Second
Language
Learning

and
Cognitive
Development

Seminal
and
Recent
Writing
in
the
Field





Joseph
Dicks

Second
Language
Research
Institute
of
Canada

University
of
New
Brunswick



January
2009



 Second
Language
Learning
and
Cognitive
Development
 1





The
relationship
between
cognitive
ability
and
second
language
learning
is
complex

and
subject
to
considerable
debate
in
the
field.

In
1976,
the
highly
respected

Canadian
second
language
educator,
Dr.
HH.
Stern,
warned
against
the
danger
of

simplifying
the
issue
of
age
and
second
language
learning.

Stern
wrote:



On
developmental
grounds,
each
age
in
life
probably
has
its
peculiar

advantages
and
disadvantages
for
language
learning
…
In
the
sixties
the

mistake
was
made
of
expecting
miracles
merely
by
starting
young.

The

miracles
have
not
come
about.

Starting
late
is
not
the
answer
either.





This
brief
essay
will
examine
this
topic
through
an
exploration
of
the
issue
of
age

and
second
language
acquisition,
particularly
as
age
relates
to
cognitive
maturity.



The
question
of
whether
there
is
a
starting
age
or
identifiable
period
during
which

second
language
acquisition
is
more
efficient
and
effective
is
referred
to
as
a

“sensitive
period”
(Oyama,
1979).


This
period
is
based
on
the
belief
that
there
is
a

language‐specific
acquisition
process
that
is
separate
from
general
cognitive

functioning.

Generally,
the
argument
is
that
the
closer
the
commencement
of

language
acquisition
is
to
the
onset
of
the
sensitive
period,
the
more
efficient

language
acquisition
will
be
(Long,
1990).


This
period
is
generally
considered
to
be

end
around
puberty.

Whether
this
sensitive
period
exists,
however,
is
open
to

debate.


Essentially
there
are
three
camps:
(1)
those
who
claim
evidence
exists
to

show
children
outperform
adult
learners;
(2)
those
who
believe
that
there
is
an

advantage
for
older
learners
over
children;
and
(3)
those
who
believe
the
data
are

mixed
and
ambiguous.

In
fact,
there
is
some
truth
in
all
three
positions.
The
rest
of

this
essay
will
examine
the
question
of
whether
and
to
what
extent
age
and
maturity

impede
or
advance
the
second
language
learning
of
young
children
in
school

settings.



In
1988,
Charles
William
Twyford
operated
the
National
Clearinghouse
for
Bilingual

Education
and
the
Special
Issues
Analysis
Center
under
contract
to
the
U.S.

Department
of
Education.

In
an
article
entitled

“Age‐Related
Factors
in
Second

Language
Acquisition”,
Twyford
argued
that
“middle
childhood”,
defined
as
around

8‐12
years
of
age,
was
a
particularly
good
time
for
second
language
development.


Twyford’s
thinking
is
in
line
with
that
of
Virginia
Collier
who
noted
that
due
to
the

Piagetian
shift
from
preoperational
to
concrete
operational
stage,
around
the
age
of

6
or
7,
educators
have
greater
success
redirecting
the
language
behavior
of
8‐
to
12‐
year‐olds
than
4
to
7‐year‐olds
(Collier,
1987).



Collier
provides
evidence
from
a

number
of
research
studies
that
around
8
years
of
age
children
develop
a
conscious

awareness
of
language
that
allows
them
to
think
about
it,
judge
it,
and
manipulate
it

much
as
adults
do.

Collier
(1989,
p.517)
states
:
“older
children
(ages
8
to
12)
who

have
had
several
years
of
L1
schooling
are
the
most
efficient
acquirers
of
L2
school

language,
except
for
pronunciation.”





 1

Twyford
concludes
that
by
being
alert
to
the
cognitive
variables
active
in
the

children
who
enter
any
classroom,
educators
can
base
instruction
on
what
the

individual
learners
are
ready
to
accomplish.



In
2002,
Richard
Johnstone,
a
professor
at
the
University
of
Stirling,
Scotland,

prepared
a
guide
for
the
Council
of
Europe
for
the
development
of
language

education
policies
in
Europe.

In
that
guide,
Johnstone
(2002,
p.13)
notes
that,
given

the
appropriate
conditions,
younger
learners
(in
this
case
defined
as
ages
6‐9)
have

the
following
advantages:



• they
are
likely
to
find
it
easier
to
acquire
a
good
command
of
the
sound
system

of
the
language,
not
only
the
pronunciation
of
individual
sounds
but
also

patterns
of
intonation;



• they
are
likely
to
be
less
‘language
anxious’
than
many
older
learners
and
hence

may
be
more
able
to
absorb
language
rather
than
block
it
out;



• they
are
likely
to
have
more
time
available
overall.
If
young
beginners
at
age
5

are
compared
with
older
beginners
at
age
10
then
after
one
year
the
older

group
are
likely
to
be
ahead.
However,
if
both
groups
are
compared
at
(say)

age
14,
then
the
younger
beginners
stand
a
better
chance
of
being
ahead,
in

part
because
of
the
greater
amount
of
time
available
overall;



• an
earlier
start
enables
productive
links
to
be
made
between
first
and

additional
languages,
which
can
have
important
benefits
for
a
child’s
language

awareness
and
literacy;



• a
range
of
acquisitional
processes
can
come
into
play,
e.g.
largely
intuitive

processes
at
an
early
age,
complemented
by
more
analytical
processes
later.

This
potentially
allows
the
additional
language
to
become
more
deeply

embedded
in
the
person;



• there
can
be
a
positive
influence
on
children’s
general
educational
development

(e.g.
cognitive,
emotional,
cultural)
and
on
the
formation
of
a
multilingual
and

intercultural
identity.





Johnson
notes,
however,
that
older
learners
(age
10
and
above)
also
have
certain

advantages:
As
well
as
the
following
advantages
for
older
learners:



• they
may
be
able
to
plot
their
new
language
on
to
concepts
about
the
world

which
they
already
possess
from
their
first
language.
This
can
help
greatly
in

vocabulary
acquisition,
c.f.
Ausubel,
1964
…



• they
may
be
more
experienced
in
handling
the
discourse
of
conversations
and

other
language
activities,
and
thus
may
be
more
adept
at
gaining
feedback



 2

 Second
Language
Learning
and
Cognitive
Development
 3



from
native
speakers
or
teachers
and
in
negotiating
meaning,
e.g.
Scarcella
and


Higa,
1982;



• they
are
likely
to
have
acquired
a
wider
range
of
strategies
for
learning,
e.g.

note­taking,
use
of
reference
materials,
searching
for
underlying
pattern.
This,

allied
to
their
established
literacy
in
their
first
language,
may
help
them

become
more
efficient
learners;



• they
may
have
a
clearer
sense
of
why
they
are
learning
an
additional
language

and
may
therefore
be
able
to
work
purposefully
towards
objectives
of
their
own

choosing.





Johnstone
concludes
that
“In
principle
it
is
never
too
early
to
begin,
but
equally
it
is

never
too
late
to
begin.”



The
big
advantage
in
starting
early
is
that
one
can
tap
into

children’s
intuitive
capacities
for
second
language
acquisition.

Johnson
emphasizes,

however,
that
in
such
cases
it
is
important
to
provide
sufficient
time
to
allow
for

input
and
interaction
and
a
range
of
cross‐curricular
activities




In
2008,
Robert
Vanderplank,
director
of
the
Language
Centre
at
Oxford
University,


argued
in
an
article
written
in
the
Journal
Applied
Linguistics
that
middle
childhood,

in
this
case
defined
as
the
period
from
ages
5
to
9
years
of
age,

is
in
many
ways

more
conducive
to
school‐based
language
learning
that
earlier
or
later
periods.

Vander‐plank
asserts
that
between
ages
5
and
9
children
possess
certain
attributes

that
enhance
second
language
learning:

1) developing
adult
like
memory
–
the
ability
to
memorize
consciously,
both

verbally
and
visually,
then
retain
and
recall
this
in
a
flexible
way
(Wood,

1998)

2) an
inner
voice
and
mind’s
eye:

inner
voice
or
inner
speech
(Vygotsky,
1986)

develops
during
the
period
from
5
to
9
years
–
this
inner
voice
allows
one
to

use
language
as
a
tool
for
thinking.

The
“mind’s
eye”
allows
children
to
learn

and
recall
in
random
order
(they
do
not
need
to
rely
on
songs
and
nursery

rhymes
for
sequences
and
strings
of
words).

3) Making
connections:

for
example,
the
concept
of
word
as
distinct
from

meaning
does
not
appear
to
be
fully
developed
until
age
6
or
7.






Vanderplank
maintains
that
a
great
deal
of
language
development
occurs
in
middle

childhood
and
that
this
is
closely
linked
to
schooling.
Vanderplank
writes
:
“As
they

steadily
develop
the
knowledge,
skills
and
attributes
described
above,
children
are

becoming
more
like
adults,
equipped
with
the
cognitive
and
linguistic
tools
for

undertaking
large
learning
tasks,
reflecting
on
their
knowledge
and
experience.”

p.719











 3

Vanderplank
concludes
that:




In
the
five
to
nine
period,
children
are
in
the
process
of
gaining
mastery
over
their

language,
learning
through
social
interaction,
developing
language
skills
with
explicit

support
from
teachers,
parents
and
others,
practicing
these
skills
a
great
deal
to
the

point
where
they
become
internalized
and
available
for
instant
use.
…


The
importance
of
the
5
to
9
period
is
that
language
development
is
not
just
a
matter

of
nurture,
although
schooling
obviously
dominates
most
children’s
lives.
During
this

period
…
there
are
also
critical
developmental
milestones
which
are
recognized
in
the

L1
literature
but
are
missing
from
the
L2
literature.

Achieving
these
milestones

enables
children
to
become
adult
language
learners
later
on.




This
brief
look
at
seminal
and
recent
writings
on
age,
cognitive
ability
and
second

language
learning
clearly
shows
that
the
issue
is
complex
and
deserves
careful

consideration.


There
are,
clearly,
as
Stern
indicated,
advantages
for
second

language
learners
of
different
ages.


In
particular,
evidence
from
cognitive

psychology
and
school
settings
supports
the
position
that
middle
childhood
is
a

propitious
period
for
school‐based
second
language
learning.










REFERENCES:





Ausubel,
D.
(1964).

Adults
versus
children
in
second‐language
learning:

psychological
considerations.

The
Modern
Language
Journal.,
48.



Collier,
V.P.
(1987).
Age
and
rate
of
acquisition
of
second
language
for
academic

purposes.
TESOL
Quarterly,
21,
617‐641.



Collier
V.P.
(1989)

How
Long?

A
synthesis
of
research
on
academic
achievement
in

a
second
language.

TESOL
Quarterly
23,3,
509‐531



Johnstone,
R.

2002.

Addressing
“The
Age
Factor”:
Some
Implications
for
Language

Policy”

Council
of
Europe.

Strasbourg.



Long,
M.

(1990).Maturational
constraints
on
language
development.

Studies
on

Second
Language
Acquisition.
12,
251‐285.



Oyama,
S.
(1979)

The
concept
of
the
sensitive
period
in
developmental
studies.


Merrill­Palmer
Quarterly,
25,83‐103.



Scarcella
R.
&
Higa,
C.
1982.

Input
and
age
differences
in
second
language

acquisition.

In:

Krashen,
S.,
Scarcella
R.,
Long,
M.

(Eds.)

Child‐adult
differences
in

second
language
acquisition.

Rowley,
Mass:

Newbury
House





 4

 Second
Language
Learning
and
Cognitive
Development
 5



Stern,
H.H.
1976.

Optimum
age:
myth
or
reality?

Canadian
Modern
Language

Review,
32.



Twyford,
C.W.

1988.

Age
Related
Factors
in
Second
Language
Acquisition.


Occasional
Papers
in
Bilingual
Education.

The
New
Focus.
No.
2.
National

Clearinghouse
for
Bilingual
Education



Vanderplank,
R.
2008.

The
Significance
of
First
language
Development
in
Five
to

Nine
Year
Old
Children
for
Second
and
Foreign
Language
Learning.

Applied

Linguistics



Vygotsky,
L.
1986.

Thought
and
Language.

Cambridge.
MA.

MIT
Press.



Wood,
D.
1998.

How
Children
Think
and
Learn.

Oxford:
Blackwell.



 5