ −g −g
Red  line:  derivative  of  horizontal  distance.  
dD 2u 2
= (− sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ ) dD 2u 2
dθ −g = ( − sin 2 θ + cos2 θ )    
dθ − g
 
The  red  line  crosses  the  x-­‐axis  at  0.78radians,  
dD
= 0  for  the  maximum     corresponds  
which       to  45degrees  and  
€ dθ therefore  confirms  my  calculations.  
 
0 ≤ θ ≤ 90  
2u 2
2
2u
 00== ( − sin 2θθ++cos
cosθ2 θ) )  
2 2
€ (−sin
−g g
€ 0 = −sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ
sin 2 θ = cos 2 θ
sin 2 θ cos 2 θ
=  
cos 2 θ cos 2 θ
sin θ 2
( ) =1
cos θ
tan 2 θ = 1
θ = tan −1 ( 1)
θ = 45°
 
Air  Resistance  
 
€
  

When  we  toss  a  ball,  shoot  an  arrow  or  hit  a  golf  ball  we  do  not  do  so  in  a  
vacuum.  Air  resistance  must  be  taken  into  account  in  order  to  accurately  model  
the  projectile  motion.  
Air  resistance  is  a  force  that  is  proportional  and  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  
velocity  of  the  object.  2  
 
One-­‐dimensional  motion  
 
Therefore,  if  a  ball  were  dropped  vertically,  the  air  resistance  
would  be  in  the  upward  direction  and  could  be  written  as  kv,  
where  k  is  a  constant.  
 The  second  force  would  be  due  to  gravity,  calculated  by  the  
product  of  the  mass  (m)  and  the  acceleration  due  to  gravity  (g).  
The  net  force  would  be  kv-­‐mg  (where  the  positive  direction  is  
upward).  
 
Two-­‐dimensional  motion  
 
To  apply  this  to  projectile  motion,  the  horizontal  and  vertical  motion  would  have  
to  be  considered  separately.    

 
 
Horizontal  motion  
 
Horizontal  force  
Only  the  force  due  to  air  resistance  is  acting  on  the  object.  
Fx = −kv cos α  (Negative  sign  because  it  is  in  negative  direction  on  x-­‐axis)  
 
Deriving  the  horizontal  velocity  equation  
 
€ Using  Newton’s  second  law,   F = ma    

€
                                                                                                               
2  The  Physics  Classroom.  (2015).  Types  of  Forces.  Retrieved  February  13,  2015  

from  The  Physics  Classroom:  

http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/newtlaws/Lesson-­‐2/Types-­‐of-­‐Forces  
  

dv x
−kv cos α = m
dt
dv x
−kv x = m
dt
 
−k 1
∫ m dt = ∫ v dv x
x

−k
t = ln(v x ) + c
m
 
 
Substitute:  at t = 0 ,   v x = ucosθ  
€  
0 = ln(u cosθ ) + c  
c = −ln(u  
€ € cosθ )  
 
Substitute  c  into  previous  equation:  
€  
−k
t = ln(v x ) − ln(ucosθ )
m
−k v
t = ln( x )
m ucosθ  
k
− t v x
e m =
ucosθ
k
− t
v x = ucosθe m
 
Deriving  the  horizontal  displacement  equation  
Let  the  horizontal  displacement  be  represented  by  the  x  coordinate.  
€ Velocity  is  the  rate  of  change  of  displacement.  Therefore,  
k
− t
x= ∫ v x dt = ∫ ucosθe m
dt
k
− t
x = ucosθ ∫ e m
dt  
k
m − t
x=− ucosθe m + c
k
 
Substitute:  at t = 0 ,   x = 0  
m
€ 0 = − ucos θ + c
k
 
m
€ €
c = ucos θ
k
 
Substitute  c  into  previous  equation:  
€
  

k
m − t m
x = − ucos θe + ucos θm
k k  
k
m − t
x = ucos θ (1 − e ) m
k
 
 
Vertical  motion  
€  
Vertical  force  
Both  the  force  due  to  air  resistance  and  gravity  are  
acting  on  the  vertical  motion.  
Fy=-mg-kvsinα (both  forces  are  downward  and  
therefore  require  a  negative  sign.)
 
Deriving  the  vertical  velocity  equation  
Once  again,  using  Newton’s  second  law Fy = may  
dv y
−mg − kv sin α = m
dt
dv y €
−mg − kv y = m
dt
dv y  
1 1
− =
m mg + kv y dt
1 1
∫ − m dt = ∫ mg + kv dv y
y

 
1 1 k
∫ − m dt = k ∫ mg+ kv dv   y
€ y
f '(x)
Using  the  transformation: ∫ dx = ln( f (x))  
f (x)
1 1
€ − t = ln(mg + kvy ) + c  
m k
 
Substitute:  at   t =€0 ,   v y = usin θ  
1
€ 0 = ln(mg + kusin θ ) + c
k
 
€1 €
c = − ln(mg + kusin θ )
k
 
Substitute  c  into  previous  equation:  

€
  

1 1 1
− t = ln(mg + kv y ) − ln(mg + ku sin θ )
m k k
k mg + kv y
− t = ln( )
m mg + ku sin θ
k
− t mg + kv y
e m
=
mg + ku sin θ
k
 
− t
(mg + ku sin θ )e m
= mg + kv y
k
− t
(mg + ku sin θ )e m − mg
vy =
k
k
m − t m
v y = ( g + usin θ )e m − g
k k
 
Deriving  the  vertical  displacement  equation  
Let  the  vertical  displacement  be  represented  by  the  y  coordinate.  
€ dv y
y=  
dt
k
m − t m
y = ∫ ( g + usinθ )e m − gdt
k k
k
€ m − t m
y = ( g + usinθ ) ∫ e m − ∫ gdt  
k k
k
m m − t m
y = (− )( g + usinθ )e m − gt + c
k k k
 
Substitute:  at t = 0 ,  y=0  
m m
€ 0 = (− )( g + usin θ ) + c
k k  
€ m m
c = ( )( g + usin θ )
k k
 
Substitute  c  into  previous  equation:  
k
m m − t m m m
€ y = (− )( g + usinθ )e m − gt + ( )( g + usinθ )
k k k k k
k
m m m m − t m
y = ( )( g + usinθ ) − ( )( g + usinθ )e m − gt
k k k k k
k
m m − t m
y = ( g + usinθ )(1 − e m ) − gt
k k k
 
Summary  
k k
− t
m  
m − t m
€ v x = ucos θe     v y = ( g + usin θ )e m
− g  
k k
 
k k
m − t
m  
m m − t m
x = ucosθ (1− e )   y = ( g + usin θ )(1 − e m
) − gt      
€ k k k k
€

€ €
  

 
 
g  is  the  gravitational  force  and  would  thus  vary  depending  on  the  altitude  or  
planet  the  object  is  thrown  on.  
k  must  make  up  all  other  factors  that  affect  the  size  of  the  force  of  air  resistance  
acting  on  the  object.  Therefore  it  would  depend  on  the  size  and  shape  of  the  
object  as  well  as  the  density  of  the  medium  it  is  traveling  through  (Eg.  Air  or  
water).    
 
 
Comparison  
 
Modeling  the  difference  between  a  vacuum  and  air  resistance  
 
By  substituting  values  into  the  equations  that  have  been  derived,  the  difference  
in  the  shape  of  the  path  traveled  can  be  examined.    
 
−1
Let:    m=1  kg   u=50 ms−1   k=0.2 kgs   g=-­‐9.81 ms−2  
 
*These  values  are  used  for  the  remainder  of  this  investigation  unless  specified  
differently.     € € €
 
 
Using  the  vacuum  displacement   Vacuum Air Resistance
equations:   Time
x y x y
x = ucosθt   0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1 0.1 2.6 4.2 2.6 4.2
y = gt2 + usinθt  
2 0.2 5.3 8.3 5.2 8.2
  0.3 7.9 12.3 7.8 12.1
€
Using  the  air  resistance  inclusive   0.4 10.5 16.2 10.3 15.9
displacement  equations:   0.5 13.1 20.0 12.8 19.5
k
€ m − t
0.6 15.8 23.8 15.3 23.0
x = ucosθ (1− e m )  
k 0.7 18.4 27.4 17.8 26.4
k
m m − t m 0.8 21.0 30.9 20.2 29.7
y = ( g + usin θ )(1 − e ) − gt   m
k k k 0.9 23.6 34.3 22.6 32.8
  1.0 26.3 37.6 25.0 35.7
€   1.1 28.9 40.9 27.4 38.6
To  the  right  is  a  sample  of  the  table  that   1.2 31.5 44.0 29.7 41.3
€ the  equations  produce  with  defined   1.3 34.1 47.0 32.0 43.9
values.     1.4 36.8 49.9 34.3 46.4
  1.5 39.4 52.8 36.6 48.8
The  values  in  the  table  produce  the   1.6 42.0 55.5 38.8 51.0
graph  below.     1.7 44.7 58.2 41.1 53.1
  1.8 47.3 60.7 43.3 55.1
  1.9 49.9 63.1 45.5 57.0
  2.0 52.5 65.5 47.6 58.7
 
 
  

 
The  graph  shows  how  when  air  resistance  is  taken  into  account,  the  path  of  the  
object  is  no  longer  a  parabola.  With  air  resistance,  the  final  horizontal  
displacement  as  well  as  the  maximum  height  the  object  reaches  is  decreased.  For  
this  example,  the  horizontal  distance  that  the  object  would  travel  is  
approximately  130m  shorter.  Therefore,  air  resistance  must  be  taken  into  
account  when  making  predictions  on  the  distance  that  an  object  will  fly  when  it  
is  thrown.  This  is  what  I  expected  as  air  resistance  results  in  a  force  that  is  
opposite  to  the  motion  so  it  would  diminish  the  distance  that  the  object  would  
travel  with  the  same  initial  conditions.    
 
Changing  the  values  of  the  variables  
 
I  created  an  interactive  excel  sheet  that  when  I  input  different  values  for  mass,  
initial  velocity,  the  initial  angle,  the  constant  k,  and  gravitational  force,  the  
horizontal  and  vertical  displacements  are  changed,  and  automatically  graphed.    
 

 
 
 
  

 
Initial  angle  
 
Below  are  some  examples  of  the  graphs  that  were  created  when  the  angle  was  
changed  but  all  other  factors  remained  constant.  As  what  would  be  expected,  the  
maximum  height  reached  increases  as  the  initial  angle  increases.  
 

 
 
After  multiple  trials,  I  found  that  when  air  resistance  is  taken  into  account,  the  
horizontal  displacement  was  greatest  when  the  initial  angle  was  equal  to  35°  
(compared  to  45°  when  air  resistance  in  negligible).  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Mass  
 
As  the  mass  of  the  object  increases,  the  motion  of  the  object  with  air  resistance  
approaches  the  motion  of  the  object  in  a  vacuum.  The  motion  in  a  vacuum  is  
  

shown  to  be  independent  of  mass.  This  is  because  mass  is  not  a  variable  in  the  
projectile  motion  equations  for  a  vacuum.  
       

 
 
Initial  velocity  
 
The  initial  velocity  is  affecting  both  the  projectiles  in  a  vacuum  and  with  air  
resistance.  As  the  magnitude  of  the  initial  velocity  increases,  both  the  maximum  
height  reached  and  the  final  horizontal  displacement  increases.  It  is  also  
interesting  to  note  that  the  smaller  the  initial  velocity,  the  closer  the  motion  of  
the  object  with  air  resistance  is  to  the  motion  of  the  object  in  a  vacuum.  I  assume  
that  this  stems  from  the  fact  that  the  magnitude  of  the  force  of  air  resistance  
depends  on  kv,  and  a  smaller  initial  velocity  would  result  in  a  smaller  value  for  v.    
 

 
  

 
The  constant  k  
 
As  the  constant  k  increases,  the  magnitude  of  air  resistance  (kv)  increases  and  
therefore  the  motion  with  air  resistance  moves  further  away  from  the  motion  in  
a  vacuum.  Therefore,  the  constant  k  has  a  negative  relationship  to  the  final  
horizontal  displacement.  As  k  is  a  variable  that  describes  the  air  resistance,  it  
does  not  affect  the  motion  of  a  projectile  in  a  vacuum  where  air  resistance  does  
not  exist.  This  also  supports  that  k  is  representing  the  factors  that  determine  the  
strength  of  air  resistance  (Eg.  Shape/size  of  object  and  density  of  medium).  
 

 
 

Works  Cited  
The  Physics  Classroom.  (2015).  Types  of  Forces.  Retrieved  February  13,  2015,  from  The  
Physics  Classroom:  http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/newtlaws/Lesson-­‐
2/Types-­‐of-­‐Forces  
The  Physics  Classroom.  (2015).  What  is  a  projectile?  Retrieved  February  16,  2015,  from  
the  Physics  Classroom:  http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/vectors/Lesson-­‐
2/What-­‐is-­‐a-­‐Projectile