ME 307 – Machine Elements I

Chapter 5
Design for Fatigue Strength (Part I)

Mechanical Engineering Dr. Sadık Olguner

University of Gaziantep Dr. Hakan Çandar
 Introduction to Fatigue
 In the static design, the system is motionless, and loading condition on
the system does not change with respect to time.
•For a ductile material, if the equivalent stress of the element is greater
than the yield strength of the material, failure occurs. Because, when
the stress exceeds the yield strength than the plastic deformation occurs
which means that the material experiences a permanent deformation.
•For brittle materials, when the equivalent stress is greater than
ultimate strength of the material, than there is going to be a sudden
fracture.
 Although the stress developed on the component less than yield strength
of the material, there can be a sudden fracture of the component if the
loading on that component is of dynamic type. This failure is caused
by “fatigue”.
 The name “fatigue” is based on the concept that a material becomes
“tired” and fails at a stress level below nominal strength of the material.
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 Simple Examples of Fatigue
 You can easily lift 1 kg weight up. However, you may not be successful
when you try to lift that weight up and down a hundred times. The
reason for this unsuccess is that you are “tired”.
 If you apply a bending moment to a thin wire by your hand, it may not
break at once, however if you continue to apply a reversed bending
moment repeatedly, you will notice that the wire is going to be broken
after a while.

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 Fatigue Failure
 A fatigue failure has an appearance similar to a brittle fracture, as the
fracture surfaces are flat and perpendicular to the stress axis with the
absence of necking. However, it is quite different from a static brittle
fracture arising from three stages of development.
 Stage I is the initiation of one or more microcracks due to cyclic plastic
deformation on the surface where stress concentrations exist (step
section of shaft, keyway, hole, marks on the surface). It is not normally
discernible to the naked eye.
 Stage II progresses from microcracks to
macrocracks forming parallel plateau-like
fracture surfaces separated by longitudinal
ridges.
 Stage III occurs during the final stress cycle
when the remaining material cannot support the
loads, resulting in a sudden, fast fracture.
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 Fatigue Life
 To determine the strength of materials under the action of fatigue loads,
specimens are subjected to repeated or varying forces of specified
magnitudes while the cycles or stress reversals are counted to
destruction.
 The most widely used fatigue-testing device is the high-speed rotating-
beam machine. This machine subjects the specimen to pure bending
(no transverse shear) by means of weights. The specimen is very
carefully machined and polished.

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 Fatigue Life
 To establish the fatigue strength of a material, quite a number of tests
are necessary because of the statistical nature of fatigue.
 For the rotating-beam test, a constant bending load is applied, and the
number of revolutions of the beam required for failure is recorded.
 The first test is made at a stress that is somewhat under the ultimate
strength of the material. The second test is made at a stress that is less
than that used in the first. This process is continued, and the results are
plotted as an S-N diagram).
 In the case of ferrous metals
and alloys, the graph becomes
horizontal at a certain point
(knee point).
 The strength corresponding to
this point is named as
“endurance limit”.
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 Endurance Limit
 Endurance limit is the fatigue strength for an element which has infinite
life.
 For ferrous metals and alloys, infinite life is assumed as (10)6 cycles.
 For non ferrous materials, there is no knee point but strength value which
corresponds to (10)8 or 5(10)8 may be considered as the endurance
limit.
 In the design of many machine components, the elements must be
designed as to work for infinite cycles. Because fracture of this
elements may cause serious problems.

S-N curve for steel S-N curve for aluminum alloys

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 Endurance Limit
 Endurance limit for test specimen (Se') is expressed in terms of ultimate
strength (Sut).
 For ductile materials:
Se' =0.5 Sut if Sut < 1400MPa
Se' = 700 MPa if Sut ≥ 1400MPa
For irons:
Se' =0.4 Sut if Sut < 400MPa
Se' = 160 MPa if Sut ≥ 400MPa
For aliminums:
Se' =0.4 Sut if Sut < 330MPa Endurance limit of the actual machine element is
different from these values. Some factors have
Se' = 130 MPa if Sut ≥ 330MPa detrimental effect on the life of the machine
element.
For copper alloys:
Se' ≈0.4 Sut if Sut < 280MPa
S e  k a kb k c k d k e S e '
Se' ≈ 100 MPa if Sut ≥ 280MPa
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 Fatigue Strength
 Machine components are generally designed for infinite life. However, in
some special cases, the element may need to be designed for a finite
life.
 In this case, fatigue strength for expected finite life must be calculated
from following formula.

S f  10C N b where C and b are constants

1  0.8S u    0.8S u  2 
b- log   and c  log  
3  e 
S  S e 

 Fatigue strength (Sf) will be greater than Endurance limit (Se)

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 Factors Influencing Fatigue Failure
 Loading: Axial Tension, Bending, Torsion and Combined

 Nature and type of loading: Reversible, Repeated, Fluctuating and

Alternating, Mean and Variable components, Frequency of loading and
rest periods
 Geometry: size effects and stress concentration

 Material: composition, structure, directional properties and notch

sensitivity
 Manufacturing: surface finish, heat treatment and residual stresses
Surface residual stress has a significant effect on fatigue life.
Compressive residual stresses from machining, cold working, heat
treating will oppose a tensile load and thus lower the amplitude of cyclic
loading which will improve fatigue life.
 Environment: corrosion, high temperature, radiation

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 Nature and Type of Loading
Reversed Type Fluctuating Type Repeated Type
When a rotating machine In addition to bending load, It is a secial case of
element is subjected to a pure there may be an axial load fluctuating type stress which
bending load, any element on acting on the machine element fluctuating between zero
the surface experiences both (forces developed on helical and a maximum value.
tension and compression gear) then the stress will be
stresses in one full rotation fluctuating between two limits
(cycle). where we are going to have
alternating and mean
components of stresses

 a   max   min  max   min  max

a  a  m 
2 2
m  0  max   min
m 
2 10
 Surface Factor (ka)
 The elements may be produced by forging, hot rolling, cold drawn and
machining methods or they may be subjected to some surface finishing
operations like grinding and polishing. Surface effect is calculated with
following formula:

k a  aS ut b where a and b are constants for different surface finish

ground surface a=1.58 b=-0.085

machined a=4.51 b=-0.265
cold drawn a=4.10 b=-0.265
hot rolled a=57.7 b=-0.718
forged a=272 b=-0.995

 As it is seen, there is a big difference between ground and forged

surfaces. Thus, surface finish is very important factor which can not be
neglected.

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 Size Factor (kb)
 Size factor is dependent on the size of the element and also on the type
of loading.
For bending and torsional loading
For rotating parts having circular cross sections

kb=1 when d ≤8mm

kb =1.189d-0.097 when 8< d ≤ 250mm
kb=0.6 for larger diameters

For rotating parts having non-circular cross sections, equivalent diameter deq must be
calculated for determination of size factor. In the determination of equivalent diameter, areas
at or above of 95% of maximum stress are equated for rotating and non-rotating parts.

A95   d 2   0.95d 2    0.0766 d 2
4 
For rotating circular cross section

For rotating rectangular cross section A95   hb   0.95hb    0.05hb

0.05hb
For rotating rectangular cross section d eq   0.808 hb
0.0766 12
 Size Factor (kb)
 Size factor is dependent on the size of the element and also on the type
of loading.
For bending and torsional loading
For non rotating cases, the same approach is used. For circular cross section (non
rotating), 95% of maximum stress area is:

 18.2   d 2  2 0.156 d  0.95 d 

A95  4  Equivalent diameter for circular
     0.0107 d
2
 
 180  4  2  2  
0.0107 d 2
d eq   0.370 d
0.0766

Equivalent diameter for rectangular

 
d eq  0.370 0.808 hb  0.3 hb

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 Size Factor (kb)
 Size factor is dependent on the size of the element and also on the type
of loading.
For axial loading

For pure axial loading

kb=1 and Se' =0.45 Sut

For combined loading

Size factor is calculated for bending and then alternating axial stress component is
multiplied by axial correction factor “α”.
α=1.11 for Sut <1520 MPa
α=1.00 for Sut >1520 MPa

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 Reliability Factor (kc)
 Reliability factor is the result of statistical study on overlapping stress
distribution and strength distribution. It may be defined as the probability
of not yielding (failure). The following list gives you an idea about
reliability factors:

Reliability Reliability factor

(R) (kc)

0,50 1,000
0,90 0,897
0,95 0,868
0,99 0,814
0,999 0,753
0,999 9 0,702
0,999 99 0,659
0,999 999 0,620
0,999 999 9 0,584

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 Temperature Factor (kd)
 When operating temperatures are below room temperature, brittle
fracture is a strong possibility and should be investigated first. When the
operating temperatures are higher than room temperature, yielding
should be investigated first because the yield strength drops off so
rapidly with temperature.

where ST is tensile strength at operating

temperature and SRT is tensile strength at room
temperature

Assumed as
kd=1.0 if T < 350 oC
kd=0.5 if 350 oC < T < 500 oC

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 Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor (ke)
 Stress concentration factor (ke) is equal to the reciprocal of the fatigue
strength reduction factor which is described as:
1
ke  and K f  1  q ( K t  1) where where q is the notch sensitivity factor and
Kt is the geometric stress concentration factor.
Kf

D/d =1,02 D/d =1,05 D/d =1,1 D/d=1,5 D/d =1,09 D/d =1,20 D/d =1,33 D/d =2,0
r/d Kt Kt Kt Kt r/d Kt Kt Kt Kt
0,025 1,800 - - - 0,009 - - - -
0,028 1,728 - 2,200 - 0,012 1,800 2,300 - 2,600
0,031 1,678 2,000 2,125 - 0,030 1,566 2,040 2,144 2,288
0,037 1,610 1,868 2,020 - 0,025 1,472 1,894 2,020 2,122
0,044 1,550 1,778 1,938 2,522 0,033 1,384 1,761 1,878 1,966
0,050 1,508 1,714 1,866 2,400 0,042 1,322 1,644 1,755 1,828
0,062 1,452 1,626 1,766 2,235 0,050 1,283 1,576 1,677 1,750
0,075 1,408 1,550 1,684 2,086 0,062 1,244 1,500 1,600 1,644
0,088 1,370 1,502 1,624 1,970
0,075 1,206 1,434 1,516 1,572
0,100 1,336 1,457 1,568 1,893
0,087 1,184 1,378 1,458 1,510
0,125 1,286 1,400 1,496 1,760
0,100 1,166 1,342 1,412 1,466
0,150 1,254 1,364 1,452 1,662
0,175 1,230 1,340 1,400 1,600 0,125 1,144 1,275 1,344 1,400
0,200 1,220 1,314 1,372 1,546 0,150 1,122 1,220 1,294 1,344
0,250 1,216 1,292 1,342 1,508 0,200 1,110 1,160 1,220 1,266
0,275 1,200 1,270 1,325 1,480 0,250 1,100 1,130 1,178 1,222
0,300 1,200 1,250 1,296 1,452 0,300 1,100 1,120 1,160 1,200
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 Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor (ke)
1
ke  and K f  1  q ( K t  1)
Kf

 If bending stress, shear stress and axial stress have alternating

components, Kf values for each one of these differ from each other and
as a result, a unique value of ke does not exist.
 If this is the case, use ke=1 and increase various alternating stress
components by their respective strength reduction factors Kf.
 That is; K fa a K fb b K ft t

 Increasing the value of stress or decreasing the strength has the same
effect on the fatigue life.

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 Design for Fatigue Strength
 If the loading on the element creates only alternating stress
components, Von-Mises stress is calculated. For biaxial stress state,
Von-Mises stress is:

 'a   xa 2  3 xya 2

 It is compared with fatigue strength to determine whether the element will

fail or not.
For infinite life requirement For finite life requirement
Se Sf
n n
 'a  'a

 If we have steady (mean) components of the stresses in addition

alternating components, one of the Fatigue Theories will be employed in
the design or in analyzing the machine elements for fatigue.

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 Design for Fatigue Strength
 Modified Goodman and Soderberg approaches are linear theories and
commonly used in the design for fatigue strength.
 Soderberg approach which is based on the material yield point, gives
more conservative results compared to Modified Goodman approach
which is based on the material ultimate strength.
Modified Goodman
For infinite life For finite life
1 1
n n
a m a m
 
Se Su Sf Su

Soderberg
For infinite life For finite life
1 1
n n
a m a m
 
Se Sy Sf Sy
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