The Fourier Transform

EE 442 Analog & Digital Communication Systems

Lecture 4
Voice signal

time

frequency (Hz)

EE 442 Fourier Transform 1

Jean Joseph Baptiste Fourier

March 21, 1768 to May 16, 1830

ES 442 Fourier Transform 2

Review: Fourier Trignometric Series (for Periodic Waveforms)

Equation (2.10) should read (time t was missing in book):


f (t ) = a0 +  ( an cos(n0t ) + bn sin(n0t ) )
n =1

2 1
where 0 = and f 0 =
T T Agbo & Sadiku;
and (Equations 2.12a, b, & c) Section 2.5
1
T pp. 26-27
a0 =
T  f (t )dt
0
(DC term)

T
2
an =  f (t ) cos(n0t )dt for n = 1, 2, 3, etc.
T 0
T
2
bn =  f (t ) sin(n0t )dt for n = 1, 2, 3, etc.
T 0

ES 442 Fourier Transform 3

Fourier Trigonometric Series in Amplitude-Phase Format

Equations (2.13) and (2.14) should read:


f (t ) = A0 +  ( An cos(n0t + n ) )
n =1

a0 = A0
An = an2 + bn2 and Agbo & Sadiku;
Section 2.5
 bn 
n = − tan −1  Page 27
 n
a
Also known as polar form of Fourier series.

ES 442 Fourier Transform 4

Example: Periodic Square Wave as Sum of Sinusoids
Line Spectra
f0

Even or Odd?
3f0

5f0

7f0

EE 442 Fourier Transform 5

 Example: Periodic Square Wave (continued)
This is an odd function Question:
4 What would
f (t ) = sin( t ) + 13 sin(3 t ) + 15 sin(5 t ) + 71 sin(7 t ) +  make this an

even function?
Fundamental only

Five terms

Eleven terms

Forty-nine terms

http://ceng.gazi.edu.tr/dsp/fourier_series/description.aspx
EE 442 Fourier Transform 6
Sinusoidal Waveforms are the Building Blocks in the Fourier Series
Simple Harmonic Motion Produces Sinusoidal Waveforms

Past Future Mechanical

Oscillation

Time t

Sheet of paper unrolls in this direction

LC Tank Circuit
Electrical
LC Circuit
Oscillation

EE 442 Fourier Transform 7

 Visualizing a Signal – Time Domain & Frequency Domain

Amplitude

To go from time domain

to frequency domain
we use Fourier Transform

Source: Agilent Technologies Application Note 150, “Spectrum Analyzer Basics”

http://cp.literature.agilent.com/litweb/pdf/5952-0292.pdf

EE 442 Fourier Transform 8

 Example: Where Both Sine & Cosine Terms are Required
Both even and odd parts to the waveform.

Period T0

Note phase shift in the fundamental frequency sine waveform.

http://www.peterstone.name/Maplepgs/fourier.html#anchor2315207

EE 442 Fourier Transform 9

 Fourier Series versus Fourier Transform

Continuous time Discrete time

Discrete
Fourier
Periodic Fourier
Series Transform

Discrete
Aperiodic Fourier
Fourier
Transform Transform

Fourier series for continuous-time periodic signals → discrete spectra

Fourier transform for continuous aperiodic signals → continuous spectra

EE 442 Fourier Transform 10

 Definition of Fourier Transform

The Fourier transform (i.e., spectrum) of f(t) is F ( ):


F ( ) = F  f (t ) =  f (t )e − jt dt
−

1
f (t ) = F −1 F ( ) =  F ( )e jt d 
2 −

Therefore, f (t )  F ( ) is a Fourier Transform pair

Agbo & Sadiku;

Section 2.7;
pp. 40-41
Note: Remember  = 2 f

ES 442 Fourier Transform 11

 Fourier Transform Produces a Continuous Spectrum
 {f(t)} gives a spectra consisting of a continuous sum of
exponentials with frequencies ranging from -  to + .

F ( ) = F ( )  e j ( ) ,
where |F()| is the continuous amplitude spectrum of f(t)
and
 () is the continuous phase spectrum of f(t).

Often only the magnitude of F() is displayed and the phase

is ignored.

EE 442 Fourier Transform 12

 Example: Impulse Function (t)


F ( ) = F  (t ) =   (t ) e − jt
dt = e − jt
= e j0 = 1
t =0
−

 (t )  1
1  2 ( )

F  (t )
1



 if t = 0
 (t ) =
0 if t  0
Delta function has unity area.

ES 442 Fourier Transform 13

 Example: Fourier Transform of Single Rectangular Pulse

 
1 for − t
f (t ) = rect(t ) = II(t /  ) = 2 2

0 for all t 
2

f (t ) = rect(t ) = II(t /  )   /2

 f (t )e − jt dt =  dt
− j t
F ( ) = e
Pulse of 1 − − / 2
width   /2
− j t
e  e − j / 2 − e j / 2
=   =
 − j  − / 2 − j
−
2

2
time t
− j 2 sin ( 2 )  sin ( 2 ) 
2 = =  
0 − j  ( 2 ) 
Remember  = 2f

14
EE 442 Fourier Transform
 Fourier Transform of Single Rectangular Pulse (continued)

 sin ( 2 ) 
F ( ) =     =   sinc( f )
 ( 2 ) 
1
sinc function
F()


−  time t
2 2
2
0
Note the
pulse is
time − 3 − 2 −  2 3 
     
centered 0

ES 442 Fourier Transform 15

 Properties of the Sinc Function

Definition of the sinc function:

sin( x )
sinc( x ) =
x

Sinc Properties:
1. sinc(x) is an even function of x.
2. sinc(x) = 0 at points where sin(x) = 0, that is,
sinc(x) = 0 when x = , 2, 3, … .
3. Using L’Hôpital’s rule, it can be shown that sinc(0) = 1.
4. sinc(x) oscillates as sin(x) oscillates and monotonically
decreases as 1/ x decreases as | x | increases.
5. sinc(x) is the Fourier transform of a single rectangular pulse.

Warning:
There are two definitions for the sinc(x) function. They are
sin( x ) sin( x )
sinc( x ) = and sinc( x ) =
x x

EE 442 Fourier Transform 16

 Periodic Pulse Train Morphing Into a Single Pulse

Frequency resolution
inversely proportional
Ck to the period.

Ck

Ck

https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-exact-difference-between-continuous-fourier-transform-discrete-Time-Fourier-Transform-
DTFT-Discrete-Fourier-Transform-DFT-Fourier-series-and-Discrete-Fourier-Series-DFS-In-which-cases-is-which-one-used

ES 442 Fourier Transform 17

Sinc Function Tradeoff: Pulse Duration versus Bandwidth
G1 ( f )
T1 G2 ( f )
1 1 T2
−
T1 T1
f f
−1 1

 g 1 (t ) T2 g2 (t ) T2


−T1 T1 t −T2 T2 t
2 2 G3 ( f ) 2 2
T3

1 f
1 Also called the
−
T1 > T2 > T3 T3 g3 (t ) T3  Time Scaling
Property
(Section 2.8.2)
−T3 T3 t
2 2

EE 442 Fourier Transform 18

 Properties of Fourier Transforms

2.8.1 Linearity (Superposition) Property

2.8.2 Time-Scaling Property
2.8.3 Time-Shifting Property
2.8.4 Frequency-Shifting Property
2.8.5 Time Differentiation Property
2.8.6 Frequency Differentiation Property
2.8.7 Time Integration Property
2.8.8 Time-Frequency Duality Property
2.8.9 Convolution Property

Agbo & Sadiku

Section 2.8;
pp. 46 to 58

EE 442 Fourier Transform 19

 2.8.1 Linearity (Superposition) Property

Given f(t)  F() and g(t)  G() ;

Then f(t) + g(t)  F() + G() (additivity)

also kf(t)  kF() and mg(t)  mG() (homogeneity)

Note: k and m are constants

Combining these we have,

kf(t) + mg(t)  kF () + mG ()

Hence, the Fourier Transform is a linear transformation.

This is the same definition for linearity as used in your circuits

and systems course, EE 400.

EE 442 Fourier Transform 20

 2.8.2 Time Scaling Property

1  
 f (at ) = F  
a a

 f (at ) =  f (at )e − jt dt

−

Let  = at & d  = adt ,


d 1   
 f (at ) =  f ( )e − jt
= F 
−
a a a
Hence,  f ( - t ) = F (− ) = F * ( )

ES 442 Fourier Transform 21

 Time-Scaling Property (continued)

1  
 f (at ) = F  
a a

Time compression of a signal results in spectral expansion and

time expansion of a signal results in spectral compression.

EE 442 Fourier Transform 22

 2.8.3 Time Shifting Property

 f (t − t 0 
) = e − jt0
F ( )

 f (t − t0 ) =  f (t − t0 )e − jt dt
−

Let  = t − t0 , d  = dt & t =  + t0


 f (t − t0 ) =  f ( )e − j (  +t0 ) d  =
−

= e − j t9  f ( )e − j d  = e − jt0 F ( )
−

EE 442 Fourier Transform 23

 Time-Shifting Property (continued)

 f (t − t 0 
) = e − jt0
F ( )
Delaying a signal by t0 seconds does not change its amplitude
spectrum, but the phase spectrum is changed by -2ft0.
Note that the phase spectrum shift changes linearly with frequency f.

F ( ) =  Re ( F ( ) )  +  Im ( F ( ) ) 
2 2

f (t ) F ( )

A time shift
produces t 
Even function. Both
a phase must be
shift in its identical.
spectrum. 
t
This time shifted pulse
is both even and odd.
EE 442 Fourier Transform 24
 2.8.4 Frequency Shifting Property

 
f (t )e j0t = F ( − 0 )

 f (t )e  = 
j0t
f (t )e j0t e − jt dt
−

=  f (t )e − j ( −0 )t d  = F ( − 0 )
−

Special application:
Apply to cos (0t ) = 1
2 (e j0t
)
+ e − j0t ;

 f (t )cos ( t ) = ( F ( −  ) + F ( +  ) )
0
1
2 0 0

ES 442 Fourier Transform 25

 An Important Formula to Remember in EE 442
Euler's formula

exp   j  = cos( )  j sin( )

1
sin( ) =
2j
( exp  j  − exp  − j )

1
cos( ) = ( exp  j  + exp  − j )
2

 j ( /2 )  jn 1 for n even

e =  j and e =
−1 for n odd
b
aa ++ jb eij where r = a 2 + b 2 ,  = tan −1  
jb == rre
a

ES 442 Fourier Transform 26

Frequency Shifting Property is Very Useful in Communications

Multiplication of a signal g(t) by the factor [cos(2fCt)]

places G(f) centered at f =  fC.

Carrier frequency is fc & G( f )

g(t) is the message signal 2A

g(t )
g(t )  G( f )

t −B B f
2B

g(t ) g(t ) cos(2 fC t )

USB A LSB USB
LSB

t − fC fC f
2B
g(t )

ES 442 Fourier Transform 27

 Frequency-Shifting Property (continued)
G( f )
g(t ) ( a) G( f ) (b)
Message signal

g ( f )

g(t ) cos(2 fC t ) c
( ) (d)

-fC fC

g(t ) sin(2 fC t ) e Note phase shift

( ) (f)
 2
− 2

Multiplication of a signal g(t) by the factor cos(2 fC t )

places G(f) centered at f =  fC.
EE 442 Fourier Transform 28
Modulation Comes From Frequency Shifting Property

Given FT pair: f (t )  F ( )
then, f (t ) e j0t  F ( − 0 )
Amplitude Modulation Example:
Audio tone:
 sin(t)

Sinusoidal carrier signal:

Amplitude
Modulated
Signal

EE 442 Fourier Transform 29

 Fourier Transform of AM Tone Modulated Signal

f(t)

Carrier signal
fC = 500 Hz F()
Modulated AM sidebands

Only positive frequencies shown;

Must include negative frequencies.
http://www.ni.com/tutorial/5421/en/
ES 442 Fourier Transform 30
Modulation of Baseband and Carrier Signals

f C = f0

https://slideplayer.com/slide/10939951/
ES 442 Fourier Transform 31
 Transform Duality Property
Given g(t )  G( f ), then
g(t )  G( f )
and
G(t )  g( − f )

Note the minus sign!

Because of the minus sign they are not perfectly

symmetrical – See the illustration on next slide.

EE 442 Fourier Transform 32

 Illustration of Fourier Transform Duality
G1 ( f )
g 1 (t )
T1

−1 1
3
 

−  t −2 2 f
2 2  

g 2 (t ) G2 ( f )

 2 What does
−1 1
− this imply?
T1 
t −  f
4 4
−  
EE 442 Fourier Transform 2 2 33
Fourier Transform of Complex Exponentials

F −1  ( f − f c ) =
− j 2 f t

−
 ( f − f C ) e df

Evaluate for f = f c

F −1  ( f − f c ) =  e− j 2 fct df = e− j 2 fct
f = fc

  ( f − f c )  e − j 2 f c t and

F −1
 ( f + fc ) =   ( f + fC )e− j 2 f t df
−

Evaluate for f = − f c

F −1  ( f + f c ) =  e j 2 fct df = e j 2 fct
f =− f c

  ( f + f c )  e j 2 f c t

EE 442 Fourier Transform 34

 Fourier Transform of Sinusoidal Functions
− j 2 f c t j 2 f c t n!
Taking  ( f − f c )  e and  ( f + f c )  e
r !( n − r ) !
We use these results to find FT of cos(2 ft ) and sin(2 ft )
Using the identities for cos(2 ft ) and sin(2 ft ),
j 2 f c t − j 2 f c t  j 2 f c t − j 2 f c t 
* cos(2 ft ) = 21  e +e cos(2 ft ) = 21j  e
& sin −e
   
Therefore,
cos(2 ft )  21  ( f + f c ) +  ( f − f c ) , and
sin(2 ft )  21j  ( f + f c ) −  ( f − f c )

Re Im
cos(2fct) sin(2fct)
-fc
-fc fc f fc f

EE 442 Fourier Transform 35

Summary of
Several
Fourier
Transform
Pairs See
Agbo & Sidiku;
Table 2.5,
Page 54;
------------
See also the
Fourier
Transform
Pair Handout

http://media.cheggcdn
.com/media/db0/db0ff
fe9-45f5-40a3-a05b-
12a179139400/phpsu6
3he.png

EE 442 Fourier Transform 36

 Spectrum Analyzer Shows Frequency Domain

A spectrum analyzer measures the

magnitude of an input signal versus
frequency within the full frequency
range of the instrument. It
measures frequency, power,
harmonics, distortion, noise,
spurious signals and bandwidth.
➢ It is an electronic receiver
➢ Measure magnitude of signals
➢ Does not measure phase of signals
➢ Complements time domain

Courtesy: Keysight Technologies

Bluetooth Spectrum

EE 442 Fourier Transform 37

 Fourier Transform of Cosine Signal

A
A cos(2 f c t ) =
2
 ( f + f c ) +  ( f − f c )
A
2
A cos(2 f t )
Re

-fc
3D View A
2

fc

Blue arrows indicate

positive phase directions

EE 442 Fourier Transform 38

Fourier Transform of Cosine Signal (as shown in textbooks)

Real axis
cos(t )  (− f0 )

−T0 T0 t FT

f
− f0 f0

1
f0 =
T0

ES 442 Fourier Transform 39

 Fourier Transform of Sine Signal

B
B sin(2 f c t ) = j
2
 ( f + f c ) −  ( f − f c )

B sin(2 f t )
Re

B -fc
2

B
2
fc

We must subtract 90

from cos(x) to get sin(x)

EE 442 Fourier Transform 40

 Fourier Transform of Sine Signal (as usually shown in textbooks)

Imaginary axis

Bsin(0t)  (− f0 ) B
j
B 2

t FT − f0 f0 f
B
−j
2

EE 442 Fourier Transform 41

 Visualizing Fourier Spectrum of Sinusoidal Signals

Multiplying by
j is a phase
shift

ES 442 Fourier Transform 42

Fourier Transform of a Phase Shifted Sinusoidal Signal
(with phase information shown)

j j 2 ft − j
Re e + Re e − j 2 f t

A
2 Re
− j 2 ft
Re
-
B -fc
j 2 ft
2 Re

A
2  B
2

fc

f
2 2
 A  B  A
R =   +  and  = tan −1  − 
 2  2  B
http://www.ece.iit.edu/~biitcomm/research/references/Other/Tutorials%20in%20Communications%20E
ngineering/Tutorial%207%20-%20Hilbert%20Transform%20and%20the%20Complex%20Envelope.pdf

EE 442 Fourier Transform 43

 Selected References

1. Paul J. Nahin, The Science of Radio, 2nd edition, Springer, New York,
2001. A novel presentation of radio and the engineering behind it; it
has some selected historical discussions that are very insightful.

2. Keysight Technologies, Application Note 243, The Fundamentals of

Signal Analysis; http://literature.cdn.keysight.com/litweb/pdf/5952-
8898E.pdf?id=1000000205:epsg:apn

3. Agilent Technologies, Application Note 150, Spectrum Analyzer Basics;

http://cp.literature.agilent.com/litweb/pdf/5952-0292.pdf

4. Ronald Bracewell, The Fourier Transform and Its Applications, 3rd ed.,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1999. I think this is the best
book covering the Fourier Transform (Bracewell gives many insightful
views and discussions on the FT and it is considered a classic textbook).

EE 442 Fourier Transform 44

Auxiliary Slides For Introducing Sampling

ES 442 Fourier Transform 45

 Fourier Transform of Impulse Train  (t) (Shah Function)
aka “Dirac Comb Function,” Shah Function & “Sampling Function”
Shah function (Ш(t)):
 
Ш(t) =   (t − nT ) =   (t + nT )
n =−
0
n =−
0

n+ 1
2

 Ш (t ) dt = 1
n− 1
2

Ш(t) 1
Period = T0 Period =
T0

−2T0 −T0 0 T0 2T0 t −2 f 0 − f 0 0 f0 2 f0 f

EE 442 Fourier Transform 46

 Shah Function (Impulse Train) Applications

The sampling property is given by


Ш(t) f (t ) = 
n =−
f (n) (t − nT0 )

The “replicating property” is given by the convolution operation:


Ш(t) f (t ) = 
n =−
f (t − nT0 )

Convolution

Convolution theorem:

g1 (t ) g2 (t )  G1 ( f )G2 ( f ) and

g1 (t ) g2 (t )  G1 ( f )G2 ( f )

EE 442 Fourier Transform 47

Sampling Function in Operation


Ш(t) f (t ) = 
n =−
f (n) (t − nT0 )

f (t )

T0  (t − nT0 )

t
f (0)
T0 f (T0 ) = f (1)
f (2T0 ) = f (2)

EE 442 Fourier Transform 48

 Speech, Trumpet and Street Traffic Signals

https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/6/5/143/htm

ES 442 Fourier Transform 49

Building Expression for Sin(x) With Infinite Series

https://betterexplained.com/wp-content/uploads/sine/

ES 442 Fourier Transform 50