LEARNING GUIDE # 09

Module Title: -Monitor and Administer

Database
MODULE CODE: ICT DBA4 09 0710
SYMBOLS
These symbols are located at the left margin of the module. These illustrate the actions that should be
taken or resource to be used at a particular stage in the module.

LO Learning
Outcome Self-Check
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polytechnic ON SHEET MODULE Monitoring and Administering Database
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Answer Key
Resources

Reading Assessment
Activity

Remember/Tips
Use Computer

Practice Task Safety

LO
At the end of the module the learner will be able to:
1. Start up a database
2. Manage database
3. and
Monitoring Manage database
Administering access
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 Sawla INFORMATI UNIT Database Administration Level IV
polytechnic ON SHEET MODULE Monitoring and Administering Database
College

Monitoring and Administering Database

Planning to Install SQL Server

To install SQL Server, follow these steps:

 Review installation requirements, system configuration checks, and security

considerations for a SQL Server installation.
 Run SQL Server Setup to install or upgrade to a later version.
 Use SQL Server utilities to configure SQL Server.

Regardless of the installation method, you are required to confirm acceptance of the software
license terms as an individual or on behalf of an entity, unless your use of the software is
governed by a separate agreement such as a Microsoft volume licensing agreement or a third-
party agreement with an ISV or OEM.

The license terms are displayed for review and acceptance in the Setup user interface.
Unattended installations (using the /Q or /QS parameters) must include the /I Accept SQL Server
License Terms parameter. You can review the license terms separately at Microsoft Software
License Terms.

Database Monitoring

What is Database Monitoring?

Database monitoring allows database administrators to track potential database performance

problems. At a minimum, database monitoring should track the server on which the database
resides to ensure that the server is up and running. Database monitoring further entails tracking
the performance of the particular database on a server and measuring its availability and
responsiveness over time, including under peak demand conditions.

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 Sawla INFORMATI UNIT Database Administration Level IV
polytechnic ON SHEET MODULE Monitoring and Administering Database
College

Why do I need to monitor my database?

Know that everything is running appropriately and save yourself embarrassing calls from
customers or angry clients telling you that critical services are unavailable. They expect you to
know that things are in good working order; now, you can reassure them that you do

Tools for monitoring database

What are Database Monitoring Tools?

Database Monitoring Tools ensure that a database is reachable and responding properly at
all times, providing alerts through email, SMS, and RSS when response times fall outside of
acceptable levels. Database monitoring tools help identify potential data integrity issues,
protecting valuable data from corruption that can result from mechanical failures such as
a disk error. Database monitoring tools identify potential causes of database downtime, tracking
errors as they occur.

Database tuning

Performance Monitoring and Tuning

Database Performance Monitoring

What is Database Performance Management?

Database performance management tools help DBAs maintain databases in optimal condition.
Database performance management requires a DBA to look at a variety of data points,
such as the number of users connected to the databases at any single point in time, in
order to analyze usage trends. With comprehensive information from database performance
management software, DBAs can take action before serious database outages or slowdowns
occur.

Ensuring consistent service levels across multiple database platform environments isn't easy
when you’re using a diverse set of native or third-party tools. In addition, these database

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 Sawla INFORMATI UNIT Database Administration Level IV
polytechnic ON SHEET MODULE Monitoring and Administering Database
College

monitoring tools ensure deep and complete integration across database platforms to help you
improve service levels and reduce costs.

 Experience consistent coverage across diverse platforms including Oracle, SQL Server,
DB2 and Sybase
 Improve triage across teams with one global view
 View both resource and transaction monitoring perspectives for a more complete
picture
 Reduce licensing and training costs with one complete monitor from a single vendor
 Extend database monitoring capabilities as your needs grow, including monitoring for
applications, networks and end users

Database tuning

Database tuning describes a group of activities used to optimize and homogenize the
performance of a database. It usually overlaps with query tuning, but refers to design of the
database files, selection of the database management system (DBMS), operating system and
CPU the DBMS runs on.

The goal is to maximize use of system resources to perform work as efficiently and rapidly
as possible. Most systems are designed to manage work efficiently, but it is possible to greatly
improve performance by customizing settings and the configuration for the database and the
DBMS being tuned.

I/O tuning

Hardware and software configuration of disk subsystems are examined: RAID levels and
configuration, block and stripe size allocation, and the configuration of disks, controller cards,
storage cabinets, and external storage systems such as SANs. Transaction logs and temporary
spaces are heavy consumers of I/O, and affect performance for all users of the database. Placing
them appropriately is crucial.

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 Sawla INFORMATI UNIT Database Administration Level IV
polytechnic ON SHEET MODULE Monitoring and Administering Database
College

Frequently joined tables and indexes are placed so that as they are requested from file storage,
they can be retrieved in parallel from separate disks simultaneously. Frequently accessed tables
and indexes are placed on separate disks to balance I/O and prevent read queuing.

DBMS tuning

DBMS tuning refers to tuning of the DBMS and the configuration of the memory and
processing resources of the computer running the DBMS. This is typically done through
configuring the DBMS, but the resources involved are shared with the host system.

Tuning the DBMS can involve setting the recovery interval (time needed to restore the state of
data to a particular point in time), assigning parallelism (the breaking up of work from a single
query into tasks assigned to different processing resources), and network protocols used to
communicate with database consumers.

Memory is allocated for data, execution plans, procedure cache, and work space. It is much
faster to access data in memory than data on storage, so maintaining a sizable cache of data
makes activities perform faster. The same consideration is given to work space. Caching
execution plans and procedures means that they are reused instead of recompiled when needed. It
is important to take as much memory as possible, while leaving enough for other processes and
the OS to use without excessive paging of memory to storage.

Processing resources are sometimes assigned to specific activities to improve concurrency. On a

server with eight processors, six could be reserved for the DBMS to maximize available
processing resources for the database.

Database maintenance

Database maintenance includes backups, column statistics updates, and defragmentation of data
inside the database files.

On a heavily used database, the transaction log grows rapidly. Transaction log entries must be
removed from the log to make room for future entries. Frequent transaction log backups are
smaller, so they interrupt database activity for shorter periods of time.

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DBMS use statistic histograms to find data in a range against a table or index. Statistics updates
should be scheduled frequently and sample as much of the underlying data as possible. Accurate
and updated statistics allow query engines to make good decisions about execution plans, as well
as efficiently locate data.

Defragmentation of table and index data increases efficiency in accessing data. The amount of
fragmentation depends on the nature of the data, how it is changed over time, and the amount of
free space in database pages to accept inserts of data without creating additional pages.

SQL Server 2008 Editions

SQL Server 2008 comes in many different editions. The edition you choose will depend on your
requirements. If you are looking for a free database management system, you will need to choose
one of the Express editions or the Compact edition.

The Editions

Here are the different editions available for SQL Server 2008.

 Enterprise Edition

Data management and business intelligence platform providing enterprise class scalability, high
availability, and security for running business-critical applications

 Standard Edition

Data management and business intelligence platform providing ease of use and manageability
for running departmental applications

 Workgroup Edition

Data management and reporting platform providing secure, remote synchronization, and
management capabilities for running branch applications

 DeveloperEdition

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May be installed and used by one user to design, develop, test, and demonstrate your programs
on as many systems as needed

 WebEdition

A low-TCO, scalable and manageable database option for web hosters and end customers
looking to deploy publicly facing web applications and services

 Express Edition

A free edition of SQL Server ideal for learning and building desktop and small server
applications and for redistribution by ISVs

 Compact Edition

A free, SQL Server embedded database ideal for building stand-alone and occasionally
connected applications for mobile devices, desktops, and web clients

 Evaluation Edition

This edition may be installed for demonstration and evaluation purposes until an expiration
period of 180 days.

SQL Server installation methods

There are three SQL Server Installation methods:

1. Local/Standard Installation
2. Unattended Installation
3. Remote Installation
1. Local/Standard Installation

Before you begin installing SQL Server you must first log onto that machine with an account
that belongs to the local administrators group.

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polytechnic ON SHEET MODULE Monitoring and Administering Database
College

When performing a standard installation you have three type of install to choose from, these are
minimum, typical and custom. SQL Server selects the typical installation as a default if you
want to amend your installation, add or remove component etc. then you will need to perform a
custom installation.

Types of Installation:

The minimum installation option installs the following components:

 Database Server
 Replication Support
 Client Connectivity
 Collation Settings

As part of the typical installation the following components are installed:

 Database Server
 Upgrade Tools
 Replication Support
 Full-Test Search
 Client Management Tools
 Client Connectivity
 SQL Server Books Online
 Development tools (debugger only)
 Collation Settings

When using a custom install you can choose what components to install you can choose from:

 Database Server
 Upgrade Tools
 Replication Support
 Full-Test Search

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polytechnic ON SHEET MODULE Monitoring and Administering Database
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 Client Management Tools

 SQL Server Books Online
 Development tools (choice)
 Collation Settings
 Code Samples (choice)
 Client Connectivity – Not an Option
2. Unattended Installation

Microsoft defines an unattended installation as “installs several SQL Servers with identical
configurations without using the interactive SQL Server setup.” This type of install executes a
command file that makes a call to a setup file. The command file is able to determine the
platform of the Server and runs the appropriate version of SQL Server setup; it specifies the
setup parameters and calls a setup.ini file that specifies all the options a user may have chosen
during and interactive setup.

3. Remote Installation

The SQL Server installation methods process allows you to install SQL Server on a remote
computer.

How a Remote Installation is performed

Microsoft describes the remote installation process as follows:

 SQL Server saves the information that you specify in the series of SQL Server dialog
boxes to a setup file.
 SQL Server then starts remote setup process, which does the following:
o Starts a remote service
o Copies the files to the Admin$ folder
o Then runs an unattended installation on the remote computer by using the options
specified in the setup file

Remote Installation Requirements

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In order to install SQL Server on a remote computer a user account must be specied that under
which SQL Server Setup starts the setup process on the remote computer. This account must
have the following attributes:

 Have administrative rights on the remote computer

 Have read access to the setup source files folder.

Conclusion

In conclusion there are several options available to you when installing SQL Server on your
machine, this article has discussed all the options available to you with regards to various SQL
Server installation methods. I would think that in 99 out 100 installs you would use the standard
install, although in some cases, perhaps when installing SQL Server on a cluster some of the
other options will be useful.

Configuring SQL Server Enterprise Manager

After you have installed SQL Server, you can further configure SQL Server by using graphical
and command-prompt utilities. The following table describes support for tools that are used to
manage an instance of SQL Server:

Install, upgrade to, or change components in an instance of SQL Server.

Tool or utility Description

SQL Server SQL Server Management Studio is used to edit and execute queries,
Management Studio and to start standard wizard tasks.
SQL Server Profiler SQL Server Profiler provides a graphical user interface to monitor an
instance of the SQL Server Database Engine or an instance of
Analysis Services.
Database Engine Tuning The Database Engine Tuning Advisor helps you to create optimal sets
Advisor of indexes, indexed views, and partitions.
Business Intelligence Business Intelligence Development Studio is an integrated
Development Studio development environment for Analysis Services and Integration

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Services solutions.
Command Prompt You can manage SQL Server objects from the command prompt. For
Utilities more information, see Command Prompt Utilities.
SQL Server You can manage server and client network configuration settings
Configuration Manager
Import and Export Data Integration Services provides graphical tools and programmable
objects to move, copy, and transform data.
SQL Server Setup Install, upgrade to, or change components in an instance of SQL
Server.
Configure Server Startup Options (SQL Server Configuration Manager)

This topic describes how to configure startup options that will be used every time the Database
Engine starts in SQL Server 2012 by using SQL Server Configuration Manager. For a list of
startup options, see Database Engine Service Startup Options.

Before You Begin

Limitations and Restrictions

SQL Server Configuration Manager writes startup parameters to the registry. They take effect
upon the next startup of the Database Engine.

On a cluster, changes must be made on the active server when SQL Server is online, and will
take effect when the Database Engine is restarted. The registry update of the startup options on
the other node will occur upon the next failover.

Security

Permissions

Configuring server startup options is restricted to users who can change the related entries in the
registry. This includes the following users.

 Members of the local administrators group.

 The domain account that is used by SQL Server, if the Database Engine is configured to
run under a domain account.

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Using SQL Server Configuration Manager

To configure startup options

 In SQL Server Configuration Manager, click SQL Server Services.

 In the right pane, right-click SQL Server (<instance_name>), and then click Properties.
 On the Startup Parameters tab, in the Specify a startup parameter box, type the parameter,
and then click Add.
 For example, to start in single-user mode, type -m in the Specify a startup parameter box
and then click Add. (When you restart SQL Server in single-user mode, stop the SQL
Server Agent. Otherwise, SQL Server Agent might connect first and prevent you from
connecting as a second user.)
 Click OK.
 Restart the Database Engine.

Database Engine Service Startup Options

Startup options designate certain file locations needed during startup, and specify some server
wide conditions. Most users do not need to specify startup options unless you are troubleshooting
the Database Engine or you have an unusual problem and are directed to use a startup option by
SQL Server Customer Support. Caution

Improper use of startup options can affect server performance and can prevent SQL Server from
starting.

About Startup Options

When you install SQL Server, Setup writes a set of default startup options in the Microsoft
Windows registry. You can use these startup options to specify an alternate master database file,
master database log file, or error log file. If the Database Engine cannot locate the necessary
files, SQL Server will not start.

Startup options can be set by using SQL Server Configuration Manager. For information, see
Configure Server Startup Options (SQL Server Configuration Manager).

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Using Startup Options during Normal Operations

You may want to use some startup options every time you start SQL Server. These options, such
as –g or starting with a trace flag, are most easily done by configuring the startup parameters by
using SQL Server Configuration Manager. These tool saves the startup options as registry keys,
enabling SQL Server to always start with the startup options.

Compatibility Support

The -h parameter is not supported in SQL Server 2012. This parameter was used in earlier
versions of 32-bit instances of SQL Server to reserve virtual memory address space for Hot Add
memory metadata when AWE is enabled. For more information, see Discontinued SQL Server
Features in SQL Server 2012.

It’s not uncommon to experience the occasional slowdown of a database running the Microsoft
SQL Server database software. The reasons can range from a poorly designed database to a
system that is improperly configured for the workload. As an administrator, you want to
proactively prevent or minimize problems; if they occur, you want to diagnose the cause and take
corrective actions to fix the problem whenever possible. This white paper provides step-by-step
guidelines for diagnosing and troubleshooting common performance problems by using publicly
available tools such as:

Troubleshooting Performance Problems in SQL Server 2008

It’s not uncommon to experience the occasional slowdown of a database running the Microsoft
SQL Server database software. The reasons can range from a poorly designed database to a
system that is improperly configured for the workload. As an administrator, you want to
proactively prevent or minimize problems; if they occur, you want to diagnose the cause and take
corrective actions to fix the problem whenever possible. This white paper provides step-by-step
guidelines for diagnosing and troubleshooting common performance problems by using publicly
available tools such as:

 SQL Server Profiler

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 System Monitor (in the Windows Server 2003 operating system) or Performance Monitor
(in the Windows Vista operating system and Windows Server 2008), also known as
Perfmon
 Dynamic management views (sometimes referred to as DMVs)
 SQL Server Extended Events (Extended Events) and the data collector, which are new in
SQL Server 2008.

We have limited the scope of this white paper to the problems commonly seen by Microsoft
Customer Service and Support (CSS), because an exhaustive analysis of all possible problems is
not feasible.

System and Database Administrator Programs

A database administrator

A database administrator (short form DBA) is a person responsible for the installation,
configuration, upgrade, administration, monitoring and maintenance of databases in an
organization.

The role includes the development and design of database strategies, system monitoring and
improving database performance and capacity, and planning for future expansion requirements.
They may also plan, co-ordinate and implement security measures to safeguard the database.

Skills

List of skills required to become database administrators are:

 Communication skills
 Knowledge of database theory
 Knowledge of database design
 Knowledge about the RDBMS itself, e.g. Oracle Database, IBM DB2, Microsoft SQL
Server, Adaptive Server Enterprise, MaxDB, PostgreSQL

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 Knowledge of Structured Query Language (SQL) and procedural extension language, e.g.
PL/SQL, SQL/PSM, Transact-SQL
 General understanding of distributed computing architectures, e.g. Client/Server,
Internet/Intranet, Enterprise
 General understanding of the underlying operating system, e.g. Windows, Unix, Linux
 General understanding of storage technologies, memory management, disk arrays,
NAS/SAN, networking

Database-server Utility

The database-server utility is used to manage database server entries in Plesk through CLI. By
using this utility, you can perform the following tasks:

 Creating database server entries in Plesk

 Setting and editing database server connection parameters in the entries

Syntax

database-server<command> [

<option_1> [<param>]

[<option_2> [<param>]]

…[<option_N> [<param>]]

Database Server Monitoring

Database server monitoring focuses on the servers that underlie database applications. Database
server monitoring tools gather and report data on the server's CPU load, memory usage, and disk

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polytechnic ON SHEET MODULE Monitoring and Administering Database
College

usage, presenting the data in dashboard views so that administrators can quickly see potential
problem areas. Database server monitoring solutions can notify administrators when problems
are about to arise so that they can be proactive in addressing the problems.

Database access management

Managing Database User Accounts

When you work with a database in Panel, the latter accesses the database on behalf of a user
account associated with it. Therefore, every database should have at least one associated user
account; otherwise, you will be unable to access it.

Any database user can be set as default for a certain database. Panel will always access the
database using this default user even if there are other users associated with it. If a database has
several associated user accounts, none of which are default, the first account from the list will be
used.

Types of Database Users

There are two types of database user accounts in Panel:

 User accounts which have access to only one particular database.

If you collaborate with other people on managing a website and wish to give them access to the
database, you should create separate user accounts for them. Each of these accounts is used to
access only one database. In this case, you first create a database and then user accounts.

 Universal user accounts which have access to all databases.

Universal users have access not only to all existing databases, but to all newly created databases
as well.

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If you plan to install a number of web apps on your site, it may be convenient to create one
universal user account, so that all the apps can access their databases using this account. In this
case, you first create a user account and then specify it when installing apps.

Operations with Database Users

You can create, update or remove a database user by going to Websites & Domains > Databases,
and selecting the Users tab of the required subscription.

When creating a database user, you will be prompted to provide the user credentials for
accessing the database and the name of the database which the specified user will access. A
universal database user can be created by selecting Any for a Database name.

Managing Users and Security

Users access Oracle Database Express Edition through database user accounts. Some of these
accounts are automatically created administrative accounts—accounts with database
administration privileges. You log in to these administrative accounts to create and manage other
user accounts, maintain database security, and perform other database administration tasks.

About User Accounts

A user account is identified by a user name and defines the user's attributes, including the
following:

 Password for database authentication

 Privileges and roles
 Default tablespace for database objects
 Default temporary tablespace for query processing work space

When you create a user, you are also implicitly creating a schema for that user. A schema is a
logical container for the database objects (such as tables, views, triggers, and so on) that the user
creates. The schema name is the same as the user name, and can be used to unambiguously refer
to objects owned by the user. For example, HR.EMPLOYEES refers to the table named

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EMPLOYEES in the HR schema. (The EMPLOYEES table is owned by HR.) The terms
database object and schema object are used interchangeably.

When you drop (delete) a user, you must either first drop all the user's schema objects, or use the
cascade feature of the drop operation, which simultaneously drops a user and all of his schema
objects.

User Privileges and Roles

When creating a user, you grant privileges to enable the user to connect to the database, to run
queries and make updates, and to create schema objects. There are two main types of user
privileges:

System privileges—A system privilege is the right to perform a particular action, or to perform
an action on any schema objects of a particular type. For example, the privileges to create tables
and to delete the rows of any table in a database are system privileges.

Object privileges—An object privilege is a right to perform a particular action on a specific

schema object. Different object privileges are available for different types of schema objects.
The privilege to delete rows from the DEPARTMENTS table is an example of an object
privilege.

Managing and controlling privileges is made easier by using roles, which are named groups of
related privileges. You create roles, grant system and object privileges to the roles, and then
grant roles to users. Unlike schema objects, roles are not contained in any schema.

Table 1-1 lists three roles that are predefined in Oracle Database XE. You can grant these roles
when you create a user with the Oracle Database XE graphical user interface.

Role Name Description

CONNECT Enables a user to connect to the database. Grant this role to any user or
application that needs database access.
RESOURCE Enables a user to create certain types of schema objects in his own schema.
Grant this role only to developers and to other users that must create schema
objects. This role grants a subset of the create object system privileges. For
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example, it grants the CREATE TABLE system privilege, but does not
grant the CREATE VIEW system privilege. It grants only the following
privileges: CREATE CLUSTER, CREATE INDEXTYPE, CREATE
OPERATOR, CREATE PROCEDURE, CREATE SEQUENCE, CREATE
TABLE, CREATE TRIGGER, CREATE TYPE
DBA Enables a user to perform most administrative functions, including creating
users and granting privileges; creating and granting roles; creating and
dropping schema objects in other users' schemas; and more. It grants all
system privileges, but does not include the privileges to start up or shut
down the database. It is by default granted to user SYSTEM.

Internal User Accounts

Certain user accounts are created automatically for database administration. Examples are SYS
and SYSTEM. Other accounts are automatically created just so that individual Oracle Database
XE features or products can have their own schemas. An example is the CTXSYS account,
which is used by the Oracle Text product. Oracle Text is used to index the Oracle Database XE
online Help. The Help index is stored in the CTXSYS schema in the database.

These automatically created accounts are called internal user accounts, and their schemas are
called internal schemas.

The only internal accounts that you may log in with are the SYS and SYSTEM accounts,
although it is recommended that you avoid logging in with the SYS account. Do not attempt to
log in with other internal accounts.

About Administrative Accounts and Privileges

Administrative accounts and privileges enable you to perform administrative functions like
managing users, managing database memory, and starting up and shutting down the database.

The SYS and SYSTEM Users

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The following administrative user accounts are automatically created when you install Oracle
Database Express Edition (Oracle Database XE). They are both created with the password that
you supplied upon installation (Windows operating systems) or configuration (Linux operating
systems).

 SYSTEM

This is the user account that you log in with to perform all administrative functions other than
starting up and shutting down the database.

 SYS

All base tables and views for the database data dictionary are stored in the SYS schema. These
base tables and views are critical for the operation of Oracle Database XE. To maintain the
integrity of the data dictionary, tables in the SYS schema are manipulated only by the database.
They should never be modified by any user or database administrator. You must not create any
tables in the SYS schema.

There is typically no reason to log in as user SYS. User SYSTEM is preferred for all
administrative tasks except starting up and shutting down.

The SYSDBA System Privilege

SYSDBA is a system privilege that is assigned only to user SYS. It enables SYS to perform
high-level administrative tasks such as starting up and shutting down the database.

Although under typical circumstances it is not necessary to log in to the database as user SYS, if
you want to log in as SYS with SQL Command Line (SQL*Plus), you must connect to the
database "AS SYSDBA." Connecting AS SYSDBA invokes the SYSDBA privilege. If you omit
the AS SYSDBA clause when logging in as user SYS, SQL Command Line rejects the login
attempt.

The following example illustrates how to connect to the database with the SYSDBA privilege
from SQL Command Line:

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SQL > connect sys/password as sysdba

Password is the password for the SYS user account.

Operating System Authentication

Operating system authentication (OS authentication) is a way of using operating system login
credentials to authenticate database users. One aspect of OS authentication can be used to
authenticate database administrators. If you log in to the Oracle Database XE host computer with
a user name that is in a special operating system user group, you are then permitted to connect to
the database with the SYSDBA privilege. An administrator who is authenticated through OS
authentication does not need to know the SYS or SYSTEM account password.

OS authentication is needed because there must be a way to identify administrative users even if
the database is shut down. A user authenticated in this way can then start up the database.

On each platform, if the OS authentication user group does not already exist, it is automatically
created when you install Oracle Database XE. In addition, upon installation on the Linux
platform, the user account oracle is automatically created and placed in the dba group. Upon
installation on the Windows platform, the user performing the installation is automatically added
to the ORA_DBA group. On both platforms, you can add other host users to the OS
authentication user group to enable them to connect to the database with the SYSDBA privilege.

Logging In as an Administrator

There are three ways to log in to Oracle Database Express Edition (Oracle Database XE) to
perform administrative tasks:

 Log in as user SYSTEM

 Log in as a user who has been granted the DBA role
 Log in and connect to the database as SYSDBA

Login Method Permitted In Notes

Log in to the The Oracle Database XE graphical For routine administrative
database as user user interface and SQL Command tasks like managing
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SYSTEM Line memory and managing

users. You must supply the
password for the SYSTEM
user.
Log in to the The Oracle Database XE graphical For routine administrative
database as a user user interface and SQL Command tasks like managing users.
who has been Line An administrator must first
granted the DBA grant the DBA role to the
role user.
Log in and SQL Command Line For high-level
connect to the administrative tasks like
database as starting up and shutting
SYSDBA down the database, and
changing the SYS
password. You can connect
as SYSDBA using the SYS
user name and password, or
using operating system
authentication.

Logging In as User SYSTEM

You can log in as user SYSTEM with the Oracle Database XE graphical user interface or with
SQL Command Line.

Logging In as User SYSTEM with the Oracle Database XE Graphical User Interface

To log in to the database as user SYSTEM with the Oracle Database XE graphical user interface:

 Access the Database Home Page, providing the user name SYSTEM and the password
for the SYSTEM account.

Logging In as User SYSTEM with SQL Command Line

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To log in to the database as user SYSTEM with SQL Command Line:

1. Log in to the Oracle Database XE host computer with any user account.
2. Do one of the following:
o On Windows: Click Start, point to Programs (or All Programs), point to Oracle
Database 10g Express Edition, and then select Run SQL Command Line.
o On Linux with Gnome: In the Applications menu, point to Oracle Database 10g
Express Edition, and then select Run SQL Command Line.
o On Linux with KDE: Click the icon for the K Menu, point to Oracle Database 10g
Express Edition, and then select Run SQL Command Line.
3. At the SQL Command Line prompt, enter the following command:

CONNECT SYSTEM/password

Where password is the SYSTEM account password that you set during installation (Windows) or
configuration (Linux)

Logging In as a User with the DBA Role

The procedures for logging in as a user who has been granted the DBA role are the same as those
for logging in as user SYSTEM, with the following exceptions:

 When logging in, you must supply the user name and password for this user account.
 An administrator must have previously logged in and granted the DBA role to this user.

Logging In and Connecting to the Database as SYSDBA

You can log in and connect as SYSDBA only with SQL Command Line (SQL*Plus). You can
do so either by supplying the SYS user name and password, or by using operating system (OS)
authentication.

Connecting as SYSDBA with the SYS User Name and Password

To connect as SYSDBA supplying the SYS user name and password:

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1. Log in to the Oracle Database XE host computer with any user account.
2. Do one of the following:
 On Windows: Click Start, point to Programs (or All Programs), point to Oracle
Database 10g Express Edition, and then select Run SQL Command Line.
 On Linux with Gnome: In the Applications menu, point to Oracle Database 10g
Express Edition, and then select Run SQL Command Line.
 On Linux with KDE: Click the icon for the K Menu, point to Oracle Database 10g
Express Edition, and then select Run SQL Command Line.
3. At the SQL Command Line prompt, enter the following command:

CONNECT SYS/password AS SYSDBA

Where password is the password for the SYS user account. You set the SYS account password
upon installation (Windows) or configuration (Linux).

Connecting as SYSDBA with OS Authentication

To connect as SYSDBA using OS authentication:

1. Do one of the following:

 On Windows: Log in to the Oracle Database XE host computer as a user who is a
member of the ORA_DBA user group. This is typically the user that installed Oracle
Database XE.
 On Linux: Log in to the Oracle Database XE host computer as a user who is a
member of the dba user group. This is typically the oracle user.
2. Do one of the following:
 On Windows: Click Start, point to Programs (or All Programs), point to Oracle
Database 10g Express Edition, and then select Run SQL Command Line.
 On Linux with Gnome: In the Applications menu, point to Oracle Database 10g
Express Edition, and then select Run SQL Command Line.
 On Linux with KDE: Click the icon for the K Menu, point to Oracle Database 10g
Express Edition, and then select Run SQL Command Line.

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3. At the SQL Command Line prompt, enter the following command:

CONNECT / AS SYSDBA

The slash (/) indicates that the database should authenticate you with operating system (OS)
authentication. Remember that when you connect with OS authentication, you are effectively
logging in to the database as user SYS.

Changing Administrative User Passwords

To change the password for user SYS or SYSTEM:

1. Using SQL Command Line, connect to the database as SYSDBA.

2. Enter one of the following commands:

ALTER USER SYS IDENTIFIED BY newpassword;

ALTER USER SYSTEM IDENTIFIED BY newpassword;

Where newpassword is the desired new password.

Database Users and Privileges

Every database cluster contains a set of database users. Those users are separate from the users
managed by the operating system on which the server runs. Users own database objects (for
example, tables) and can assign privileges on those objects to other users to control who has
access to which object.

This chapter describes how to create and manage users and introduces the privilege system.
More information about the various types of database objects and the effects of privileges can be
found in the PostgreSQL 7.3.21 User's Guide.

Database Users

Database users are conceptually completely separate from operating system users. In practice it
might be convenient to maintain a correspondence, but this is not required. Database user names

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are global across a database cluster installation (and not per individual database). To create a user
use the CREATE USER SQL command:

CREATE USER name

name follows the rules for SQL identifiers: either unadorned without special characters, or
double-quoted. To remove an existing user, use the analogous DROP USER command:

DROP USER name

For convenience, the programs createuser and dropuser are provided as wrappers around these
SQL commands that can be called from the shell command line:

createuser name

dropuser name

In order to bootstrap the database system, a freshly initialized system always contains one
predefined user. This user will have the fixed ID 1, and by default (unless altered when running
initdb) it will have the same name as the operating system user that initialized the database
cluster. Customarily, this user will be named postgres. In order to create more users you first
have to connect as this initial user.

Exactly one user identity is active for a connection to the database server. The user name to use
for a particular database connection is indicated by the client that is initiating the connection
request in an application-specific fashion. For example, the psql program uses the -U command
line option to indicate the user to connect as. Many applications assume the name of the current
operating system user by default (including createuser and psql). Therefore it is convenient to
maintain a naming correspondence between the two user sets.

The set of database users a given client connection may connect as is determined by the client
authentication setup, as explained in Chapter 6. (Thus, a client is not necessarily limited to
connect as the user with the same name as its operating system user, in the same way a person is
not constrained in its login name by her real name.) Since the user identity determines the set of

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privileges available to a connected client, it is important to carefully configure this when setting
up a multiuser environment.

User Attributes

A database user may have a number of attributes that define its privileges and interact with the
client authentication system.

superuser

A database superuser bypasses all permission checks. Also, only a superuser can create new
users. To create a database superuser, use CREATE USER name CREATEUSER.

Database creation

A user must be explicitly given permission to create databases (except for superusers, since those
bypass all permission checks). To create such a user, use CREATE USER name CREATEDB.

Password

A password is only significant if the client authentication method requires the user to supply a
password when connecting to the database. The password, md5, and crypt authentication
methods make use of passwords. Database passwords are separate from operating system
passwords. Specify a password upon user creation with CREATE USER name PASSWORD
'string'.

A user's attributes can be modified after creation with ALTER USER. See the reference pages
for CREATE USER and ALTER USER for details.

A user can also set personal defaults for many of the run-time configuration settings described in
Section 3.4. For example, if for some reason you want to disable index scans (hint: not a good
idea) anytime you connect, you can use

ALTER USER myname SET enable_indexscan TO off;

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This will save the setting (but not set it immediately) and in subsequent connections it will
appear as though SET enable_indexscan TO off; had been called right before the session started.
You can still alter this setting during the session; it will only be the default. To undo any such
setting, use ALTER USER username RESET varname;.

Groups

As in Unix, groups are a way of logically grouping users to ease management of privileges:
privileges can be granted to, or revoked from, a group as a whole. To create a group, use

CREATE GROUP name

To add users to or remove users from a group, use

ALTER GROUP name ADD USER uname1, ...

ALTER GROUP name DROP USER uname1, ...

Privileges

When a database object is created, it is assigned an owner. The owner is the user that executed
the creation statement. To change the owner of a table, index, sequence, or view, use the ALTER
TABLE command. By default, only an owner (or a superuser) can do anything with the object.
In order to allow other users to use it, privileges must be granted.

There are several different privileges: SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, RULE,
REFERENCES, TRIGGER, CREATE, TEMPORARY, EXECUTE, USAGE, and ALL
PRIVILEGES. For more information on the different types of privileges support by PostgreSQL,
refer to the GRANT page in the PostgreSQL 7.3.21 Reference Manual. The right to modify or
destroy an object is always the privilege of the owner only. To assign privileges, the GRANT
command is used. So, if joe is an existing user, and accounts is an existing table, the privilege to
update the table can be granted with

GRANT UPDATE ON accounts TO joe;

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The user executing this command must be the owner of the table. To grant a privilege to a group,
use

GRANT SELECT ON accounts TO GROUP staff;

The special "user" name PUBLIC can be used to grant a privilege to every user on the system.
Writing ALL in place of a specific privilege specifies that all privileges will be granted.

To revoke a privilege, use the fittingly named REVOKE command:

REVOKE ALL ON accounts FROM PUBLIC;

The special privileges of the table owner (i.e., the right to do DROP, GRANT, REVOKE, etc)
are always implicit in being the owner, and cannot be granted or revoked. But the table owner
can choose to revoke his own ordinary privileges, for example to make a table read-only for
himself as well as others.

Functions and Triggers

Functions and triggers allow users to insert code into the backend server that other users may
execute without knowing it. Hence, both mechanisms permit users to Trojan horse others with
relative impunity. The only real protection is tight control over who can define functions.

Functions written in any language except SQL run inside the backend server process with the
operating systems permissions of the database server daemon process. It is possible to change the
server's internal data structures from inside of trusted functions. Hence, among many other
things, such functions can circumvent any system access controls. This is an inherent problem
with user-defined C functions.

Authorization, privileges, and objects ownership

Users (identified by an authorization ID) can successfully execute operations only if they have
the authority to perform the specified function. To create a table, a user must be authorized to
create tables; to alter a table, a user must be authorized to alter the table; and so forth.

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The database manager requires that each user be specifically authorized to use each database
function needed to perform a specific task. A user can acquire the necessary authorization
through a grant of that authorization to their user ID or through membership in a role or a group
that holds that authorization.

There are three forms of authorization, administrative authority, privileges, and LBAC
credentials. In addition, ownership of objects brings with it a degree of authorization on the
objects created. These forms of authorization are discussed below.

Administrative authority

The person or persons holding administrative authority are charged with the task of controlling
the database manager and are responsible for the safety and integrity of the data.

System-level authorization

The system-level authorities provide varying degrees of control over instance-level functions:

 SYSADM (system administrator) authority

The SYSADM (system administrator) authority provides control over all the resources created
and maintained by the database manager. The system administrator possesses all the authorities
of SYSCTRL, SYSMAINT, and SYSMON authority. The user who has SYSADM authority is
responsible both for controlling the database manager, and for ensuring the safety and integrity
of the data.

 SYSCTRL authority

The SYSCTRL authority provides control over operations that affect system resources. For
example, a user with SYSCTRL authority can create, update, start, stop, or drop a database. This
user can also start or stop an instance, but cannot access table data. Users with SYSCTRL
authority also have SYSMON authority.

 SYSMAINT authority

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The SYSMAINT authority provides the authority required to perform maintenance operations on
all databases associated with an instance. A user with SYSMAINT authority can update the
database configuration, backup a database or table space, restore an existing database, and
monitor a database. Like SYSCTRL, SYSMAINT does not provide access to table data. Users
with SYSMAINT authority also have SYSMON authority.

 SYSMON (system monitor) authority

The SYSMON (system monitor) authority provides the authority required to use the database
system monitor.

Database-level authorization

The database level authorities provide control within the database:

 DBADM (database administrator)

The DBADM authority level provides administrative authority over a single database. This
database administrator possesses the privileges required to create objects and issue database
commands.

The DBADM authority can be granted only by a user with SECADM authority. The DBADM
authority cannot be granted to PUBLIC.

 SECADM (security administrator)

The SECADM authority level provides administrative authority for security over a single
database. The security administrator authority possesses the ability to manage database security
objects (database roles, audit policies, trusted contexts, security label components, and security
labels) and grant and revoke all database privileges and authorities. A user with SECADM
authority can transfer the ownership of objects that they do not own. They can also use the
AUDIT statement to associate an audit policy with a particular database or database object at the
server.

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The SECADM authority has no inherent privilege to access data stored in tables. It can only be
granted by a user with SECADM authority. The SECADM authority cannot be granted to
PUBLIC.

 SQLADM (SQL administrator)

The SQLADM authority level provides administrative authority to monitor and tune SQL
statements within a single database. It can be granted by a user with ACCESSCTRL or
SECADM authority.

 WLMADM (workload management administrator)

The WLMADM authority provides administrative authority to manage workload management

objects, such as service classes, work action sets, work class sets, and workloads. It can be
granted by a user with ACCESSCTRL or SECADM authority.

 EXPLAIN (explain authority)

The EXPLAIN authority level provides administrative authority to explain query plans without
gaining access to data. It can only be granted by a user with ACCESSCTRL or SECADM
authority.

 ACCESSCTRL (access control authority)

The ACCESSCTRL authority level provides administrative authority to issue the following
GRANT (and REVOKE) statements.

 GRANT (Database Authorities)

ACCESSCTRL authority does not give the holder the ability to grant ACCESSCTRL,
DATAACCESS, DBADM, or SECADM authority. Only a user who has SECADM authority can
grant these authorities.

 GRANT (Global Variable Privileges)

 GRANT (Index Privileges)

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 GRANT (Module Privileges)

 GRANT (Package Privileges)
 GRANT (Routine Privileges)
 GRANT (Schema Privileges)
 GRANT (Sequence Privileges)
 GRANT (Server Privileges)
 GRANT (Table, View, or Nickname Privileges)
 GRANT (Table Space Privileges)
 GRANT (Workload Privileges)
 GRANT (XSR Object Privileges)

ACCESSCTRL authority can only be granted by a user with SECADM authority. The
ACCESSCTRL authority cannot be granted to PUBLIC.

 DATAACCESS (data access authority)

The DATAACCESS authority level provides the following privileges and authorities.

 LOAD authority
 SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE privilege on tables, views, nicknames, and
materialized query tables
 EXECUTE privilege on packages
 EXECUTE privilege on modules
 EXECUTE privilege on routines

Except on the audit routines: AUDIT_ARCHIVE, AUDIT_LIST_LOGS,

AUDIT_DELIM_EXTRACT.

It can be granted only by a user who holds SECADM authority. The DATAACCESS authority
cannot be granted to PUBLIC.

 Database authorities (non-administrative)

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To perform activities such as creating a table or a routine, or for loading data into a table,
specific database authorities are required. For example, the LOAD database authority is required
for use of the load utility to load data into tables (a user must also have INSERT privilege on the
table).

Privileges

A privilege is a permission to perform an action or a task. Authorized users can create objects,
have access to objects they own, and can pass on privileges on their own objects to other users
by using the GRANT statement.

Privileges may be granted to individual users, to groups, or to PUBLIC. PUBLIC is a special

group that consists of all users, including future users. Users that are members of a group will
indirectly take advantage of the privileges granted to the group, where groups are supported.

The CONTROL privilege: Possessing the CONTROL privilege on an object allows a user to
access that database object, and to grant and revoke privileges to or from other users on that
object.

Note: The CONTROL privilege only apples to tables, views, nicknames, indexes, and packages.

If a different user requires the CONTROL privilege to that object, a user with SECADM or
ACCESSCTRL authority could grant the CONTROL privilege to that object. The CONTROL
privilege cannot be revoked from the object owner, however, the object owner can be changed
by using the TRANSFER OWNERSHIP statement.

Individual privileges: Individual privileges can be granted to allow a user to carry out specific
tasks on specific objects. Users with the administrative authorities ACCESSCTRL or SECADM,
or with the CONTROL privilege, can grant and revoke privileges to and from users.

Individual privileges and database authorities allow a specific function, but do not include the
right to grant the same privileges or authorities to other users. The right to grant table, view,
schema, package, routine, and sequence privileges to others can be extended to other users
through the WITH GRANT OPTION on the GRANT statement. However, the WITH GRANT

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OPTION does not allow the person granting the privilege to revoke the privilege once granted.
You must have SECADM authority, ACCESSCTRL authority, or the CONTROL privilege to
revoke the privilege.

Privileges on objects in a package or routine: When a user has the privilege to execute a package
or routine, they do not necessarily require specific privileges on the objects used in the package
or routine. If the package or routine contains static SQL or XQuery statements, the privileges of
the owner of the package are used for those statements. If the package or routine contains
dynamic SQL or XQuery statements, the authorization ID used for privilege checking depends
on the setting of the DYNAMICRULES BIND option of the package issuing the dynamic query
statements, and whether those statements are issued when the package is being used in the
context of a routine (except on the audit routines: AUDIT_ARCHIVE, AUDIT_LIST_LOGS,
AUDIT_DELIM_EXTRACT).

A user or group can be authorized for any combination of individual privileges or authorities.
When a privilege is associated with an object, that object must exist. For example, a user cannot
be given the SELECT privilege on a table unless that table has previously been created.

Note: Care must be taken when an authorization name representing a user or a group is granted
authorities and privileges and there is no user, or group created with that name. At some later
time, a user or a group can be created with that name and automatically receive all of the
authorities and privileges associated with that authorization name.

The REVOKE statement is used to revoke previously granted privileges. The revoking of a
privilege from an authorization name revokes the privilege granted by all authorization names.

Revoking a privilege from an authorization name does not revoke that same privilege from any
other authorization names that were granted the privilege by that authorization name. For
example, assume that CLAIRE grants SELECT WITH GRANT OPTION to RICK, then RICK
grants SELECT to BOBBY and CHRIS. If CLAIRE revokes the SELECT privilege from RICK,
BOBBY and CHRIS still retain the SELECT privilege.

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Self-Check 1

 Answer the questions on the following questionnaire; provide the answer sheet to your
trainer.
 Check your answers by looking at the feedback sheets; ask for the assistance of the
trainer whenever necessary.
Satisfactory
Questions
Response
 The trainee should answer the following questions YES NO

Give short answer for the following questions

1. What is Database Monitoring?

2. Explain User Privileges and Roles?

 The trainee’s underpinning knowledge was

[ ] Satisfactory [ ] Not satisfactory

 Feedback to Trainee:

Trainee’s Signature: Date:

Instructor’s Signature: Date:

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Answer Key

1. Database monitoring allows database administrators to track potential database

performance problems. At a minimum, database monitoring should track the server
on which the database resides to ensure that the server is up and running. Database
monitoring further entails tracking the performance of the particular database on a
server and measuring its availability and responsiveness over time, including under
peak demand conditions.
2.
 System privileges—A system privilege is the right to perform a particular action, or to
perform an action on any schema objects of a particular type. For example, the privileges
to create tables and to delete the rows of any table in a database are system privileges.
 Object privileges—An object privilege is a right to perform a particular action on a
specific schema object. Different object privileges are available for different types of
schema objects. The privilege to delete rows from the DEPARTMENTS table is an
example of an object privilege.

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Performance Criteria

Satisfactory
Assessment Criteria
Response
The trainee will be assessed through the following criteria: YES NO
 Answered all the interview questions clearly
 Performed all activities accordingly
 Followed all instructions in the activities

Trainees’ Performance is:

[ ] Satisfactory [ ] Not Satisfactory

Feedback to Trainee:

Trainee’s Signature: Date:

Instructor’s Signature: Date:

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