Introduction

Predicate
Logic and
Predicate
Logic and
Consider the following statements:
Quantifiers Quantifiers

CSE235
Predicate Logic and Quantifiers CSE235
x > 3, x = y + 3, x+y =z
The truth value of these statements has no meaning without
specifying the values of x, y, z.
Slides by Christopher M. Bourke
However, we can make propositions out of such statements.
Instructor: Berthe Y. Choueiry
A predicate is a property that is affirmed or denied about the
subject (in logic, we say “variable” or “argument”) of a
statement.
Spring 2006
“ |{z}
x is greater than 3”
| {z }
subject predicate
Computer Science & Engineering 235
Introduction to Discrete Mathematics Terminology: affirmed = holds = is true; denied = does not
1/1 Sections 1.3–1.4 of Rosen 2/1 hold = is not true.
[email protected]

Propositional Functions Propositional Functions

Predicate Predicate
Logic and To write in predicate logic: Logic and
Quantifiers Quantifiers
Definition
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A statement of the form P (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) is the value of the
“ |{z}
x is greater than 3” propositional function P . Here, (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) is an n-tuple
| {z }
subject predicate and P is a predicate.

We introduce a (functional) symbol for the predicate, and put

You can think of a propositional function as a function that
the subject as an argument (to the functional symbol): P (x)
Examples: Evaluates to true or false.
Takes one or more arguments.
Father(x): unary predicate Expresses a predicate involving the argument(s).
Brother(x,y): binary predicate Becomes a proposition when values are assigned to the
Sum(x,y,z): ternary predicate arguments.
P(x,y,z,t): n-ary predicate
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Propositional Functions Propositional Functions

Example Example

Predicate Predicate
Logic and Logic and
Quantifiers Quantifiers

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Example CSE235
Example
Let Q(x, y, z) denote the statement “x2 + y 2 = z 2 ”. What is Let Q(x, y, z) denote the statement “x2 + y 2 = z 2 ”. What is
the truth value of Q(3, 4, 5)? What is the truth value of the truth value of Q(3, 4, 5)? What is the truth value of
Q(2, 2, 3)? How many values of (x, y, z) make the predicate Q(2, 2, 3)? How many values of (x, y, z) make the predicate
true? true?

Since 32 + 42 = 25 = 52 , Q(3, 4, 5) is true.

Since 22 + 22 = 8 6= 32 = 9, Q(2, 2, 3) is false.
There are infinitely many values for (x, y, z) that make this
propositional function true—how many right triangles are
there?

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 Universe of Discourse Universe of Discourse
Multivariate Functions

Predicate Predicate
Logic and Logic and
Quantifiers Quantifiers

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Consider the previous example. Does it make sense to assign to Moreover, each variable in an n-tuple may have a different
x the value “blue”? universe of discourse.
Intuitively, the universe of discourse is the set of all things we Let P (r, g, b, c) = “The rgb-value of the color c is (r, g, b)”.
wish to talk about; that is, the set of all objects that we can
sensibly assign to a variable in a propositional function. For example, P (255, 0, 0, red) is true, while P (0, 0, 255, green)
is false.
What would be the universe of discourse for the propositional
function P (x) = “The test will be on x the 23rd” be? What are the universes of discourse for (r, g, b, c)?

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Quantifiers Universal Quantifier

Introduction Definition

Predicate Predicate
Logic and
Quantifiers
Logic and
Quantifiers
Definition
CSE235 CSE235 The universal quantification of a predicate P (x) is the
proposition “P (x) is true for all values of x in the universe of
A predicate becomes a proposition when we assign it fixed discourse” We use the notation
values. However, another way to make a predicate into a
proposition is to quantify it. That is, the predicate is true (or ∀xP (x)
false) for all possible values in the universe of discourse or for
some value(s) in the universe of discourse. which can be read “for all x”
Such quantification can be done with two quantifiers: the
If the universe of discourse is finite, say {n1 , n2 , . . . , nk }, then
universal quantifier and the existential quantifier.
the universal quantifier is simply the conjunction of all
elements:

∀xP (x) ⇐⇒ P (n1 ) ∧ P (n2 ) ∧ · · · ∧ P (nk )

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Universal Quantifier Universal Quantifier

Example I Example I

Predicate Predicate
Logic and Let P (x) be the predicate “x must take a discrete Logic and Let P (x) be the predicate “x must take a discrete
Quantifiers Quantifiers
mathematics course” and let Q(x) be the predicate “x is a mathematics course” and let Q(x) be the predicate “x is a
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computer science student”. computer science student”.
The universe of discourse for both P (x) and Q(x) is all The universe of discourse for both P (x) and Q(x) is all
UNL students. UNL students.
Express the statement “Every computer science student Express the statement “Every computer science student
must take a discrete mathematics course”. must take a discrete mathematics course”.
∀x(Q(x) → P (x))

Express the statement “Everybody must take a discrete Express the statement “Everybody must take a discrete
mathematics course or be a computer science student”. mathematics course or be a computer science student”.

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 Universal Quantifier Universal Quantifier
Example I Example I

Predicate Predicate
Logic and Let P (x) be the predicate “x must take a discrete Logic and Let P (x) be the predicate “x must take a discrete
Quantifiers Quantifiers
mathematics course” and let Q(x) be the predicate “x is a mathematics course” and let Q(x) be the predicate “x is a
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computer science student”. computer science student”.
The universe of discourse for both P (x) and Q(x) is all The universe of discourse for both P (x) and Q(x) is all
UNL students. UNL students.
Express the statement “Every computer science student Express the statement “Every computer science student
must take a discrete mathematics course”. must take a discrete mathematics course”.
∀x(Q(x) → P (x)) ∀x(Q(x) → P (x))

Express the statement “Everybody must take a discrete Express the statement “Everybody must take a discrete
mathematics course or be a computer science student”. mathematics course or be a computer science student”.
∀x(Q(x) ∨ P (x)) ∀x(Q(x) ∨ P (x))

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Are these statements true or false?

Universal Quantifier Universal Quantifier

Example II Example II

Predicate Predicate
Logic and Logic and
Quantifiers Quantifiers

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Express the statement “for every x and for every y, x + y > 10” CSE235
Express the statement “for every x and for every y, x + y > 10”
Let P (x, y) be the statement x + y > 10 where the universe of
discourse for x, y is the set of integers.

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Universal Quantifier Universal Quantifier

Example II Example II

Predicate Predicate
Logic and Logic and
Quantifiers Quantifiers

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Express the statement “for every x and for every y, x + y > 10” CSE235
Express the statement “for every x and for every y, x + y > 10”
Let P (x, y) be the statement x + y > 10 where the universe of Let P (x, y) be the statement x + y > 10 where the universe of
discourse for x, y is the set of integers. discourse for x, y is the set of integers.
Answer: Answer:
∀x∀yP (x, y) ∀x∀yP (x, y)

Note that we can also use the shorthand

∀x, yP (x, y)

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 Existential Quantifier Existential Quantifier
Definition Example I

Predicate Predicate
Logic and
Quantifiers
Definition Logic and
Quantifiers

CSE235 The existential quantification of a predicate P (x) is the CSE235

proposition “There exists an x in the universe of discourse such

that P (x) is true.” We use the notation Let P (x, y) denote the statement, “x + y = 5”.
What does the expression,
∃xP (x)
∃x∃yP (x)
which can be read “there exists an x”
mean?
Again, if the universe of discourse is finite, {n1 , n2 , . . . , nk },
What universe(s) of discourse make it true?
then the existential quantifier is simply the disjunction of all
elements:

∃xP (x) ⇐⇒ P (n1 ) ∨ P (n2 ) ∨ · · · ∨ P (nk )

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Existential Quantifier Existential Quantifier

Example II Example II

Predicate Predicate
Logic and Logic and
Quantifiers Quantifiers

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Express the statement “there exists a real solution to Express the statement “there exists a real solution to
ax2 + bx − c = 0” ax2 + bx − c = 0”
√
2
Let P (x) be the statement x = −b± 2a b −4ac
where the universe
of discourse for x is the set of reals. Note here that a, b, c are
all fixed constants.

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Existential Quantifier Existential Quantifier

Example II Example II Continued

Predicate Predicate
Logic and Logic and
Quantifiers Quantifiers

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Express the statement “there exists a real solution to
ax2 + bx − c = 0” Question: what is the truth value of ∃xP (x)?
√
b2 −4ac
Let P (x) be the statement x = −b± 2a where the universe
of discourse for x is the set of reals. Note here that a, b, c are
all fixed constants.
The statement can thus be expressed as

∃xP (x)

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 Existential Quantifier Existential Quantifier
Example II Continued Example II Continued

Predicate Predicate
Logic and Logic and
Quantifiers Quantifiers

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Question: what is the truth value of ∃xP (x)? Question: what is the truth value of ∃xP (x)?
b2
Answer: it is false. For any real numbers such that < 4ac, Answer: it is false. For any real numbers such that b2 < 4ac,
there will only be complex solutions, for these cases no such there will only be complex solutions, for these cases no such
real number x can satisfy the predicate. real number x can satisfy the predicate.
How can we make it so that it is true? How can we make it so that it is true?
Answer: change the universe of discourse to the complex
numbers, C.

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Quantifiers Mixing Quantifiers I

Truth Values

Predicate Predicate
Logic and Logic and
Quantifiers Quantifiers

CSE235 In general, when are quantified statements true/false? CSE235

Existential and universal quantifiers can be used together to

quantify a predicate statement; for example,
Statement True When False When
∀x∃yP (x, y)
∀xP (x) P (x) is true for every There is an x for
x. which P (x) is false. is perfectly valid. However, you must be careful—it must be
∃xP (x) There is an x for P (x) is false for every read left to right.
which P (x) is true. x.
For example, ∀x∃yP (x, y) is not equivalent to ∃y∀xP (x, y).
Table: Truth Values of Quantifiers Thus, ordering is important.

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Mixing Quantifiers II Mixing Quantifiers

Truth Values

Predicate Predicate Statement True When False When

Logic and Logic and
Quantifiers
For example: Quantifiers ∀x∀yP (x, y) P (x, y) is true for ev- There is at least one
CSE235 CSE235 ery pair x, y. pair, x, y for which
∀x∃yLoves(x, y): everybody loves somebody P (x, y) is false.
∃y∀xLoves(x, y): There is someone loved by everyone ∀x∃yP (x, y) For every x, there is a There is an x for
y for which P (x, y) is which P (x, y) is false
Those expressions do not mean the same thing! true. for every y.
∃x∀yP (x, y) There is an x for For every x, there is a
Note that ∃y∀xP (x, y) → ∀x∃yP (x, y), but the converse does
which P (x, y) is true y for which P (x, y) is
not hold
for every y. false.
However, you can commute similar quantifiers; ∃x∃yP (x, y) is ∃x∃yP (x, y) There is at least one P (x, y) is false for ev-
equivalent to ∃y∃xP (x, y) (which is why our shorthand was pair x, y for which ery pair x, y.
valid). P (x, y) is true.

Table: Truth Values of 2-variate Quantifiers

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 Mixing Quantifiers Mixing Quantifiers
Example I Example I

Predicate Predicate
Logic and Logic and
Quantifiers Quantifiers

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Express, in predicate logic, the statement that there are an Express, in predicate logic, the statement that there are an
infinite number of integers. infinite number of integers.
Let P (x, y) be the statement that x < y. Let the universe of
discourse be the integers, Z.

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Mixing Quantifiers Mixing Quantifiers

Example I Example II: More Mathematical Statements

Predicate Predicate
Logic and Logic and
Quantifiers Quantifiers

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Express the commutative law of addition for R.
Express, in predicate logic, the statement that there are an
infinite number of integers.
Let P (x, y) be the statement that x < y. Let the universe of
discourse be the integers, Z.
Then the statement can be expressed by the following.

∀x∃yP (x, y)

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Mixing Quantifiers Mixing Quantifiers

Example II: More Mathematical Statements Example II: More Mathematical Statements

Predicate Predicate
Logic and Logic and
Quantifiers Quantifiers

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Express the commutative law of addition for R. Express the commutative law of addition for R.
We want to express that for every pair of reals, x, y the We want to express that for every pair of reals, x, y the
following identity holds: following identity holds:

x+y =y+x x+y =y+x

Then we have the following:

∀x∀y(x + y = y + x)

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 Mixing Quantifiers Mixing Quantifiers
Example II: More Mathematical Statements Continued Example II: More Mathematical Statements Continued

Predicate Predicate
Logic and Logic and
Quantifiers Quantifiers

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Express the multiplicative inverse law for (nonzero) rationals Express the multiplicative inverse law for (nonzero) rationals
Q \ {0}. Q \ {0}.
We want to express that for every real number x, there exists a
real number y such that xy = 1.

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Mixing Quantifiers Mixing Quantifiers

Example II: More Mathematical Statements Continued Example II: False Mathematical Statements

Predicate Predicate
Logic and Logic and
Quantifiers Quantifiers

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Express the multiplicative inverse law for (nonzero) rationals Is commutativity for subtraction valid over the reals?
Q \ {0}.
We want to express that for every real number x, there exists a
real number y such that xy = 1.
Then we have the following:

∀x∃y(xy = 1)

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Mixing Quantifiers Mixing Quantifiers

Example II: False Mathematical Statements Example II: False Mathematical Statements

Predicate Predicate
Logic and Logic and
Quantifiers Quantifiers

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Is commutativity for subtraction valid over the reals? Is commutativity for subtraction valid over the reals?
That is, for all pairs of real numbers x, y does the identity That is, for all pairs of real numbers x, y does the identity
x − y = y − x hold? Express this using quantifiers. x − y = y − x hold? Express this using quantifiers.
The expression is

∀x∀y(x − y = y − x)

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 Mixing Quantifiers Mixing Quantifiers
Example II: False Mathematical Statements Continued Example II: False Mathematical Statements Continued

Predicate Predicate
Logic and Logic and
Quantifiers Quantifiers

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Is there a multiplicative inverse law over the nonzero integers? Is there a multiplicative inverse law over the nonzero integers?
That is, for every integer x does there exists a y such that
xy = 1?

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Mixing Quantifiers Mixing Quantifiers

Example II: False Mathematical Statements Continued Exercise

Predicate Predicate
Logic and Logic and
Express the statement “there is a number x such that
Quantifiers Quantifiers
when it is added to any number, the result is that
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number, and if it is multiplied by any number, the
Is there a multiplicative inverse law over the nonzero integers? result is x” as a logical expression.
That is, for every integer x does there exists a y such that
Solution:
xy = 1?
This is false, since we can find a counter example. Take any
integer, say 5 and multiply it with another integer, y. If the
statement held, then 5 = 1/y, but for any (nonzero) integer y,
|1/y| ≤ 1.

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Mixing Quantifiers Mixing Quantifiers

Exercise Exercise

Predicate Predicate
Logic and
Express the statement “there is a number x such that Logic and
Express the statement “there is a number x such that
Quantifiers
when it is added to any number, the result is that Quantifiers
when it is added to any number, the result is that
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number, and if it is multiplied by any number, the number, and if it is multiplied by any number, the
result is x” as a logical expression. result is x” as a logical expression.

Solution: Solution:

Let P (x, y) be the expression “x + y = y”. Let P (x, y) be the expression “x + y = y”.
Let Q(x, y) be the expression “xy = x”.

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 Mixing Quantifiers Mixing Quantifiers
Exercise Exercise

Predicate Predicate
Logic and
Express the statement “there is a number x such that Logic and
Express the statement “there is a number x such that
Quantifiers
when it is added to any number, the result is that Quantifiers
when it is added to any number, the result is that
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number, and if it is multiplied by any number, the number, and if it is multiplied by any number, the
result is x” as a logical expression. result is x” as a logical expression.

Solution: Solution:

Let P (x, y) be the expression “x + y = y”. Let P (x, y) be the expression “x + y = y”.
Let Q(x, y) be the expression “xy = x”. Let Q(x, y) be the expression “xy = x”.
Then the expression is Then the expression is
∃x∀y (P (x, y) ∧ Q(x, y)) ∃x∀y (P (x, y) ∧ Q(x, y))
Over what universe(s) of discourse does this statement
hold?

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Mixing Quantifiers Binding Variables I

Exercise

Predicate Predicate
Logic and
Express the statement “there is a number x such that Logic and
Quantifiers
when it is added to any number, the result is that Quantifiers

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number, and if it is multiplied by any number, the When a quantifier is used on a variable x, we say that x is
result is x” as a logical expression. bound. If no quantifier is used on a variable in a predicate
statement, it is called free.
Solution:
Example
Let P (x, y) be the expression “x + y = y”. In the expression ∃x∀yP (x, y) both x and y are bound.
Let Q(x, y) be the expression “xy = x”. In the expression ∀xP (x, y), x is bound, but y is free.
Then the expression is
∃x∀y (P (x, y) ∧ Q(x, y)) A statement is called a well-formed formula, when all variables
are properly quantified.
Over what universe(s) of discourse does this statement
hold?
This is the additive identity law and holds for N, Z, R, Q
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Binding Variables II Negation

Predicate Predicate
Logic and Logic and
Quantifiers Quantifiers
Just as we can use negation with propositions, we can use
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them with quantified expressions.
The set of all variables bound by a common quantifier is the
scope of that quantifier. Lemma
Let P (x) be a predicate. Then the following hold.
Example
In the expression ∃x, y∀zP (x, y, z, c) the scope of the ¬∀xP (x) ≡ ∃x¬P (x)
existential quantifier is {x, y}, the scope of the universal
quantifier is just z and c has no scope since it is free. ¬∃xP (x) ≡ ∀x¬P (x)

This is essentially a quantified version of De Morgan’s Law (in

fact if the universe of discourse is finite, it is exactly De
Morgan’s law).

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 Negation Prolog
Truth Values

Predicate
Logic and
Predicate
Logic and
Prolog (Programming in Logic) is a programming language
Quantifiers Quantifiers based on (a restricted form of) Predicate Calculus. It was
CSE235 CSE235 developped by the logicians of the artificial intelligence
community for symbolic reasoning.
Statement True When False When
¬∃xP (x) ≡ For every x, P (x) is There is an x for Prolog allows the user to express facts and rules
∀x¬P (x) false. which P (x) is true. Facts are proposational functions: student(juana),
¬∀xP (x) ≡ There is an x for P (x) is true for every enrolled(juana,cse235), instructor(patel,cse235), etc.
∃x¬P (x) which P (x) is false. x. Rules are implications with conjunctions:
teaches(X,Y) :- instructor(X,Z), enrolled(Y,Z)
Table: Truth Values of Negated Quantifiers
Prolog answers queries such as:
?enrolled(juana,cse478)
?enrolled(X,cse478)
?teaches(X,juana)
by binding variables and doing theorem proving (i.e.,
applying inference rules) as we will see in Section 1.5.
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English into Logic Conclusion

Predicate Predicate
Logic and Logic is more precise than English. Logic and
Quantifiers Quantifiers Examples? Exercises?
CSE235 Transcribing English to Logic and vice versa can be tricky. CSE235

When writing statements with quantifiers, usually the correct Rewrite the expression,

meaning is conveyed with the following combinations: ¬∀x ∃y∀zP (x, y, z) ∧ ∃z∀yP (x, y, z)

Use ∀ with ⇒
Example: ∀xLion(x) ⇒ F ierce(x)
∀xLion(x) ∧ F ierce(x) means “everyone is a lion and
everyone is fierce” Let P (x, y) denote “x is a factor of y” where
x ∈ {1, 2, 3, . . .} and y ∈ {2, 3, 4, . . .}.
 Let Q(y) denote
Use ∃ with ∧
“∀x P (x, y) → ((x = y) ∨ (x = 1)) ”. When is Q(y)
Example: ∃xLion(x) ∧ Drinks(x, cof f ee): holds when
true?
you have at least one lion that drinks coffee
∃xLion(x) ⇒ Drinks(x, cof f ee) holds when you have
people even though no lion drinks coffee.
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Conclusion Conclusion

Predicate Predicate
Logic and Logic and
Quantifiers Examples? Exercises? Quantifiers Examples? Exercises?
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Rewrite the expression,
Rewrite the expression,

¬∀x ∃y∀zP (x, y, z) ∧ ∃z∀yP (x, y, z) ¬∀x ∃y∀zP (x, y, z) ∧ ∃z∀yP (x, y, z)
Answer: Use the negated quantifiers and De Morgan’s law. Answer: Use the negated quantifiers and De Morgan’s law.



∃x ∀y∃z¬P (x, y, z) ∨ ∀z∃y¬P (x, y, z) ∃x ∀y∃z¬P (x, y, z) ∨ ∀z∃y¬P (x, y, z)

Let P (x, y) denote “x is a factor of y” where Let P (x, y) denote “x is a factor of y” where
x ∈ {1, 2, 3, . . .} and y ∈ {2, 3, 4, . . .}.
 Let Q(y) denote x ∈ {1, 2, 3, . . .} and y ∈ {2, 3, 4, . . .}.
 Let Q(y) denote
“∀x P (x, y) → ((x = y) ∨ (x = 1)) ”. When is Q(y) “∀x P (x, y) → ((x = y) ∨ (x = 1)) ”. When is Q(y)
true? true?
Answer: Only when y is a prime number.

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 Extra Question

Predicate
Logic and
Quantifiers
Some students wondered if
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∀x, yP (x, y) ≡ ∀xP (x, y) ∧ ∀yP (x, y)

This is certainly not true. In the left-hand side, both x and y

are bound. In the right-hand side, x is bound in the first
predicate, but y is free. In the second predicate, y is bound but
x is free.
All variables that occur in a propositional function must be
bound to turn it into a proposition.
Thus, the left-hand side is a proposition, but the right-hand
side is not. How can they be equivalent?

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