Multi Threading
Multi Threading
Thread (computer science)
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This article is about the concurrency concept. For the multithreading in hardware, see Multithreading (computer architecture). For the form of
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code consisting entirely of subroutine calls, see Threaded code. For other uses, see Thread (disambiguation).
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Random article In computer science, a thread of execution is the smallest unit of processing that can be scheduled
Donate to Wikipedia by an operating system. It generally results from a fork of a computer program into two or more
concurrently running tasks. The implementation of threads and processes differs from one operating
Interaction system to another, but in most cases, a thread is contained inside a process. Multiple threads can
exist within the same process and share resources such as memory, while different processes do not
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share these resources. In particular, the threads of a process share the latter's instructions (its code)
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and its context (the values that its variables reference at any given moment). To give an analogy,
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multiple threads in a process are like multiple cooks reading off the same cook book and following its
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instructions, not necessarily from the same page.
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On a single processor, multithreading generally occurs by timedivision multiplexing (as in
multitasking): the processor switches between different threads. This context switching generally
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happens frequently enough that the user perceives the threads or tasks as running at the same time. A process with two threads of
What links here On a multiprocessor or multicore system, the threads or tasks will actually run at the same time, with execution.
Related changes each processor or core running a particular thread or task.
Upload file Many modern operating systems directly support both timesliced and multiprocessor threading with a process scheduler. The kernel of an
Special pages operating system allows programmers to manipulate threads via the system call interface. Some implementations are called a kernel thread,
Permanent link whereas a lightweight process (LWP) is a specific type of kernel thread that shares the same state and information.
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Programs can have userspace threads when threading with timers, signals, or other methods to interrupt their own execution, performing a sort of
adhoc timeslicing.
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Contents
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1 Threads compared with processes
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2 Multithreading: Advantages/Uses
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3 Processes, kernel threads, user threads, and fibers
3.1 Thread and fiber issues
Languages 3.1.1 Concurrency and data structures
3.1.2 I/O and scheduling
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4 Models
Català
4.1 1:1 (Kernellevel threading)
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4.2 N:1 (Userlevel threading)
Deutsch
4.3 N:M (Hybrid threading)
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5 Implementations
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5.1 Kernellevel implementation examples
Español
5.2 Userlevel implementation examples
Français
5.3 Hybrid implementation examples
한국어 5.4 Fiber implementation examples
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6 Programming Language Support
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7 See also
Italiano
8 References
תירבע 9 External links
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Threads compared with processes [edit]
日本語
Norsk (bokm ål)
Threads differ from traditional multitasking operating system processes in that:
Polski processes are typically independent, while threads exist as subsets of a process
Português processes carry considerable state information, whereas multiple threads within a process share state as well as memory and other resources
Simple English processes have separate address spaces, whereas threads share their address space
Slovenčina processes interact only through systemprovided interprocess communication mechanisms.
Српски / Srpski Context switching between threads in the same process is typically faster than context switching between processes.
Svenska
Systems like Windows NT and OS/2 are said to have "cheap" threads and "expensive" processes; in other operating systems there is not so great
Türkçe
a difference except the cost of address space switch which implies a TLB flush.
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中文
Multithreading: Advantages/Uses [edit]
Multithreading as a widespread programming and execution model allows multiple threads to exist within the context of a single process. These
threads share the process' resources but are able to execute independently. The threaded programming model provides developers with a useful
abstraction of concurrent execution. However, perhaps the most interesting application of the technology is when it is applied to a single process to
enable parallel execution on a multiprocessor system.
This advantage of a multithreaded program allows it to operate faster on computer systems that have multiple CPUs, CPUs with multiple cores, or
across a cluster of machines — because the threads of the program naturally lend themselves to truly concurrent execution. In such a case, the
programmer needs to be careful to avoid race conditions, and other nonintuitive behaviors. In order for data to be correctly manipulated, threads will
often need to rendezvous in time in order to process the data in the correct order. Threads may also require mutuallyexclusive operations (often
implemented using semaphores) in order to prevent common data from being simultaneously modified, or read while in the process of being
modified. Careless use of such primitives can lead to deadlocks.
Another advantage of multithreading, even for singleCPU systems, is the ability for an application to remain responsive to input. In a single
threaded program, if the main execution thread blocks on a long running task, the entire application can appear to freeze. By moving such long
hardware implementation running tasks to a worker thread that runs concurrently with the main execution thread, it is possible for the application to remain responsive to user
of threading. input while executing tasks in the background.
Operating systems schedule threads in one of two ways:
1. Preemptive multithreading is generally considered the superior approach, as it allows the operating system to determine when a context
switch should occur. The disadvantage to preemptive multithreading is that the system may make a context switch at an inappropriate time,
causing priority inversion or other negative effects which may be avoided by cooperative multithreading.
2. Cooperative multithreading, on the other hand, relies on the threads themselves to relinquish control once they are at a stopping point. This
can create problems if a thread is waiting for a resource to become available.
Traditional mainstream computing hardware did not have much support for multithreading, because switching between threads was generally
already quicker than full process context switches. [clarification needed] Processors in embedded systems, which have higher requirements for real
time behaviors, might support multithreading by decreasing the threadswitch time, perhaps by allocating a dedicated register file for each thread
instead of saving/restoring a common register file. In the late 1990s, the idea of executing instructions from multiple threads simultaneously has
become known as simultaneous multithreading. This feature was introduced in Intel's Pentium 4 processor, with the name hyper threading.
Processes, kernel threads, user threads, and fibers [edit]
Main articles: Process (computing) and Fiber (computer science)
A process is the "heaviest" unit of kernel scheduling. Processes own resources allocated by the operating system. Resources include memory, file
handles, sockets, device handles, and windows. Processes do not share address spaces or file resources except through explicit methods such as
inheriting file handles or shared memory segments, or mapping the same file in a shared way. Processes are typically preemptively multitasked.
A kernel thread is the "lightest" unit of kernel scheduling. At least one kernel thread exists within each process. If multiple kernel threads can exist
within a process, then they share the same memory and file resources. Kernel threads are preemptively multitasked if the operating system's
process scheduler is preemptive. Kernel threads do not own resources except for a stack, a copy of the registers including the program counter,
and threadlocal storage (if any). The kernel can assign one thread to each logical core in a system (because each processor splits itself up into
multiple logical cores if it supports multithreading, or only support one logical core per physical core if it does not support multithreading), and can
swap out threads that get blocked. However, kernel threads take much longer than user threads to be swapped.
Threads are sometimes implemented in userspace libraries, thus called user threads. The kernel is not aware of them, so they are managed and
scheduled in userspace. Some implementations base their user threads on top of several kernel threads to benefit from multiprocessor machines
(N:M model). In this article the term "thread" (without kernel or user qualifier) defaults to referring to kernel threads. User threads as implemented by
virtual machines are also called green threads. User threads are generally fast to create and manage, but cannot take advantage of multithreading
or multiprocessing and get blocked if all of their associated kernel threads get blocked even if there are some user threads that are ready to run.
Fibers are an even lighter unit of scheduling which are cooperatively scheduled: a running fiber must explicitly "yield" to allow another fiber to run,
which makes their implementation much easier than kernel or user threads. A fiber can be scheduled to run in any thread in the same process.
This permits applications to gain performance improvements by managing scheduling themselves, instead of relying on the kernel scheduler (which
may not be tuned for the application). Parallel programming environments such as OpenMP typically implement their tasks through fibers.
Thread and fiber issues [edit]
Concurrency and data structures [edit]
Threads in the same process share the same address space. This allows concurrentlyrunning code to couple tightly and conveniently exchange
data without the overhead or complexity of an IPC. When shared between threads, however, even simple data structures become prone to race
hazards if they require more than one CPU instruction to update: two threads may end up attempting to update the data structure at the same time
and find it unexpectedly changing underfoot. Bugs caused by race hazards can be very difficult to reproduce and isolate.
Read synchronization
To prevent this, threading APIs offer synchronization primitives such as mutexes to lock data structures against concurrent access. On
chapter of galvin i.e.
chapter six. Topics uniprocessor systems, a thread running into a locked mutex must sleep and hence trigger a context switch. On multi processor systems, the
like semaphores are verythread may instead poll the mutex in a spinlock. Both of these may sap performance and force processors in SMP systems to contend for the
important memory bus, especially if the granularity of the locking is fine.
I/O and scheduling [edit]
User thread or fiber implementations are typically entirely in userspace. As a result, context switching between user threads or fibers within the
same process is extremely efficient because it does not require any interaction with the kernel at all: a context switch can be performed by locally
saving the CPU registers used by the currently executing user thread or fiber and then loading the registers required by the user thread or fiber to be
executed. Since scheduling occurs in userspace, the scheduling policy can be more easily tailored to the requirements of the program's workload.
However, the use of blocking system calls in user threads (as opposed to kernel threads) or fibers can be problematic. If a user thread or a fiber
performs a system call that blocks, the other user threads and fibers in the process are unable to run until the system call returns. A typical
example of this problem is when performing I/O: most programs are written to perform I/O synchronously. When an I/O operation is initiated, a
system call is made, and does not return until the I/O operation has been completed. In the intervening period, the entire process is "blocked" by
the kernel and cannot run, which starves other user threads and fibers in the same process from executing.
A common solution to this problem is providing an I/O API that implements a synchronous interface by using non blocking I/O internally, and
scheduling another user thread or fiber while the I/O operation is in progress. Similar solutions can be provided for other blocking system calls.
Alternatively, the program can be written to avoid the use of synchronous I/O or other blocking system calls.
SunOS 4.x implemented "lightweight processes" or LWPs. NetBSD 2.x+, and DragonFly BSD implement LWPs as kernel threads (1:1 model).
SunOS 5.2 through SunOS 5.8 as well as NetBSD 2 to NetBSD 4 implemented a two level model, multiplexing one or more user level threads on
each kernel thread (M:N model). SunOS 5.9 and later, as well as NetBSD 5 eliminated user threads support, returning to a 1:1 model. [1] FreeBSD
5 implemented M:N model. FreeBSD 6 supported both 1:1 and M:N, user could choose which one should be used with a given program
using /etc/libmap.conf. Starting with FreeBSD 7, the 1:1 became the default. FreeBSD 8 no longer supports the M:N model.
The use of kernel threads simplifies user code by moving some of the most complex aspects of threading into the kernel. The program doesn't need
to schedule threads or explicitly yield the processor. User code can be written in a familiar procedural style, including calls to blocking APIs,
without starving other threads. However, kernel threading on uniprocessor systems may force a context switch between threads at any time, and
thus expose race hazards and concurrency bugs that would otherwise lie latent. On SMP systems, this is further exacerbated because kernel
threads may literally execute concurrently on separate processors.
Models [edit]
1:1 (Kernellevel threading) [edit]
Threads created by the user are in 11 correspondence with schedulable entities in the kernel. This is the simplest possible threading
implementation. Win32 used this approach from the start. On Linux, the usual C library implements this approach (via the NPTL or older
LinuxThreads). The same approach is used by Solaris, NetBSD and FreeBSD.
N:1 (Userlevel threading) [edit]
An N:1 model implies that all applicationlevel threads map to a single kernellevel scheduled entity; the kernel has no knowledge of the application
threads. With this approach, context switching can be done very fast and, in addition, it can be implemented even on simple kernels which do not
support threading. One of the major drawbacks however is that it cannot benefit from the hardware acceleration on multithreaded processors or
multiprocessor computers: there is never more than one thread being scheduled at the same time. It is used by GNU Portable Threads.
N:M (Hybrid threading) [edit]
N:M maps some N number of application threads onto some M number of kernel entities, or "virtual processors." This is a compromise between
kernellevel ("1:1") and userlevel ("N:1") threading. In general, "N:M" threading systems are more complex to implement than either kernel or user
threads, because changes to both kernel and userspace code are required. In the N:M implementation, the threading library is responsible for
scheduling user threads on the available schedulable entities; this makes context switching of threads very fast, as it avoids system calls. However,
this increases complexity and the likelihood of priority inversion, as well as suboptimal scheduling without extensive (and expensive) coordination
between the userland scheduler and the kernel scheduler.
Implementations [edit]
There are many different and incompatible implementations of threading. These include both kernellevel and userlevel implementations. They
however often follow more or less closely the POSIX Threads interface.
Kernellevel implementation examples [edit]
Light Weight Kernel Threads (LWKT) in various BSDs
M:N threading
Native POSIX Thread Library (NPTL) for Linux, an implementation of the POSIX Threads (pthreads) standard
Apple Multiprocessing Services version 2.0 and later, uses the builtin nanokernel in Mac OS 8.6 and later which was modified to support it.
Microsoft Windows from Windows 95 and Windows NT onwards.
Userlevel implementation examples [edit]
GNU Portable Threads
FSU Pthreads
Apple Inc.'s Thread Manager
REALbasic (includes an API for cooperative threading)
Netscape Portable Runtime (includes a userspace fibers implementation)
State Threads
Hybrid implementation examples [edit]
Scheduler activations used by the NetBSD native POSIX threads library implementation (an N:M model as opposed to a 1:1 kernel or userspace
implementation model)
Marcel from the PM2 project.
The OS for the Tera/Cray MTA
Microsoft Windows 7
Fiber implementation examples [edit]
Fibers can be implemented without operating system support, although some operating systems or libraries provide explicit support for them.
Win32 supplies a fiber API [1] (Windows NT 3.51 SP3 and later)
Ruby as Green threads
Programming Language Support [edit]
Many programming languages support threading in some capacity. Many implementations of C and C++ do not provide direct support for threading
on their own, but provide access to the native threading APIs provided by the operating system. Some higher level (and usually cross platform)
programming languages such as Java, Python, and .NET, expose threading to the developer while abstracting the platform specific differences in
threading implementations in the runtime to the developer. A number of other programming languages also try to abstract the concept of
concurrency and threading from the developer altogether (Cilk, OpenMP, MPI...). Some languages are designed to parallelism (Ateji PX, CUDA).
A few interpreted programming languages such as CPython and Ruby support threading, but have a limitation that is known as a Global Interpreter
Lock (GIL). The GIL is a mutual exclusion lock held by the interpreter that prevents the interpreter from concurrently interpreting the applications
code on two or more threads at the same time, which effectively limits the concurrency on multiple core systems.
See also [edit]
Win32 Thread Information Block Wikiversity has learning materials
Hardware: Multithreading (computer hardware), Multicore (computing), Simultaneous multithreading about Processes and Threads
at
Theory: Communicating sequential processes, Computer multitasking, Message passing
Operating Systems/Process
Problems: Thread safety, Priority inversion and Thread
Techniques: Protothreads, Thread pool pattern, Lockfree and waitfree algorithms
System Calls: clone (Linux system call)
References [edit]
1. ^ CreateFiber, MSDN
David R. Butenhof: Programming with POSIX Threads, AddisonWesley, ISBN 0201633922
Bradford Nichols, Dick Buttlar, Jacqueline Proulx Farell: Pthreads Programming, O'Reilly & Associates, ISBN 1565921151
Charles J. Northrup: Programming with UNIX Threads, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0471137510
Mark Walmsley: MultiThreaded Programming in C++ , Springer, ISBN 1852331461
Paul Hyde: Java Thread Programming, Sams, ISBN 0672315858
Bill Lewis: Threads Primer: A Guide to Multithreaded Programming, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0134436989
Steve Kleiman, Devang Shah, Bart Smaalders: Programming With Threads, SunSoft Press, ISBN 0131723898
Pat Villani: Advanced WIN32 Programming: Files, Threads, and Process Synchronization, Harpercollins Publishers, ISBN 0879305630
Jim Beveridge, Robert Wiener: Multithreading Applications in Win32, AddisonWesley, ISBN 0201442345
Thuan Q. Pham, Pankaj K. Garg: Multithreaded Programming with Windows NT, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0131206435
Len Dorfman, Marc J. Neuberger: Effective Multithreading in OS/2, McGrawHill Osborne Media, ISBN 0070178410
Alan Burns, Andy Wellings: Concurrency in ADA, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 052162911X
Uresh Vahalia: Unix Internals: the New Frontiers, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0131019082
Alan L. Dennis: .Net Multithreading , Manning Publications Company, ISBN 1930110545
Tobin Titus, Fabio Claudio Ferracchiati, Srinivasa Sivakumar, Tejaswi Redkar, Sandra Gopikrishna: C# Threading Handbook, Peer Information Inc, ISBN
1861008295
Tobin Titus, Fabio Claudio Ferracchiati, Srinivasa Sivakumar, Tejaswi Redkar, Sandra Gopikrishna: Visual Basic .Net Threading Handbook, Wrox Press
Inc, ISBN 1861007132
External links [edit]
Answers to frequently asked questions for comp.programming.threads
Article "Query by Slice, Parallel Execute, and Join: A Thread Pool Pattern in Java" by Binildas C. A.
Article "The Free Lunch Is Over: A Fundamental Turn Toward Concurrency in Software" by Herb Sutter
Article "The Problem with Threads" by Edward Lee
Concepts of Multithreading
ConTest A Tool for Testing Multithreaded Java Applications by IBM
Debugging and Optimizing Multithreaded OpenMP Programs
Multithreading at the Open Directory Project
Multithreading in the Solaris Operating Environment
Parallel computing community
POSIX threads explained by Daniel Robbins
The C10K problem
v ∙ d ∙ e Parallel computing topics
General Cloud computing ∙ Highperformance computing ∙ Cluster computing ∙ Distributed computing ∙ Grid computing
Parallelism (levels) Bit ∙ Instruction ∙ Data ∙ Task
Threads Superthreading ∙ Hyperthreading
Multiprocessing (Symmetric ∙ Asymmetric) ∙ Memory (NUMA ∙ COMA ∙ distributed ∙ shared ∙ distributed shared) ∙ SMT
Hardware
MPP ∙ Superscalar ∙ Vector processor ∙ Supercomputer ∙ Beowulf
POSIX Threads ∙ OpenMP ∙ PVM ∙ MPI ∙ UPC ∙ Intel Threading Building Blocks ∙ Boost.Thread ∙ Global Arrays ∙ Charm++ ∙ Cilk ∙ Coarray Fortran ∙
APIs
OpenCL ∙ CUDA
Embarrassingly parallel ∙ Grand Challenge ∙ Software lockout ∙ Scalability ∙ Race conditions ∙ Deadlock ∙ Livelock ∙ Deterministic algorithm ∙
Problems
Parallel slowdown
Categories: Operating system technology | Concurrent computing | Threads
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