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A review of aquaculture production and health management

practices of farmed fish in Kenya

Article in International Journal of Veterinary Science and Medicine · July 2018

DOI: 10.1016/j.ijvsm.2018.07.001

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InternationalJournalofVeterinaryScienceandMedicine6(2018
)141–148

HO S T E D B Y Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Veterinary Science and Medicine

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijvsm

Review Article

A review of aquaculture production and health management practices of farmed

fish in Kenya
Mary A. Opiyoa,⁎, Esther Marijanib, Patriciah Muendoc, Rezin Odeded, William Leschene,
Harrison Charo-Karisaf
a
KENYA MARINE AND Fisheries RESEARCH Institute, NATIONAL AQUACULTURE RESEARCH Development AND TRAINING Center, P.O. Box 451, 10230 SAGANA, KENYA
b
University of NAIROBI, School of BIOLOGICAL Sciences, P.O. Box 30197, 00100 NAIROBI, KENYA
c
MACHAKOS University, DEPARTMENT of BIOLOGICAL Sciences, P.O. Box 136, 90100 MACHAKOS, KENYA
d
SIDAI AFRICA Ltd, P.O. Box 64945-00620, NAIROBI, KENYA
e
Institute of AQUACULTURE, University of Stirling, FK9 4LA SCOTLAND, UK
f
WorldFish, CAIRO Office, P.O. Box 1281, MAADI 11728, CAIRO, Egypt

ARTICLEINFO
ABSTRACT

Keywords:
Warm water aquaculture is widely practiced in Kenya and is dominated by the culture of Nile
Aquaculture
Culture systems tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) (75% of total production) followed by African catfish (CLARIAS GARIEPINUS)
Fish health at 18%. Aquaculture started in Kenya in 1920’s and has been on upward trend until 2014 when it peaked at
Hemorrhagic disease 24,096 MT. However, production reduced drastically in the past 3 years, with 14,952 metric tonnes (MT)
Nile tilapia reported in 2016. Most farmers practice earthen pond based semi-intensive culture system. Commercial
Saprolegniasis intensive culture of Nile tilapia (O. niloticus) in cages in Lake Victoria has grown significantly in the last five years
with a production of 12 million kg of fish every cycle (about 8 months). Recirculation aquaculture system
(RAS) is also gaining popu- larity mainly in intensive hatcheries. The freshwater cages have been marred by
increasing frequencies of fish kills with obvious financial and environmental implications. Although limited
information exists on fish disease outbreaks across the country, certain well known diseases in farmed fish
have been reported. These include; fungal, mainly saprolegniasis, bacterial, mainly hemorrhagic disease and
pop-eye diseases. Parasites have also been documented in farmed O. niloticus and C. GARIEPINUS. Although
prophylactic treatments are used in some hatcheries in order to prevent infections, limited biosecurity measures
are in place to prevent diseases in farmed fish. This is because of inadequate knowledge of the economics of
fish diseases, poor infrastructure and in- adequate human resource specialized in fish diseases. This review
describes the aquaculture production and health mangement practices of farmed fish in Kenya in order to
document actions required for effective mon- itoring and regulation of future fish health problems across the
country.

1. Introduction indicates that there are over 100 MT of seaweeds, milkfish, shrimps, and
mud crabs produced in small scale [2,4] This is lower than the production
Aquaculture in Kenya, which stands at 14,952 MT [1], comprises of of freshwater aquaculture which is currently at 14,852 MT [1,4].
freshwater and mariculture. Mariculture involves the farming of finfish Fresh water aquaculture involves cold and warm water culture. Cold
(Milk fish) (CHANOS CHANOS) and Grey mullets (Mugil CEPHALUS); Shellfish water culture involves Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in
(Mud crabs) (SCYLLA SERRATA), Oysters (SACCOSTERIA CUCULLATA), shrimp the Mount Kenya region while warm water fishes comprises of Nile
(PENAEUS monodon) and Seaweeds (mainly KAPPAPHYCUS ALVAREZII) [2,3]. tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) constituting 75%, African catfish
Mariculture is underdeveloped mainly due to accessibility problems, (CLARIAS GAR- iepinus), and other species comprising 25% [5,6]. There
conflicts over land ownership, and lack of clear policies [4]. Production have been ef- forts to culture some indigenous fish, like the African
statistics of marine aquaculture for Kenya have not been captured in the carp (LABEO vic- TORIANUS), Ngege (O. esculentus and Victoria tilapia (O.
FAO/national fisheries database since it has not been commercialized VARIABILIS) [7–9]. However, culture of these indigenous species
despite its great potential [4]. Current mariculture production data have remained on

Peer review under responsibility of Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University.

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-MAIL ADDRESSES: [email protected] (M.A. Opiyo), [email protected] (W. Leschen), [email protected] (H. Charo-Karisa).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijvsm.2018.07.001
Received 13 May 2018; Received in revised form 2 July 2018; Accepted 2 July 2018
Availableonline11July2018
2314-
4599/©2018FacultyofVeterinaryMedicine,CairoUniversity.PublishedbyElsevier
B.V.ThisisanopenaccessarticleundertheCCBY-NC-NDlicense
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).
M.A. Opiyo et InterNAtioNAlJourNAlofVeteriNAryScien
AL. ceANDMedicine6(2018)141–148

experimental basis and are not widely adopted by farmers due to low
a rapid growth in the sector [10,17], and supported fish farmers by
survival and poor yields [2,7].
subsidizing fingerlings, feed and pond construction.
The average per capita annual fish consumption in 2010 was 5 kg
During the ESP-FFEPP, earthen ponds were constructed in most
person−1 year−1 which is below the FAO recommended average of
parts of the country after mapping areas which were suitable for
20 kg person−1 year−1 [10] and the contribution of fish to overall
aquaculture (Fig. 2). Areas with high suitability were recorded at 9,
animal protein intake in Kenya is still very low (5.7%) [11]. Freshwater
581,169 ha, areas with medium suitability at 40,557,196 ha, whilst the
fish consumption in 2014 was estimated at 195,206 tonnes. However,
areas of low suitability (mainly the arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL)
taking into account post-harvest food losses and negative trade
regions of the country) at 3, 242,515 ha (Fig. 2) [19]. The ESP-FFEPP
balance, the total fish consumption may be lower [12]. To meet the
was implemented within the 2009 and 2010 financial year, leading to
gap between fish production locally and the increasing demand for
an increase in fish pond area from 220 ha in 2008 to 468 ha in 2009 and
food fish, Kenya imports about 5900 MT annually from other
a total gross land for aquaculture from 728 ha (2008) to 825 ha (2009)
countries such as China, India, Pakistan, Japan, Korea and Uganda
[20].
[13]. The bulk of imports in 2013 were frozen tilapia (14%) originating
Despite the gains in growth following the ESP-FFEPP, aquaculture
from China. Other imported fish include; frozen mackerel, tuna and
production in Kenya reduced from 24,096 MT in 2014 to 18,656 MT in
herring. Total fish imports reached 5853 MT in 2014, whilst those of
2015 and further to 14, 952 MT in 2016 (Fig. 1) [20]. Similarly, the
Nile tilapia increased from 14% (2013) to 30.8% (2014) [13,14].
number of operational fish ponds reduced from 69, 194 (2013) to
As freshwater aquaculture increases, so does the movement of live
60,277 (2015) shrinking the operational area from 2105 to 1873 ha in
fish across borders leading to higher risk of introduction of fish with
2013 and in 2015 respectively [18,19]. Reduction in fish production
unknown health histories. There are well documented indications
was as a result of poor water retention capacity of ponds in some
across Africa and internationally that increase in incidences of diseases
counties especially the Coastal and the Eastern region; poor extension
in aquaculture can cause huge economic losses. For example, in Asian
services, inadequate capacity support, poor husbandry practices, low
countries, massive expansion and intensification of aquaculture have
quality and quantity of fish farm inputs, poor marketing infrastructure,
been reported to be followed by fish health/disease issues leading to
dependency syndrome on government/donor support and lack of value
significant costs due to losses [12]. This calls for serious management of
addition. The establishment of county governments and subsequent
diseases outbreaks and application of strict biosecurity measures to
removal of aquaculture from the functions of the national government
prevent diseases. Kenya has policies and measures in place to address
to county governments also led to a reduction in aquaculture activities
aquatic animal health issues but lacks expertise in fish health disease,
in several counties in Kenya which lacked support programs for fish
diagnostic laboratories and quarantine facilities, for effective surveil-
farming [18].
lance and diagnosis of diseases [15,16]. The expansive growth of cage
The distribution of aquaculture activities by region indicates a high
farming in Lake Victoria warrants monitoring of fish health [16]. This
concentration of activities in a number of counties and low con-
paper reviews aquaculture production systems and fish health man-
centration in others (Table 1). Highest pond numbers and aquaculture
agement practices in Kenya in order to establish and document actions
related activities are found in Kakamega, Bungoma, Busia, Kisii, Meru,
needed to monitor, mitigate and regulate effectively for future fish
Nyeri, Kisumu, Muranga, Embu counties, among others, while rela-
health problems across the country.
tively lower activity are noted in Kitui, Lamu and Elgeyo Marakwet
[11,18].
2. Fresh water aquaculture production in Kenya
3. Freshwater fish species reared in Kenya
Freshwater aquaculture in Kenya started in 1920’s and became
popular in 1960’s. However, it stagnated until 2003 when the pro-
Aquaculture species in Kenya includes Nile tilapia (O. niloticus) and
duction rose from 1000 MT to 4000 MT following numerous efforts to
African catfish (C. GARIEPINUS). Tilapia represents 75% of the total
boost production through the “Eat More Fish Campaigns”
fish produced from aquaculture, followed by African catfish
championed by the government [11]. Between the years 2006 and
(18%), common carp (6%) and trout (< 1%) [14]. Tilapia farming
2009, aqua- culture production remained below 4895 MT until 2010
is mainly carried out in monoculture systems. A survey conducted
when 12,153 MT was realized (Fig. 1) [1,11]. The government
in Western Kenya targeting 1000 farmers indicated that a high
nationwide Economic Stimulus Project - Fish Farming Enterprise
proportion of farmers (74%) cultured Nile tilapia and African catfish
Productivity Program (ESP- FFEPP), which for the first time, received
in monoculture systems, while 26% of farmers carried out
substantial funding triggered
polyculture of the two

Fig. 1. Aquaculture production in Kenya (metric tonnes, MT) trends between 2006 and 2015. Source: [1,11,18].

14
Fig. 2. Map of Kenya indicating areas suitable for freshwater aquaculture: green, highly suitable, pink, medium suitable and yellow, low suitable aquaculture
areas based on water availability, climatic conditions, soil type, topography, land use, access to inputs and markets. Source:
https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajfand/ article/view/149194 [19].

species [21]. This was attributed to inadequate knowledge of poly-

high cost of electricity and non-availability of cheaper quality feeds
culture by farmers [11,14]. In addition to the production of food fish,
[11]. In the semi-intensive systems, ponds are fertilized with either
ornamental fishes are also produced at small scale for local and
cattle, sheep, poultry or rabbit manure and supplementary feed inform
internal markets [5].
of cereal bran (wheat, rice, maize) and low protein formulated feeds are
given to supplement natural foods [22]. Aquaculture farm systems in
4. Aquaculture production systems Kenya are in most cases integrated with either crop or livestock pro-
duction (Vegetables, bananas, goats, cattle and chicken) [23]. Crop
In Kenya, current aquaculture culture systems are made up of ex- farming is generally done at subsistence level while livestock rearing is
tensive and semi-intensive systems (Table 2). Truly intensive systems often done for commercial purposes especially for milk and meat pro-
exist in a relatively small number. Reports indicate that fish farmers duction [19].
operating at a subsistence level are turning into commercial intensive
fish farming with some earning as much as US$ 11,000.00 ha−1 year−1
4.1. Extensive fish FARMING
in gross income [5]. More than 90% of farmers practice semi-intensive
fish farming while the intensive system is practiced by only 3% due to
This system is mainly conducted in dams and water reservoirs. The
 Table 1
Number of ponds per county in Kenya and respective pond area in 2015.
ponds and concrete ponds. Ponds are fertilized using organic manures
(cow dung, sheep, poultry or rabbit manure) [22]. Feeding is done
S/N County Ponds area (ha) 2015 No of ponds in 2015
using supplementary feeds formulated on farm or purchased from cot-
1 Kakamega 259.2 8640 tage fish feed production industries. In some cases, cereal brans are
2 Bungoma 119.16 3972 used as feeds to increase pond productivity. Production from this system
3 Kisii 93.78 3126 ranges between 1000 and 2500 kg ha−1 year−1 [24]. Most
4 Meru 88.5 2950 farmers prefer this system since it is less expensive in terms of feed
5 Nyeri 71.43 2381
inputs.
6 Kisumu 66.66 2222
7 Muranga 66.6 2220
8 Embu 62.37 2079 4.3. Intensive systems
9 Migori 61.86 2062
10 Trans Nzoia 61.29 2043
4.3.1. RACEWAYS
11 Machakos 53.34 1778
12 Siaya 52.35 1745
This system is mainly used for production of rainbow trout
13 Busia 48.51 1617 (Oncorhynchus mykiss). There are 6 commercial trout farms in Kenya
14 Tharaka Nithi 48 1600 concentrated in Mount Kenya region. According to the Kenya’s State
15 Kiambu 45.96 1532 Department of Fisheries, production of trout from the raceways in
16 Homa Bay 42.69 1423
2014 was 241 MT valued at U$ 1,430,000 [13]. The contribution of
17 Makueni 41.34 1378
18 Kirinyaga 38.91 1297
rainbow trout is therefore higher in monetary value than by weight
19 Bomet 38.4 1280 since a kg costs between U$ 3–12 [5]. Production in these systems
20 Nyamira 36.6 1220 ranges between 10,000 and 80,000 kg ha−1 year−1 [11]. The
21 Nakuru 36.48 1216 system requires high quality feed which are expensive and can only
22 Laikipia 36.45 1215
be afforded by a few farmers.
23 Uasin Gishu 32.97 1099
24 Vihiga 31.11 1037
25 Nyandarua 28.62 954 4.3.2. RECIRCULATING AQUACULTURE systems (RAS)
26 Nandi 28.29 943 Recirculating aquaculture systems in Kenya are mainly tank-
27 Kericho 28.05 935 based systems used for culturing O. niloticus and C. GARIEPINUS. Fish are
28 Nairobi 26.1 870
29 Kwale 26.04 868
reared in tanks indoors or under green houses. There exist 8 farms
30 Taita Taveta 25.29 843 operating recirculating systems in form of hatcheries and grow-
31 Baringo 21.96 732 out farms in Kenya. Fish are grown at high density ranging
32 Kilifi 18.57 619 between 5 and 20 fish m−3 under controlled conditions. Production
33 Narok 17.01 567
from RAS is at 200 tonnes ha−1 year−1 [18]. The adoption of the system
34 Tana River 15.6 520
35 Kajiado 11.88 396
is low due to high cost of initial capital investment in tanks,
36 Kitui 10.26 342 greenhouses and high cost of elec- tricity required in running the
37 Lamu 9.21 307 system. Investment in recirculation aquaculture systems (RAS) for
38 Elgeyo Marakwet 7.47 249 Nile tilapia production and intensive catfish production is carried
TOTAL 1808 60,277 out in peri-urban areas near towns like Nairobi, Kiambu, Nyeri,
Meru, Kisumu, Machakos, Kilifi, Homa Bay, Kakamega and Busia
[18].
Table 2
The Kenya national distribution of fish culture systems and respective cover
4.3.3. CAGES
area (m2).
Cage farming is growing fast in Lake Victoria with the highest
number of the cages located in Siaya County (Fig. 3) [25]. Intensive
Region Semi intensive systems Extensive systems Intensive systems cage culture started in 2013 after cage trials were conducted success-
(Ponds) (Dams) (Tanks) fully at Dunga beach in Kisumu County by Kenya Marine and Fisheries
Area Number Area Number Area Number
Research Institute (KMFRI) and Dunga Beach Cooperative Society
under the Association for Strengthening Agriculture Research in East
andCentral
Central Africa
1609 (ASARECA)
506,605 project
167 [25,26]. Currently,
1,933,809 83 cage farming is practiced in five riparian counties (Migori, Siaya, Homabay, Busia and
18,744
Coast counties)
Kisumu 434 (Fig. 3).
58,698 between 60 and 250 fish m−3 with cage sizes ranging from 8 to 125 m3. The number of
Stocking –density–in the cages9ranges 180
Eastern 752 423,628
cages increased from 1663 in 201620to 3398
113,018 3
cages in 2017 [26].118
Nile tilapia is the only fish cultured in cages producing 12
Nyanza 2070 453,423 15 41,220 1 27
Source: [2].
Rift Valley 1,531 761,856 129 3,385,298 65 4015 million kg of fish every cycle (about 8 months in a year) [25,26].
Western 2720 549,486 – – – – The largest cage farming enterprise in Lake Victoria is Winnie’s
farmed fishes depend on primary productivity of the culture water farm in Anyanga beach which started with 60 cages in 2013 and
and no artificial feed is given. The species mainly cultured in this currently owns more than 550 cages together with other groups
system are consisting of 100 farmers [12]. Currently, the enterprises operating
O. niloticus and C. GARIEPINUS which are stocked to prevent breeding cages are about 43 with over 4000 cages stocked with > 3 million
of mosquitoes in dams put in place for watering livestock. The individual tilapia fin- gerlings [26]. Cage farming has a huge potential
dams are mainly found in Central and Rift valley regions (Table 2). to increase aqua- culture production and support economic growth
Production from this system ranges between 500 and 1,500 kg ha−1 around the Lake Victoria region [25].
year , con- tributing 10% of farmed fishes in Kenya [24].
−1

4.4. Ponds
4.2. Semi-intensive systems
Most of smallholder farmers have a minimum of 1 pond to a max-
Semi-intensive farming is the main system adopted in Kenya. These imum of 60 fish ponds. The level of operations of farmers are rated as
systems are mainly used to produce O. niloticus and C. GARIEPINUS either small scale, medium or large scale [20]. Large scale operators
in monoculture or polyculture. They consist of earthen ponds, liner represent
 Fig. 3. Distribution of fish cages in five riparian counties of Lake Victoria in 2016. Adapted from [25].

a pond surface area of 4000–80,000 m 2 and more than 13 ponds while

Table 3
medium scale operators represent 601–3999 m2 and 5–12 ponds.
Fish feed suppliers in Kenya. Adapted from [2,22].
Small scale farmers have less than 5 ponds and in most cases use
their own Company Name Type Location Type of Feed

individual labour to produce fish mainly for household consumption

and excess fish are sold to neighbors [20,24]. A stocking rate of 3 fish COMMERCIAL MANUFACTURERS
m−2 is commonly used in ponds in Kenya to achieve yields of 1 kg m−2. Sigma Feeds Ltd Local Rongai, Kajiado Floating pellets
County
At this stocking rate daily weight gain ranges from 1.5 to 2.0 g in well
Lenalia Fish feeds Local Limuru, Kiambu Floating and
managed systems. Rare cases in Kenya have stocking densities of 6 County sinking pellets
juveniles m−2 in ponds giving a production of 3 kg m−2 [11]. Maisha Bora Fish Feeds Ltd Local Kikuyu, Kiambu Sinking pellets
Most fish farmers practicing pond culture add manure or inorganic County
fertilizer to ponds to increase the supply of natural food organisms to Kwality Fish Feeds Limited Local Ruiru, Kiambu Sinking pellets
fish so as to reduce production costs arising from feeds [5]. The man- County

ures in use are; cow dung, sheep, poultry and rabbit manure. These Sare Millers Ltd Local Kisumu County Floating and
sinking pellets
manures increase the risk of introduction of pathogens into the system Jewlet Fish Farm Local Kendubay, Floating and
[27,28]. Culture periods of 6 months or more are needed to produce fish Enterprises Homabay County sinking pellets

that weigh between 250 and 300 g from the ponds. The size of fish Unga Feeds Ltd-Nairobi Local Industrial Area Floating pellets
Nairobi
attained at the end of the growth period depends on the climatic con- Ugachick Fish Feeds Imported Uganda Floating pellets
ditions of the area especially temperature with areas having an average Raanan Fish Feeds Imported Nairobi County Floating pellets
temperature lower than 25 °C having smaller fish at harvest. Type of Nile Aqua Imported Uganda Floating pellets
Skretting Fish Feeds Imported Nairobi County Floating pellets
feed used and management practices like water quality management,
Aller Aqua fish Feeds Imported Nairobi County Floating pellets
feeding regimes and stocking density also affect the growth of fish. LFL Riche Terre Imported Nairobi County Floating pellets
Food Tech Africa Local Nairobi County Floating pellets
5. Husbandry practices COTTAGE feed industries
Othaya Fish Feeders S.H.G Local Othaya, Nyeri Sinking pellets
5.1. Source of WATER County
Chumara Fish Feeds Local Chuka, Meru Sinking pellets
Water used for aquaculture activities in Kenya is mainly sourced County

from streams, springs, rivers and boreholes which constitutes 72% of Mabro Fish Farm Local Usigu, Siaya Sinking pellets
Enterprises County
water sources for aquaculture activities [21]. Only 28% of farmers Bidii Fish Farmers S.H.G Local Luanda- Emuhaya Floating and
obtain water from boreholes, shallow wells and municipal tap water Sinking pellets
Osifeeds Ltd. Local Kajiado County Sinking pellets
[20]. The water is either pumped to the culture units or directed to flow
Zibag Fish producers & Local Nyandarua County Sinking pellets
by gravity. Most farmers do not treat the water before use. Water is Processors
allowed to settle in a reservoir before being channeled to production Hesao Integrated Fish Local Nyalenda B, Sinking pellets
units. This practice is not recommended since it provides opportunity Farming Organization Kisumu County
Dominion Fish Feed limited Local Siaya County Sinking pellets
for potential introduction of pathogens to the culture facility from the
water source. Nyawara Animal Feed Plant Local Gem, Siaya County Sinking pellets
Kenya Marine and Fisheries Local Sangoro, Kisumu Sinking pellets
Research Institute County
5.2. Feeds inputs
(for fingerlings) to farm made pellets, pressed pellets (made locally by a
Various feeds are used by fish farmers in Kenya, ranging from mash number of companies) and extruded floating feeds (Table 3). Extruded
floating feeds are mainly imported from other countries including, the
Netherlands, Norway, Denmark, Israel, Mauritius, Uganda and Ghana
[2,22]. Companies producing extruded pellets in Kenya are Sigma Ltd,
Unga Feeds Ltd, Jewlet Enterprises, Lenalia Feeds Ltd and Food Tech
Africa (Table 3) [2]. Due to unavailability of cheaper feeds in the
country, some farmers have been using pig pellets and poultry feed
recorded without any diagnosis to determine the cause of mortality
(grower and layer mash) to feed fish [21,29]. Some of these livestock
[15,21].
feeds are supplemented with antibiotics, probiotics and growth pro-
moters which farmers could be introducing to fish unknowingly. For
example pig pellets contain enzymes like phytases, β-glucanases, xyla-
8. Fish disease occurrence in Kenya
nases, α-galactosidases, proteases, amylase, lipases, mannanases, cel-
lulases, hemicellulases and pecti-nases while poultry feed are supple-
Very limited information exists on disease outbreaks in fish farms in
mented with salinomycin, sodium and virginiamycin so as to promote
Kenya. Most fish health studies have focused on parasites in two
growth and reduce mortality [30]. The use of pig or poultry feed for fish
most cultured species, O. niloticus and C. GARIEPINUS [15]. These
is not recommended since fish and other livestock have different dietary
studies fo- cused on the parasite descriptions, biology and pathology
requirements for efficient growth [31]. This implies that fish get nu-
[36]. The lack of information on fish diseases could be linked to lack of
trients in proportions, which are limited leading to wastage of feed,
diagnostic infrastructure, lack of human resource with expertise in
poor growth and occurrence of deformities and nutritional diseases.
fish health, high cost of diagnosis, lack of well-equipped veterinary
laboratories for identification of pathogens, absence of outbreak
5.2.1. Type of feeds used
reports due to poor record keeping by farmers and socio-economic
Commercial fish feeds in Kenya, usually contain 24–30%
status of the farmers [15]. However, some farmers have experienced
and 30–40% crude protein for O. niloticus and C. GARIEPINUS
mortality of fish in their farms losing between 40 and 100% of the stock
respectively [32]. These feeds are too expensive for some farmers
in both cages and ponds [25,26]. While this is usually associated with
such that, most farmers use locally formulated mixed feeds [33]. The
water quality problems, it is possible that it could be health related
feed are made by mixing dried freshwater shrimp (CARIDINA niloticus),
since no diagnosis is done at the farm level to rule out diseases. Most
commonly known as Ochonga with rice bran or maize bran with
small scale and medium scale farmers do not bother to establish the
Omena (RASTRINEOBOLA ARGENTEA) meal [20,30]. This practice does not
cause of mortalities, and when they do, they consult officers from
lead to formulation of balanced diets required by the fish leading to
the universities or fisheries officers who also have little or no
poor growth and nutri- tional deficiencies [31]. Other feed materials
knowledge on fish health [15]. A study conducted in 2014 in some
and ingredients available locally and commonly used by fish farmers
fish hatcheries investigating bacterial and fungal infections in farmed
in Kenya are; terrestrial plants (grasses, leaves (e.g. cassava) and
fish established that the hatcheries lost most of their stocks to diseases
seeds of leguminous shrubs and trees vegetables); aquatic plants
[37]. The small scale hatcheries were re- ported to experience more
(water hyacinth, water lettuce, duckweed); small terrestrial animals
mortality due to inadequate biosecurity measures and poor
(earthworms, termites); Aquatic animals (trash fish, by catch fish);
management practices to prevent infections. Most reported diseases
rice (broken, bran, hulls); wheat (middling, germ, bran); maize
in fish farms are; fungal mainly saprolegniasis, bac- terial mainly
(gluten feed, germ, gluten meal); seed cakes (mustard, coconut,
hemorrhagic and pop eye diseases [15,38].
groundnut, cotton, sunflower, soybean); brewers waste;
Some O. niloticus hatcheries have been affected by Streptococcus
slaughterhouse wastes: offal, and blood [22,32,34].
INIAE which makes the affected fish to have a C- shape especially
the newly stocked fish larvae [37–39]. Grow out O. niloticus have also
6. Fry and fingerling supply
been affected by fish louse (Argulus spp.) while C. GARIEPINUS have
been af- fected by freshwater white spot disease (Ichthyophthirius
Fish seed are sourced from hatcheries which are either owned by the
multilifis) [37]. Disease occurrences in farms have been attributed to
government or private farmers. Between the years 2010 to 2016, the
poor husbandry practices including use of on-farm formulated feed
government owned National Aquaculture Research and Development
with high bacterial load and use of water directly from the source
Training Centre, Sagana supplied 30.3% of fry and fingerlings while
without prior treatment [37,38]. Water directly sourced from the river
private hatcheries contributed 69.7% [18,35]. The total demand for
or streams can introduce high levels of bacterial loads which affect
both African catfish and tilapia fingerlings across Kenya was estimated at
younger fish more than adults indicating poor hatchery practices
100 million yr−1 in 2010 [17]. The common methods used in Kenya for
within Kenya aquaculture systems. The bacterial infections
fingerling production are; open ponds, tanks and hapas in ponds. Fry are
affecting pond cultured fish in Kenya are caused by AEROMONAS
collected from the spawning units at 0.03–0.05 g and stocked into
HYDROPHILA, PSEUDOMONAS fluorescens and P. AERU- GINOSA, EDWARDSIELLA
nursery units for rearing to the fingerling stage (5 g) before they are
TARDA, FLAVOBACTERIUM COLUMNARE, MYCOBACTERIUM fortuitum and
stocked into grow out facilities [35]. Currently, there are a total of 127
Streptococcus INIAE [15,40]. In cages, symptoms like fin rot, cloudy
authenticated hatcheries in Kenya with a capacity to produce 96 million
eyes and skin lesions, have been reported indicating possi- bility of
fingerlings annually [35]. On average, the hatcheries record a survival
bacterial and fungal infections [25].
of 70% of the hatched crop which are sold to farmers at fry or fingerling
stage [17]. The hatcheries are located in different parts of the county to
allow for ease of access by farmers [18,35]. The fingerlings for Nile
9. Fish health management practices
tilapia produced include all male tilapia produced through sex reversal,
naturally male tilapia produced by use of super YY males and mixed sex
Some fish farms in Kenya especially hatcheries, use preventive
tilapia fingerlings [35].
measures to reduce chances of disease occurrence [16]. Unlike in
grow- out systems, disinfection of farm equipment and culture
7. Record keeping
facilities are routinely included in fish health management schemes in
hatcheries. The choice of management practices and application of
This is one of the important aspects in fish farming used to de-
prophylactics are based on the farmers’ knowledge and experience
termine profitability of the business. Majority of farmers (77%) have
[41]. Commonly used drugs and chemicals in aquaculture systems in
reported to keep records on their fish farming activities [21]. The re-
Kenya are; po- tassium permanganate and sodium chloride to
cords kept are for the species of fish reared, the number of fish stocked
eliminate bacterial and fungal infections [42]. Treatments in the
per pond, feeding records and water quality records (temperature,
hatchery are done at the egg incubation stage or at the fry stages to
dissolved oxygen and pH). The records are kept in form of notebooks
increase survival of the hatched fry [41,42]. The only antibiotic which
and files depending on the farmers’ production scale. Fish health re-
is used in Kenya by a private hatchery is oxytetracycline [35] to
cords are not kept by farmers since they don’t record diseased fish and
prevent bacterial infections in African catfish broodstock. Use of
cannot establish the cause of fish mortalities. The number of dead fish is
oxytetracycline in food fish have raised concerns on antibiotic
resistance in fish [43,44] which has be- come globally relevant issue
[45,46].
9.1. CHALLENGES in fish HEALTH MANAGEMENT
in Asia and Africa (IMAQulate), Project Ref: BB/N005082/1”. The
project is being implemented under funding from Biotechnology and
Quarantine facilities are non-existent in Kenya and limited biose-
Biological Sciences Research Council/ Department for International
curity measures have been put in place to monitor new introductions
Development (BBSRC/DfID), UK and the Department of
and occurrence of diseases in fish [20]. This is due to non-reported fish
Biotechnology, India.
diseases and inadequate human resource specialized in fish diseases,
making the establishment of such facilities unappealing. The quarantine
Competing interests
facilities would be important with the increase in importation of
broodstock especially the non-indigenous species of Nile tilapia which
There is no conflict of interest to declare.
may lead to introduction of diseases and parasites [37]. Inadequate
measures to prevent escapes of cultured fish to the wild also poses a
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