The Physics of Fitness

Chapter Eleven
.

Reciprocal Innervation
& Workout Structure Strategy

Human skeletal muscles are often arranged in antagonistic pairs,

which produce a contractile force in opposite directions. These are
referred to as “agonist / antagonist” muscles.

Our central nervous system is designed to inhibit the contraction of

an antagonist muscle, while the contraction of the agonist muscle is
occurring. For example, it is impossible to contract the Biceps, while
simultaneously contracting the Triceps.

This inhibition is called “reciprocal innervation” - the automatic

relaxation of an antagonist muscle, while the agonist muscle is
activated, so as to prevent self-defeating efforts.

- - - - - -
French philosopher, mathematician and scientist - Rene Descartes (1596 - 1650),
shown below - was the first to hypothesize “reciprocal innervation” in 1626.

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Later, Charles Scott Sherrington (1857 - 1952), shown below - English
neurophysiologist, bacteriologist, pathologist and Nobel laureate - established
“Sherrington’s Law of Reciprocal Innervation” (also known as “Sherrington’s Law II”. He
gave a more formal explanation of how a muscle relaxes when its opposing muscle is
activated.

If you were to pick up a heavy box off a table, with your elbows bent, your Biceps would
become activated as they resist the downward pull of gravity on the box. The activation
of your Biceps is immediately registered and processed by your brain and central
nervous system, which then send an “inhibitory synapse” to your Triceps, causing it to
relax - thereby preventing any opposing contraction. This is nature’s way of blocking
any interference which would be caused by the opposing muscle, if it were to contract at
the same time.

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In the illustration above, we see the Biceps relaxing as the Triceps contracts (above-
left), and the Triceps relaxing as the Biceps contracts (above-right).

In the illustration below, we see a more technical diagram showing the feedback loop
that involves the central nervous system. Here, the activation of the Quadriceps causes
an “excitatory synapse” to be registered by the Interneurons of the Spinal cord, which
then sends an “inhibitory synapse” to the Hamstrings.

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 - - - - - -
In Chapter 4 (“The Apex and the Base”), we talked about what happens when a person
performs an exercise, during which their operating lever (limb) crosses over to the other
side of the Apex or Base. The load transfers to whichever muscle is on the opposite
side of that “limb”. That transfer causes the opposite muscle to become loaded, which
“shuts off” the muscle that was first working - due to “Reciprocal Innervation”.

Specifically, we talked about the Triceps Kickback exercise. When the forearm
crosses over to the other side of the Base (toward the shoulder), it activates the Biceps.
The activation of the Biceps automatically relaxes (inhibits) the Triceps - which is one
reason why that exercise is so inefficient for Triceps development.

In the photo below-left, we see that this person’s left forearm has crossed past the
vertical position (moving toward her shoulder), after returning from the Triceps
contraction. This crossing past the Base (vertical line) activates the Biceps (for only for
half its range of motion), and causes the Triceps to de-activate. Since this is meant to
be a Triceps exercise, the de-activation of the Triceps during the execution of the
exercise is entirely counterproductive. This clearly demonstrates the principle of
Reciprocal Innervation.

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Here are the major agonist / antagonist muscles of the body:

Biceps Triceps
Pectorals Middle Trapezius / Posterior Deltoids
Upper Trapezius Lower Trapezius
Abdominals Lower Back / Erector Spinae
Quadriceps Hamstrings
Calves Tibialis Anterior
Forearm Flexors Forearm Extensors
Quadriceps Hamstrings
Left Obliques Right Obliques
Gluteus Maximus / Hamstrings Hip Flexors
Lateral Deltoids Latissimus Dorsi
Internal Shoulder Rotators External Shoulder Rotators

All of the muscle combinations listed above, produce movement in opposite directions.

The “agonist” is the muscle being activated at the moment; the antagonist is the muscle
which opposes that movement - meaning it would move that same limb in the opposite
direction. Each muscle assumes the opposite role, whenever the opposing muscle is
activated. When one is activated (loaded / contracting / activated) the other relaxes.

- - - - - -
Knowledge of this principle allows us to select exercises more wisely, and also allows us
to be more strategic in structuring our workouts. In other words, this principle allows us
to understand which muscle groups are better combined, in a given workout.
I’ll elaborate on this shortly.

First, let’s focus our attention on a type of Reciprocal Innervation that is often
overlooked, but which has significant consequences.

We now know that loading a muscle causes the opposing muscle to shut off, or at least
be “inhibited’, to a degree. The question is this: “Is there a way of causing a muscle to
be inhibited, OTHER than loading its opposing muscle?”. The answer is “yes”.

In the 60s and 70s, when we worked our Hamstrings, we did so on a machine like the
one illustrated below. It was a FLAT Leg Curl machine (…usually a combination Leg
Extension / Leg Curl machine - manufactured by “Universal Gym”). We discovered that
we all had a tendency to raise our tailbones up, as we performed this Leg Curl.

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(Note: The artist who created this illustration obviously neglected to draw the weight stack and
cable. The weight stack was in front (at the head) of bench, and the cable ran from the
machine’s lever arm, under the bench, up and over a pulley, and then down onto the weight
stack.)

By the late 80s, manufacturers began making “dedicated” Leg Curl machines (without
the Leg Extension function), and with an elevated section under the hips - to
compensate for the tendency of raising up the tailbone.

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Raising the tailbone up makes the Lying Leg Curl “easier”, but it also causes discomfort
in the Lower Back. Some people think that allowing the tailbone to rise is a type of
“cheating”. Sometimes we actually see TRAINERS pushing down on their client’s
tailbone, to prevent it from lifting up.

It is not cheating, and it’s a mistake to try to prevent it from happening. There’s
legitimate reason why this tends to happen, as we’ll soon see.

First, let’s conduct a little experiment, right now - right where you are.

While standing on one leg (holding onto the back of a chair for balance), do a “knee
flexion” (Leg Curl) with the other leg. Try to keep the femur of the leg that’s “flexing”
behind the femur of the leg on which you’re standing.

What you’ll discover is that it’s pretty difficult - even though you’re not using any added
weight. It may even feel as though your Hamstring is cramping, the more you bend
your knee. In fact, this is Reciprocal Innervation, at work.

The reason this “exercise” is difficult, and you feel some cramping in the activated
Hamstrings, is because your central nervous system is sensing “activation” in the
Quadriceps, and - in response, it is sending an inhibitory synapse to the Hamstrings -
trying to “relax” it.

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You might now be thinking, “…but my Quadriceps is not loaded”. That’s right, it’s not
loaded. But it is stretching. What’s causing your Quadriceps to stretch is the
combination of your knee bending and your femur being parallel to your torso.

If you were to flex your knee with a bend in that hip (on that same side), you will not feel
your Hamstring cramping. This is because the Quadriceps of that leg would no longer
be stretching (much), once your hip has been bent.

THAT is why we have a tendency to raise the tailbone when we perform Lying Leg
Curls. The body is trying to relax (diminish the stretching of) the Quadriceps, so that the
Hamstring is free to contract without “interference” from the opposing side.

In fact, the Prone (lying face down) Leg Curl machine is a compromised way of working
the Hamstrings - for this reason. A Seated Leg Curl machine is a much better option,
because it allows the hip joint to be bent at approximately 90 degrees to the torso, and
this eliminates the “conflict of interest” (the competing activation) of the Quadriceps.

You’ll also find that using a Seated Leg Curl machine not only prevents this “conflict of
interest” from happening - which allows your Hamstrings to be stronger, is allows a
better stretch of the Hamstrings (at the beginning of the range of motion), because of
this hip position.

Using a Seated Leg Curl machine requires a little more adjustment, as compared with a
Lying Leg Curl machine. But, once you’ve made the correct adjustments for your
individual femur length (i.e., the seat back), tibia length (i.e., the ankle pad / roller),
fulcrum point, and preferred range of motion, you’ll be doing the best exercise for the
Hamstrings. You will have eliminated the interference of Quadriceps over-stretching.

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 - - - - - - - -
Reciprocal Innervation does not often interfere with an exercise, because it’s technically
impossible to “load” an agonist and an antagonist muscle, simultaneously. But the
issue of stretching an antagonist muscle, while trying to work the agonist muscle, does
occur from time to time.

Another example of this is when we try to load / contract the Biceps (of the arms), while
simultaneously stretching the Triceps. You may have even discovered that same
weakness in your Biceps - sometimes even cramping - which occurred in our Hamstring
experiment above. Our CNS partially shuts off the Biceps, if it senses activity (e.g.,
over-stretching) in the Triceps. In order to have complete freedom to load and contract
the Biceps (or any other muscle), we need to ensure that we are not inadvertently
activating (i.e., over-stretching) the opposing muscle.

When we raise our arms up, and bend our elbows, we stretch the Triceps. The higher
we raise the elbows, the more the Triceps stretches. But even a moderate elevation of
the arms stretches the Triceps to some degree, and that can trigger a degree of
Reciprocal Innervation to occur in the the Biceps. This makes it more difficult to Curl a
weight that might be fairly easy when your upper arms are hanging down alongside your
torso.

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In the exercise shown above, there is a significant amount of Triceps stretching that
occurs, because the arms are elevated to this degree. The further the elbows are bent,
the more the stretch increases. This makes it difficult to engage the Biceps to their full
strength potential. If we were to do a similar exercise, but with the arms held a bit lower,
it would be less difficult to fully engage the Biceps, but still more compromised than
Curling with your arms down alongside your torso.

Interestingly, most of the internet sites on which you’ll find this exercise demonstrated,
will say that this exercise helps develop the “peak” of your Biceps They sometimes say
that the cramping feeling you experience in the Biceps is “proof” of that “peak building”.
That’s inaccurate. Instead, what you’re feeling is Reciprocal Innervation” / inhibition of
the Biceps.

Incidentally, nothing can change the shape of your Biceps, nor improve its “peak”.

- - - - - -
Using Reciprocal Innervation to
Structure Workouts
Because of the fact that relaxation occurs in a muscle when its opposing muscle is
contracting, combining opposing muscles in a single workout is a good strategy. One
could even do “super-sets” (alternating sets) with those opposing muscles.

Alternating between two opposing muscles (“super-sets”), takes advantage of the fact
that while an agonist muscle is working (e.g., the Biceps), the antagonist muscle (e.g.,
the Triceps) is fully relaxing and recovering. Or, one can do all the sets of one body part
(e.g., Pectorals), followed by all the sets of the opposing body part (e.g., “Back” / Lats),
in the same workout - without any compromise to either muscle group.

Ironically, one of the most common muscle grouping strategies is known as “Push / Pull
- but it’s misguided. This is where the (so-called) “pushing muscles” are done on one
day, and the (so-called) “pulling muscles” are done on a different day.

I say “so-called” because all muscles actually PULL. No muscles “push”. When
muscles contract, they shorten - pulling the ends together - which then either flexes or
extends a joint. But, the “pushing muscles” are thought to be the Pecs and the Triceps,
and the “pulling muscles” are thought to be the Back and the Biceps.

(Note: Obviously “push” and “pull” were so named ONLY because the weight being moved is
getting farther away from the body, or closer to the body, during concentric contraction. But, this
is an absurd method of categorizing muscles, because a muscle has no “idea” whether the
weight it is moving is getting closer to the body or farther away from it.)

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The rationale behind this type of grouping is the belief that while the Pecs are working,
the Triceps are assisting - and so one “might as well” finish off the Triceps at that time.
Similarly, when the Back muscles (Lats, middle Traps, Teres major, etc.) are working,
the Biceps are assisting - and so one “might as well” finish off the Biceps at that time.

There are several problems with this philosophy. If one performs the better Pectoral
exercises, there would actually be very little Triceps participation. And if one performs
the better “back” exercises, there would be very little Biceps participation.

If a person does experience considerable Triceps and Biceps fatigue, while doing their
Pectoral and “Back” workouts, those workouts could be considered “compromised”, for
the goal of muscle-building. A person would not feel much Biceps nor Triceps fatigue
during highly efficient Chest or Back workouts - where one keeps the secondary lever
(the forearm) mostly neutral during those exercises.

Besides, it would be better to work the Biceps and the Triceps when they are fresh (on a
different day) - not after, nor because, they have been pre-fatigued by poorly executed
Chest or Back exercises.

There is not much wisdom in a “Push / Pull” muscle-grouping strategy.

- - - - - -
A More Sensible Approach
What makes more sense, in terms of body part grouping, is to combine opposing
movements in the same workout. In other words, using “reciprocal innervation” - the
fact that working an agonist muscles facilitates relaxation of the antagonist muscle - is
the better strategy for grouping muscles in a given workout.

Instead of working two muscles that may be working simultaneously (e.g., Chest and
Triceps), it’s more sensible to work two muscles that DO NOT work simultaneously
(e.g., Chest and Back). When the Pectorals work, the Back muscles are fully relaxing -
and vice versa. This ensures that each muscle is fresh (recovered) each time you
perform a set for that muscle.

Here (below) are some of the “opposing muscles”, which would make for good muscle
groupings in a given workout:

1 Chest / Back

2 Front Deltoids / Rear Deltoids

3 Biceps / Triceps

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4 Quadriceps / Hamstrings

5 Abdominals / “Lower Back” (Erector spinae)

6 Forearm Flexor / Forearm Extensor

7 Glutes / Hip Flexors

(Note: Not all movements require an opposing exercise. For example, Calves (plantar flexion)
does not automatically require that the Tibialis anterior be worked; the antagonist muscle of the
Medial Deltoids is the Lats, but it’s better to alternate between the right side and left side of the
Medial Deltoids, than it is to alternate Deltoids with Lats.)

Creating a Workout Structure

First, decide whether you want to divide your workouts into a two-way split, a three-
way split or a four-way split. Choosing between these three options assumes a person
is ambitious enough to want to gain more muscle than can be achieved with a single
“full body workout” performed two or three times per week. This would be decided, in
part, on how advanced a person is, as well as issues related to personal goals,
discipline and time constraints.

My personal preference (which is “advanced”) is a four-way split program, which means

doing four separate workouts to work all the muscle groups one time. It allows me to
complete each of the four workouts in a reasonable amount of time (approximately 90
minutes), and yet still spend enough time (i.e., 8 to 15 sets) on each muscle group.

The next issue to consider is the frequency with which you would work each individual
physique muscle. Ideally, a muscle should not be worked more frequently than three
times per week (with significant intensity), nor less frequently than one time per week.

There are 14 muscle groups which “should” be worked. These include the following:
Pectorals, Latissimus, middle Trapezius, Upper Trapezius,
Medial Deltoids, Posterior Deltoids, Anterior Deltoids, Triceps, Biceps, Quadriceps,
Hamstrings, Glutes, Calves and Abs.

A person could also add a few more muscle groups, including hip flexors, Obliques,
forearms (flexors and extensors), neck (front, back and sides), Tibialis anterior, Erector
spinae, shoulder rotators, etc. Deciding to work these muscle groups depends on a
person’s degree of ambition, and the amount of time they’re able to spend in the gym.

This book is not intended as a “Workout Guide”. It is meant to explain the mechanics of
the body, as it relates to resistance. So, we won’t spend too much time to this subject.

Nevertheless, as a general guideline, I usually recommend that a person who only

wants to workout three days per week, do a full-body workout, performing 3 sets of one

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exercise per muscle group, per workout. That’s 42 total sets - assuming a person works
all 14 primary physique muscles. In this case, a 90 minute workout would allow an
average of 2 minutes per exercise.

A person who is willing to workout four times per week, could split their body parts into
two groups (a 2-way split), and perform 5 or 6 sets per muscle group. This results in
each muscle getting worked a little harder, but with a little less frequency - twice per
week instead of three times per week.

A 3-way split (dividing all the muscle groups into 3 separate workouts) can be used by a
person who is able to workout four to six days per week. With this grouping, a person
could either do 5 or 6 sets per muscle group, and simply have a shorter workout….or he
could do 8 to 12 sets per muscle group. This latter option would allow more intensity
(more “volume”) to be used.

A 4-way split is useful if a person is doing more body parts than the 14 primary muscles
mentioned above, or wants to do more volume (sets) per muscle group, or wants a
shorter workout. However, this option would ideally require a minimum of five or six
workout days per week - in order to get enough frequency of workouts per muscle
group. The four workouts would simply be rotated around the five or six days of the
week selected as “exercise days”.

Here’s the typical workout structure I use:

Day One: Chest & Back (Pecs, Lats and middle Traps (aka “upper back”)

Day Two: Shoulders (Medial, Posterior and Anterior Deltoids - plus upper
Trapezius)

Day Three: Arms, Forearms & Abs (Biceps, Triceps, Forearm Flexors, Forearm
Extensors, Rectus abdominis and Obliques)

Day Four: Legs (Quadriceps, Hamstrings, Glutes / Adductors, Calves & Hip Flexors)

Here’s is one way this could be scheduled, but several other variations could be
created:

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This particular workout schedule would allow you to work each muscle group with a
frequency of one time every 4 or 5 days, which translates to three times every two
weeks.

- - - - - -
Intensity, Recovery & Adaptation
A discussion on “how to structure one’s workout” would be remiss if the issues of
intensity and recovery were not included. Again, this book is primarily intended as a
bio-mechanics guide. Muscle physiology is another subject altogether, and a
complex one at that. Nevertheless, we can review some basic points.

In general, a muscle needs one to three days of recovery after a workout - assuming a
moderately high level of intensity is used. If one trains very intensely, four or five days
of “rest” may be required, before that same muscle can be worked again. The time
between workouts for a given muscle is considered the “recovery” phase.

After the workout, there is a recovery phase - generally, a day or two. This is the phase
where the muscle recovers back to its baseline. Then, we transition into the
“supercompensation” phase - generally, another day or two. This is where the
muscle is adapting (improving its performance capacity) - preparing itself for the next
the next such encounter.

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Ideally, you should work each muscle again while at the peak of its
“supercompensation” phase (see black arrow below). This is important, because this
phase begins to decline after the peak. If you wait until this phase has completely
ended (see chart above), you return to the baseline - almost as if no workout had
occurred.

Working a muscle again when it is at the peak of its “supercompensation” phase will
push it up to a higher level of strength / growth. This is how “muscle
accumulation” (growth) occurs. It builds on previous “highs”, like adding small amounts
of sand to a pile, which eventually becomes a “hill”. This is why infrequent workouts
(workouts done after the “supercompensation” phase has passed), is like starting over
again at the baseline each time.

Conversely, if the next workout (for that particular muscle) occurs too soon after the
previous workout, “over-training” occurs. “Too soon” would be before the recovery
phase is complete; the muscle would not have had the chance to experience even the
earliest part of supercompensation. When this happens, progress (muscle growth) for
that muscle would be impeded.

Of course, the issue of exercise intensity factors in here. Using less workout intensity
theoretically warrants less recovery time, and using more workout intensity theoretically
warrants more recovery time - but only up to a point. There is such a thing as an “ideal

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intensity” for optimal results (see graph above). The intensity should not be too low nor
too high. The “right” amount of intensity yields the greatest results.

Some people believe that annihilating a muscle during a workout (leaving it absolutely
limp with fatigue) will lead to maximum muscle gains, but this is not supported by the
research. In fact, the proves suggests otherwise.

Shorter or longer recovery time is not the absolute equalizer of the intensity level used.
One cannot make up for insufficient workout intensity, simply by taking less time
between workouts. Nor can a person make up for excessive workout intensity, simply
by taking an extra day or two of rest, between workouts. Too much exercise intensity
results in muscle damage, from which one cannot easily recover. Of course, as we
progress, our tolerance increases, and higher intensity is possible. But there is always
a point of “too much”, for everyone.

The most extreme form of muscle damage caused by overly intense exercise is called
“Exertional Rhabdomyolysis”. When this occurs, the muscle severely breaks down. Its
byproducts (which enter into the bloodstream) are harmful to the kidneys - possibly
leading to kidney failure. Of course, this degree of “over-training” is extremely rare,
especially with advanced athletes who are already highly trained. But it can still occur,
even in advanced athletes.

There are several stages of over-training that occur long before the onset of Exertional
Rhabdomyolysis. In other words, one does not need to get to that extreme point, before
overly-intense workouts become counterproductive.

The “right amount” of workout intensity is required, and this varies from person to
person, based on a number of factors. These include one’s individual health, enough
sleep, sufficient caloric intake, adequate endocrine levels, other daily activities (caloric
demands) - and one’s current level of strength and endurance. Each person should
experiment to find their own optimal level of workout intensity, and then balance that
with the right amount of exercise frequency.

Relieve Muscle Cramping with Reciprocal Innervation

Because a relaxation synapse (signal) is sent to a particular muscle when its opposing
muscle (its “antagonist”) is activated, one of the best ways to relieve a muscle cramp is
by flexing or tensing its antagonist muscle.

For example, if one’s calf muscle (Gastrocnemius) is cramping - as often happens - it is

helpful to flex one’s Tibialis anterior (shown below left). By causing the Tibialis to pull
upward on the forefoot (known as “Dorsi Flexion”), the calf muscle is sent a “relaxation
synapse” by the Central Nervous System.

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Technically, the antagonist of the Tibialis anterior is the Tibialis posterior. However, it is
impossible for the Calf muscle to contract, while simultaneously flexing the Tibialis
anterior. The Tibialis anterior and the calf muscle are on opposite sides of the lower leg,
and they produce ankle (foot) movement in opposing directions. They cannot be
activated at the same time, due to reciprocal innervation.

A reasonable argument could be made that frequent calf cramps may be caused (in
part) by the imbalance of strength between the Calves and the Tibialis anterior.
Therefore, a possible solution for frequent Calf cramps could be to regularly exercise
the Tibialis anterior. However, there may be a biochemical reason causing foot cramps.

The Tibialis has far less strength potential, as compared with that of the Gastrocnemius.
However, it’s worth exploring the possibility of doing the exercise demonstrated below,
in an effort to reduce the frequency or tendency of Calf cramping.

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This same technique of flexing the antagonist muscle can be used when one is
experiencing cramping on the bottoms of their feet. By pulling the toes upward, thereby
activating some of the antagonist muscles to those on the bottoms of the feet, a
relaxation message could be sent to the muscles on the bottom of the feet, which might
result in them releasing their tension.

Similarly, flexing (or working) the Rectus abdominis (the Abs) could help relieve
cramping in the Erector spinae (the “lower back”). However, back pain could be caused
by something more serious than “flexing the Abs” could alleviate. The pain caused by a
herniated disc pushing against a nerve is best addressed with medical intervention.

- - - - - -
SUMMARY
Reciprocal Innervation is part of the amazing natural design of the human body.
Understanding the role it plays in Resistance Exercise allows a person the opportunity
to avoid “conflicts of interest” - a relaxation synapse being sent to your target muscle,
due to activation of the opposing (antagonist) muscle. This would allow you to
optimize muscle function during your workouts.

It is wise to avoid stretching an antagonist muscle, while attempting to work an agonist

muscle. Avoid stretching the Triceps when working Biceps. Avoid stretching the
Quadriceps when working the Hamstrings. Avoid stretching the Hamstrings when
working the Quadriceps.

On this last note, it’s wise to lean back (as far as possible) when doing Leg Extensions.
Rather than adjusting the seat back so that it’s perfectly upright, it’s better to move it as
far back as possible, and allow yourself to recline. This lessens the degree of hip bend,
which reduces the potential Hamstring stretch that could occur when the knees are fully
extended and the torso were upright. This would be especially beneficial for people
who lack flexibility in the Hamstrings.

Raising one’s legs with knees straight ALSO causes “Reciprocal Innervation”
interference, because it produces a Hamstrings stretch. The Hamstrings are the
antagonist to the Hip Flexors, as well as to the Quadriceps. As an experiment, try
raising one leg with your knee straight, and then try it with the knee bent, and you’ll
quickly realize that the Hamstring stretch limits the range of motion, as well as the
amount of force the Hip Flexor is able to produce. If the goal is to work the Hip Flexor, it
is best done with the knees bent - thereby avoiding the Hamstring stretch.

This concept - the fact a muscle’s function is compromised when its antagonist muscle
is activated - suggests that muscles should be exercised in a particular order (or
combinations), in order to avoid that “conflict of interest”. Grouping opposing muscles
together is a very good strategy, for this reason.

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As we’ll see in the last eight chapters, some traditional ways of exercising certain
muscles ignore this fact. As a result, those muscles are not exercised as effectively as
they could be, compared with using exercises that avoid that interference.

Grouping opposing muscles in a given workout is not the only way to develop physique
muscle. Almost any kind of body part combining will produce some degree of benefit
(muscle growth), even if the conventional “Push / Pull” method (Chest & Triceps / Lats &
Biceps) is used. However, grouping muscles that produce movement in opposite
directions, in the same workout, is more productive than grouping muscles that produce
movement in a similar direction.

It is logical to set up one’s workout plan in a way that creates as little “conflict of interest”
as possible. There are advantages to working a muscle group without it having any pre-
exhaustion from a previous exercise, or interference from its opposing muscle.

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