68 CHAPTER 4.

STRESS

4.1. The matrix of stress components for a two-dimensional state of stress, relative to the Cartesian basis
vectors {ei | i = 1, 2}, is given by
 
80 120
[σ] = MPa.
120 150

(a) Determine the principal stresses.

(b) Determine the principal directions. Note that the principal directions are unit vectors.

Do not use MATLAB to solve this problem.

Solution 4.1. To find the principal stresses σ1 and σ2 and principal directions n(1) and n(2) for
the given stress state, we need to solve the eigenvalue problem:

σij nj = σni ,
(σij − σδij ) nj = 0.

(a) For nj to be a nontrivial solution, we must have

det (σij − σδij ) = 0,

or in matrix form:

det ([σ] − σ[1]) = 0,

   
80 120 1 0
det −σ = 0,
120 150 0 1
 
80 − σ 120
det = 0,
120 150 − σ

(80 − σ)(150 − σ) − (120)2 = 0,

12000 − 230σ + σ 2 − 14400 = 0,

σ 2 − 230σ − 2400 = 0,

(σ − 240)(σ + 10) = 0.

So, the principal stresses are

σ1 = 240 MPa and σ2 = −10 MPa.

(b) To find the principal directions, we need to solve (σij − σδij ) nj = 0 for the unit vectors nj
corresponding to each principal stress, σi :
    " (i) #  
80 120 1 0 n1 0
− σi (i) = 0
120 150 0 1 n2

For σ1 = 240: For σ2 = −10:

 69

  " (1) #     " (2) #  

80 − 240 120 n1 0 80 − (−10) 120 n1 0
= =
120 150 − 240 n(1)
2
0 120 150 − (−10) n(2)
2
0

  " (1) #     " (2) #  

−160 120 n1 0 90 120 n1 0
= =
120 −90 n(1)
2
0 120 160 n(2)
2
0

  " (1) #     " (2) #  

−4 3 n1 0 3 4 n1 0
= =
4 −3 n(1)2
0 3 4 n(2)
2
0

(1) (1) (2) (2)

⇒ 4n1 − 3n2 = 0 ⇒ 3n1 + 4n2 = 0

So we can see that n(1) = (3, 4) and n(2) = (4, −3) will satisfy these equations, but because
the principal directions are unit vectors, we need to normalize to get the principal directions:
For σ1 = 240: For σ2 = −10:
 
" # 4
√
√ 3 2 +42
32 +42 (−3)
n(1) = √ 4
n(2) = 
√ −32 2

32 +42 (−3) +4

   
(1) 3/5 (2) 4/5
n = n =
4/5 −3/5
70 CHAPTER 4. STRESS

4.2. The components of stress at a critical location in a structural member are given by
 
3 2 0
[σ] = 150 × 2 3 0  MPa,
0 0 −1

with respect to a rectangular cartesian coordinate system with base vectors {e1 , e2 , e3 }.
(a) Evaluate the mean normal pressure, p = − 13 tr σ.
0
(b) Evaluate the components σij of the stress deviator σ 0 = σ + p1.
(c) Evaluate the traction vector t associated with the unit direction
1 1
n = √ e1 + √ e2 .
2 2
Show that n is a principal direction. What is the corresponding principal value of stress?
(d) Determine all the principal values and principal directions of stress.
(e) Evaluate the Mises equivalent tensile stress,

1/2
 
def 1
σ̄ = (σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2 .
2

Solution 4.2. (a) The mean normal pressure is given by

3
1X 1
p=− σkk = − (3 + 3 − 1) × 150 MPa = −250 MPa.
3 3
k=1

(b) The matrix of the stress deviator is given by

[σ 0 ] = [σ] + p [1]
   
3 2 0 1 0 0
= 150 × 2 3 0  MPa − 250 × 0 1 0 MPa
0 0 −1 0 0 1
 
200 300 0
= 300 200 0  MPa.
0 0 −400

(c) The traction vector associated with n = √1 e1 + √1 e2 is given by

2 2

     √1   √1 
t1 3 2 0 2 2
t2  = 150 × 2 3 0   √12  MPa = 750 ×  √12  MPa.
t3 0 0 −1 0 0

Notice that
t = σn
where σ = 750 MPa. Thus, t and n are parallel. In general, a unit normal vector n and
its corresponding traction vector t are not parallel. However, when they are parallel, this
signifies that n is a principal direction, and the magnitude of the resulting traction vector
t is the corresponding principal value of stress. Thus, in this case n = √12 e1 + √12 e2 is a
principal direction with σ = 750 MPa the corresponding principal value of stress.
72 CHAPTER 4. STRESS

4.3. Let {ê1 , ê2 , ê3 } and {σ1 , σ2 , σ3 } denote the principal directions of stress and the corresponding principal
stresses, respectively, at a point in a material.

^
e2
1
n

o
1 ^
^ e1
e3 1

Figure 4.1: An octahedral plane, shown shaded in the figure, makes equal intercepts with the principal stress directions
{ê1 , ê2 , ê3 }.

Consider a plane passing through the point with unit outward normal given by
1 1 1
n = √ ê1 + √ ê2 + √ ê3 .
3 3 3
Such a plane, which makes equal intercepts with the {ê1 , ê2 , ê3 } axes is called an octahedral plane;
cf. Fig. 4.1.

(a) What is the traction vector t = σn acting on such an octahedral plane?

(b) Let
def
σoct = t · n
denote the octahedral normal stress on the octahedral plane. Calculate the value of σoct in terms
of the principal stresses {σ1 , σ2 , σ3 }.
(c) Let
def
tT = t − (t · n)n
denote the tangential traction on the plane defined by n, and let the magnitude of tT ,
def
τoct = |tT |,

denote the octahedral shear stress on the octahedral plane. Show that
1p
τoct = (σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2
3

(d) What is the value of the ratio

τoct
σ̄
of the octahedral shear stress τoct to the Mises equivalent tensile stress σ̄?
(e) Is there any physical significance to the fact that τoct is related to σ̄?
 73

Solution 4.3. (a) The matrix of stress components with respect to the {ê1 , ê2 , ê3 } principal
stress directions is  
σ1 0 0
[σ] =  0 σ2 0  ,
0 0 σ3
and the normal n to the octahedral plane is

√1
 
 √13 
[n] =  3 .
√1
3

Hence the components of the traction vector t=σn with respect to the principal stress basis
are
σ1
  √1   √
 
σ1 0 0 3 3
  σ 
[t] =  0 σ2 0   √13  =  √23 
0 0 σ3 √1 σ3
√
3 3

σ1 σ2 σ3
t = √ ê1 + √ ê2 + √ ê3
3 3 3

(b) The octahedral normal stress is:

σoct = t · n
σ1 + σ2 + σ3
σoct =
3

(c) The tangential traction on the octahedral plane is

tT = t − (t · n)n
 
σ1 σ2 σ3 σ1 + σ2 + σ3 1 1 1
= √ ê1 + √ ê2 + √ ê3 − √ ê1 + √ ê2 + √ ê3
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
1
= √ [(2σ1 − (σ2 + σ3 ))ê1 + (2σ2 − (σ1 + σ3 ))ê2 + (2σ3 − (σ2 + σ1 ))ê3 ]
3 3

Therefore,
1 
|tT |2 (2σ1 − (σ2 + σ3 ))2 + (2σ2 − (σ1 + σ3 ))2 + (2σ3 − (σ2 + σ1 ))2

= tT · tT =
27
1
= [4σ12 − 4σ1 σ2 + 4σ1 σ3 + σ22 + 2σ2 σ3 + σ32
27
+4σ22 − 4σ1 σ2 + 4σ2 σ3 + σ12 + 2σ1 σ3 + σ32
+4σ32 − 4σ1 σ3 + 4σ2 σ3 + σ12 + 2σ1 σ2 + σ22 ]
1  2
6σ1 + 6σ22 + 6σ32 + 6σ1 σ2 + 6σ1 σ3 + 6σ2 σ3

=
27
1 2
2σ1 + 2σ22 + 2σ32 + 2σ1 σ2 + 2σ1 σ3 + 2σ2 σ3

=
9
1
(σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2

=
9
Hence,
1p
τoct = |tT |2 = (σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2
3
74 CHAPTER 4. STRESS

(d) Recall that the Mises equivalent tensile stress, when expressed in terms of the principal stress
components is
1 p
σ̄ = √ (σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2 .
2
Hence,
√
τoct 2
= .
σ̄ 3

(e) No physical significance.

 81

4.6. Consider a stress field whose matrix of scalar components in the vector basis {ei | i = 1, 2, 3} is
4x1 x3 0 −2x3 2
 

[σ] =  0 1 2  MPa,
−2x3 2 3x1 2
2

where the constants are given with appropriate units so as to be compatibile with Cartesian coordinates
xi in meters.
(a) For the static case (no inertial forces) plus assuming no body forces, is this stress field in equilib-
rium?
(b) Determine the traction vector acting at a point x = 2e1 + 1e2 + 1e3 on the plane x1 + x2 − x3 = 2.
Note the unit normal to a plane defined by ai xi = b is,
ai ei
n = ±√ .
aj aj
(c) Find the magnitude of the normal and shear traction on this plane at the given point.
(d) Determine the principal stresses and directions the given point.

Solution 4.6. (a) The equilibrium equations are,

∂σij
= 0.
∂xj

∂σ11 ∂σ12 ∂σ13

for i=1: + + = 4x3 + 0 − 4x3 = 0;
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3

∂σ21 ∂σ22 ∂σ23

for i=2: + + = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0;
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3

∂σ31 ∂σ32 ∂σ33

for i=3: + + = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0.
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
Therefore the equilibrium equations are satisfied; note the stress is symmetric.

(b) Choosing the positive sign for unit normal

ai ei 1e1 + e2 − e3 1 1 1
n= √ =√ = √ e1 + √ e2 − √ e3 .
aj aj 12 + 12 + 12 3 3 3

Stress at point x = 2e1 + 1e2 + 1e3 is

 
8 0 −2
[σ(x)] =  0 1 2  MPa.
−2 2 12

Therefore the traction t(x, n) = σ(x)n at x is,

  
8 0 −2 1
1
[σ(x)] [n] =  0 1 2   1  ( √ )
−2 2 12 −1 3

1
t(x, n) = √ (10 e1 − e2 − 12 e3 ) MPa.
3
82 CHAPTER 4. STRESS

(c)

Normal component of traction σn = n · t(x, n) = 7.00 MPa .

p
Magnitude of shear traction τmax = |t(x, n) − σn n| = |t|2 − σn2 = 6.07 MPa .

(d) To obtain principal stresses and the principal stress directions use MATLAB to obtain

σ1 = 13.1 MPa; σ2 = 7.26 MPa; σ3 = 0.631 MPa,

and

n(1) = −0.3601e1 + 0.1520e2 + 0.9205e3 ,

n(3) = 0.9316e1 + 0.1107e2 + 0.3462e3 ,

n(3) = 0.0492e1 − 0.9822e2 + 0.1814e3 .

 85

4.9. Consider a stress field,

σ(x) = x21 e1 ⊗ e1 + x22 e1 ⊗ e2 − 2x3 (x1 + x2 ) e1 ⊗ e3

+x22 e2 ⊗ e1 − x22 e2 ⊗ e2 + 7 e2 ⊗ e3
−2x3 (x1 + x2 ) e3 ⊗ e1 + 7 e3 ⊗ e2 − x23 e3 ⊗ e3

in a body occuping the domain B = {xi | 0 < x1 < 1 , 0 < x2 < 1 , 0 < x3 < 4}.
(a) What is the total force acting on the surface x1 = 1?
(b) What are the maximum and minimum normal stresses at the center of the body?
(c) What is the maximum shear stress of the center of the body?
(d) If there are no body or inertial forces acting in B, does σ represent an equilibrated stress field?
(e) What is the deviatoric stress at (1, 1, 0)? What is the pressure at (1, 1, 0)?

Solution 4.9. (a) The traction on the surface x1 = 1 is

σ(1, x2 , x3 )e1 = 1e1 + x22 e2 − 2x3 (1 + x2 )e3 .

Integrate this traction field to get the total force:

Z 1Z 4  4
f= 1e1 + x22 e2 − 2x3 (1 + x2 )e3 dx3 dx2 = 4e1 + e2 − 24e3 .
0 0 3

(b) The center of the body is located at (0.5, 0.5, 2). The stress tensor is thus
 
0.25 0.25 −4.00
[σ(0.5, 0.5, 2)] =  0.25 −0.25 7.00 
−4.00 7.00 −4.00

Using MATLAB to find the eigenvalues gives maximum normal stress as 6.10 and the mini-
mum normal stress as −10.44.
(c) The max shear stress will be (6.10 − (−10.44))/2 = 8.27.
(d) Compute the divergence of σ and see if it is equal to zero.

σ1j,j = 2x1 + 2x2 − 2(x1 + x2 ) = 0, (4.2)

σ2j,j = 0 − 2x2 + 0 6= 0, (4.3)
σ3j,j = −2x3 + 0 − 2x3 6= 0. (4.4)

Thus it is clearly not in equilibrium.

(e) At (1, 1, 0)  
1 1 0
[σ(1, 1, 0)] =  1 −1 7 
0 7 0
Thus,    
1 0 0 1 1 0
1
[σ 0 ] = [σ] − tr[σ] 0 1 0 = 1 −1 7
3
0 0 1 0 7 0
The pressure is p = − 31 tr[σ] = 0.
86 CHAPTER 4. STRESS

4.10. Consider a body B where the Cauchy stress, σ, has been measured. The principal stresses are found
to be q q
σ1 = 0 , σ2 = x21 + x22 , σ3 = − x21 + x22 .
and the corresponding principal directions are found to be
x x2
µ1 = p 1 e1 + p 2 e2
x21 + x22 x1 + x22
" #
1 x1 x2
µ2 = √ p e2 − p 2 e1 + e3
2 x21 + x22 x1 + x22
" #
1 x1 x2
µ3 = √ p e2 − p 2 e1 − e3 .
2 x21 + x22 x1 + x22

(a) Find the components of σ in the {ei } basis.

(b) Find the principal invariants of σ.
(c) Consider any surface with normal e3 . What is the traction vector on such a surface?

Solution 4.10. (a)

3
X
σ = σi µi ⊗ µi
i=1
= σ2 µ2 ⊗ µ2 + σ3 µ3 ⊗ µ3
!
1 x1 x2
= (x1 e2 − x2 e1 + e3 ) ⊗ p e2 − p 2 e1 + e3
2 x21 + x22 x1 + x22
!
1 x1 x2
− (x1 e2 − x2 e1 − e3 ) ⊗ p e2 − p 2 e1 − e3 ,
2 x21 + x22 x1 + x22

which gives  
0 0 −x2
[σ] =  0 0 x1  .
−x2 x1 0

(b)
I1 (σ) = σ1 + σ2 + σ3 = 0,
I2 (σ) = σ1 σ2 + σ2 σ3 + σ3 σ1 = −(x21 + x22 ),
I3 (σ) = σ1 σ2 σ3 = 0

(c)
3
X
t = σe3 = σi µi (µi · e3 ),
i=1

= σ2 (µ2 · e3 )µ2 + σ3 (µ3 · e3 )µ3 ,

1 1
q q
= x21 + x22 ( √ )µ2 − x21 + x22 (− √ )µ3 ,
2 2
= −x2 e1 + x1 e2 .
 87

4.11. Consider a semi-infinite domain (x1 ≥ 0; −∞ ≤ x2 ≤ +∞; 0 ≤ x3 ≤ d) with a concentrated normal

edge load of magnitude P = pt. Assume a stress field of the following form:

2p cos3 θ
σ11 = − ,
πr
2p sin2 θ cos θ
σ22 = − ,
πr
2p sin θ cos2 θ
σ12 = − ,
πr
where r and θ are the cylindrical coordinates and σ33 = σ13 = σ23 = 0.

P=pt
x3
t
x2 eθ
r
θ
er

x1

Figure 4.2: Semi-infinite plate with and edge load.

(a) Find the scalar components of stress in cylindrical coordinates; i.e. find σrr , σθθ , and σrθ .
(b) Find the traction vector acting on the (semi-cylindrical) surface r = a.
(c) Show that the traction distribution on the (semi-cylindrical) surface r = a is in force and moment
equilibrium with the applied edge load for all values of a. Hint: Resolve the traction vector into
Cartesian components and integrate them and their moments about the origin along an arc of
radius r = a. Compare this to the net force and moment of the applied load.
88 CHAPTER 4. STRESS

Solution 4.11. (a) The transformation matrix from a rectangular (x1 , x2 , x3 ) coordinate system
to a cylindrical (r, θ, z) coordinate system is

cos θ sin θ 0
 

[Q] = − sin θ cos θ 0 .

 

0 0 1

Thus
2p cos θ
σrr = σ11 cos2 θ + σ22 sin2 θ + 2σ12 sin θ cos θ = − ,
πr
σθθ = σ11 sin2 θ + σ22 cos2 θ − 2σ12 sin θ cos θ = 0,

σrθ = (σ22 − σ11 ) sin θ cos θ + σ12 (cos2 θ − sin2 θ) = 0.

(b) The traction t is

t = σn = (σrr er ⊗ er + σθθ eθ ⊗ eθ + σrθ er ⊗ eθ + σθr eθ ⊗ er ) · er

= σrr er + σθr eθ
2p cos θ
=− er .
πr

(c) The resultant forces (in e1 and e2 -directions) due to the traction at r = a are
"Z #
π/2
F1 = t · e1 a dθ × t = −pt,
−π/2

and "Z #
π/2
F2 = t · e2 a dθ × t = 0.
−π/2

Note that net moment (about e3 ) is M3 = 0 as the traction is in the er direction. Since
the net resultant forces and moments are balanced, therefore the traction field is in static
equilibrium with the applied load.