Food Preservation

Food Preservation can be defined as the process of treating and handling food
in such a way that it will stop or reduce the deterioration, spoilage and prevent
the foodborne illness while maintaining its nutritional value, texture and
flavour.

Of the various methods of food preservation, the use of heat food finds a very
wide application in the food industry. Very common methods of preservation
using heat are cooking, frying, roasting, broiling and boiling. These methods in
addition make the food more tender, palatable and desirable than uncooked
food.

When we apply heat to food material we should know how much heat must be
applied so that the nutritional value doesn’t decrease too much and the heat
shouldn’t also be wasted unnecessarily. We should also know the difference
between the sterilized food and commercially sterilized food.

Blanching
Blanching is a process in which vegetables (sometimes fruits but not always) is
scalded in hot liquid like water for few minutes and then cooling it. There are
various reasons for performing blanching and they are: 1. it arrests enzyme
activity. 2. Retains colour better. 3. Improves texture. 4. Imparts a stable
weight in the final product. 5. Decrease microbial load. 6. Increases heat
energy in the material which helps in processing step.

Sterilization
Sterilization means the complete destruction of all the forms of
microorganisms; it includes the pathogenic, non- pathogenic, spore forming
and non-spore forming. As sterilization requires high temperature and prolong
heating it may degrade the quality of food but reducing the nutritional value of
the food because a food may contain some heat labile components.

Commercial Sterilization is done in canned foods. Commercially sterile means

the food is as sterile as needed. In commercial sterilization is defined as the
destruction of all the pathogenic and spoilage organisms that can grow in food
under normal storage conditions, this includes both vegetative cells and their
non-vegetative spores. The index organism for commercial sterilization is
Clostridium botulinum. During canning spore forming, Mesophilic,
thermoduric, anaerobic organisms are killed at the centre/coldest point of the
can. Thus, thermophilic aerobic organism may survive in the can but as the
cans are kept in room temperature and the system is air tight and anaerobic
they cannot grow inside the can and spoil it. Canning was invented by Nicholas
Appert and it is known as Appertization.

Pasteurization
Pasteurization is a mild heat treatment given to foods. The main reason for
pasteurizing a food is to kill the pathogenic microorganisms. The index
organism for Pasteurization is Coxiella burnetii. Pasteurization is done for milk,
fruit juices, liquid egg and etc. Pasteurization was discovered by Louis Pasteur.
There are three types of pasteurization:

1. LTLT- Low Temperature Long Time (63°C for 30mins). It is also known as
Batch Pasteurization.
2. HTST- High Temperature Short Time (72°C for 15sec).
3. UHT- Ultra High Temperature (135°C for 1-2sec).

Thermal Extrusion:
Thermal Extrusion (Food extrusion) is a versatile high temperature (it can be up
to 250°C) and a short time (30seconds to few minutes) process under high
pressure and is applied to raw materials with low moisture content. An
extruder is that of an Archimedes screw, having shallow flights, rotating in a
stationary cylindrical barrel. During the extrusion process, dough is driven
continuously through a die by one or more screw rotating with high pressure
barrel. The major reason for an expanded or puffed character of the product is
the sudden fall of pressure outside the die. The moisture content of the feed
ingredients greatly affects the operation of extrusion equipment and the
finished product character. There are two types of extruder: single screw and
twin screw.

Cooking: It is a general method of processing the food over heat. It is

practised at our homes. It enhances the taste of the food; helps in preserving
the food for longer time; it also makes the food more palatable. Cooking of
food may also include the roasting, grilling, baking

Principles of Heat Transfer:

Heat transfer is from and to the substances via three processes: conduction,
convection and radiation

Conduction: Conduction may be viewed as the transfer of energy from the

more energetic to the less energetic particles of a substance due to
interactions between the particles. Conduction heat transfer is the transfer of
heat energy between adjacent molecules without mixing. There is no
molecular transfer through the space involved. This is the primary mechanism
of heat transfer in solids. Example of conduction is an iron being heated at
one end and the other end is also getting heated up.

Fourier’s law: This law states that heat flux is proportional to the temperature
gradient.
Q dT
heat flux i . e , ∝( )
A dx

dT
Q=-KA dx

Q= heat flow through a body per unit time

A=surface area of heat flow

K= constant (thermal conductivity)

dT= temperature difference

dx= thickness of body in the direction of heat flow

Negative sign is used to represent the decrease in the temperature in the

dT
direction of heat flow, ( dx ) is the temperature gradient is always negative
along the positive x direction so, the value of Q becomes positive.

Thermal conductivity: The amount of energy conducted through a body of unit

area, unit thickness per unit time, when the difference in temperature
between the faces causing the heat to flow is unit temperature difference.
Thermal resistance: It is the reciprocal of thermal conductance.

Convection: Convection heat transfer is the transfer of heat energy that occurs
when the molecules possessing high energy levels move to another part of the
system. Bulk molecular motion is involved in convective heat transfer. It is the
primary mechanism of heat transfer in fluids (i.e. liquids or gases). The basic
equation for rate of convective heat transfer (prescribe by Newton’s law of
cooling)
Q=h A s (T s−T ∞ )

Where, T s= surface temperature and T ∞= Fluid or ambient temperature; h is

surface or convective or simply heat transfer coefficient and A sis the heat
transferring surface area.

Radiation: Radiation heat transfer is the transfer of heat energy from hotter
body to cold body in the form of electromagnetic waves. No molecular contact
is required to transmit energy by radiation. Therefore, heat transfer by
radiation occurs even in vacuum.

Stephen Boltzmann Law: This law states that the emissive power of a black
body is directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature

Q ∝T 4

Q=FσA (T 14−T 42 )

F= factor depending on geometry and surface properties

σ = Stephen Boltzmann Constant (5.67x10−8 W /m2 K 4)

A= Area

T 41 ,T 42 = Temperature
Different forms of water
Water is abundant in all living things and consequently, in almost all foods,
unless steps have been taken to remove it. Most natural foods contain water
up to 70% of their weight or greater unless they are dehydrated, and fruits and
vegetables contain water up to 90% or greater. Water that can be extracted
easily from foods by squeezing or cutting or pressing is known as free water,
whereas water that cannot be extracted easily is termed as bound water.
Some characteristics of bound water include:
1) It is not free to act as a solvent for salts and sugars
2) It can be frozen only at very low temperatures (below the freezing
point of water).
3) It exhibits essentially no vapor pressure
4) Its density is greater than that of free water
Bound water has more structural bonding than liquid or free water thus it is
unable to act as a solvent. As the vapor pressure is negligible the molecules
cannot escape as vapor; and the molecules in bound water are more closely
packed than in the liquid state.

Water Activity: It is the ratio between the vapor pressure of the food itself
and vapor pressure of pure (distilled water) under identical condition. Water
Activity can be up to 1. In, other words partial vapor pressure of water in a
food divided by the partial vapor pressure of water. The amount of water in
food and agricultural products affects the quality and perishability of the food
products. The term water activity is widely used in the food industry as an
indicator of water available in a product.

aw= p/po = Moles of H2O/ (Moles of H2O + Moles of Solute)

p = Partial vapor pressure of water in food
po = Vapor pressure of pure water at same temperature

Equilibrium Relative Humidity

%ERH = [pequ /psat] ×100

 pequ = partial pressure of water vapor in equilibrium with food at
temperature T and 1 atm total pressure.
psat = the saturation partial pressure of water in air at the same
temperature T and 1 atm total pressure.
p %ERH
a w= =
p0 100

Sorption of water in food:

The sorption isotherm describes the thermodynamic relationship between
water activity and the equilibrium of moisture content of a food product at
constant temperature and pressure. Sorption isotherms can be generated from
an adsorption process or a desorption process; the difference between these
two curves is defined as hysteresis. There are three zones of isotherms.

Drying

Drying- Drying is a natural process in which moisture is removed with the help
of heat energy in order to dry it so that it can be preserved for longer time. It is
not done under controlled atmosphere. Example of drying is Sun drying. Drying
requires more space.

Dehydration- When water is removed of a food product under controlled

conditions such as temperature, air flow and humidity, then it is termed as
dehydration. Both meat and mass transfer occurs while drying and
dehydration.

Equilibrium Moisture Content – It is that moisture content of a material food

when it will neither lose nor gain moisture to/from the environment
surrounding the food material. The value of EMC depends on the food
material, the temperature and the relative humidity of the air with which it is
in contact.

The graph represents the drying rate curve.

There are different types of driers used for different type of food materials.
Some of them are bin driers used for grains, cabinet driers, tunnel driers (it
may have parallel or counter air flow system), drum driers (these are used for
drying slurries which forms a thin film on the drum and as it rotates, the slurry
gets dried and it is scrapped off using a scraper knife. There four types of drum
driers: single drum, double drum, twin drum drier and vacuum drum drier),
fluidized bed driers (these are used for peas drying). Some special types of
drying methods are:

1) Spray drying method- this method is used for making powder from liquid.
This method is quiet costly and complex. It used for making milk powder.
2) Vacuum drying method- the product is placed inside a chamber where the
pressure is reduced to a produce a vacuum. Drying under vacuum
conditions permits drying at a low temperature. This characteristic of
vacuum drying is very important for products that may suffer significant
flavor changes at higher temperature.
3) Freeze drying- Freeze drying involves the removal of moisture from a
frozen product without thawing the product. The temperature is kept
 below the freezing point of that product. This type of freezing can produce
high quality dried products. Because of the low temperature, low pressure
and low drying rate, freeze drying is quiet expensive. This method is
preferred for high value materials.

Evaporation
Evaporation is the removal of solvent as vapor from a solution, slurry or
suspension of solid in a liquid. The main aim is to produce a more concentrated
liquid. Evaporation is normally stopped before the solute starts to precipitate
in the operation of an evaporator. The basic principle involved in the
evaporation process is the application of heat to evaporate free water present
in the product. It is a surface phenomenon. There are various types of
evaporators such as open and vacuum evaporators. Earliest example of
evaporators were an open pan or kettle placed over flame.

Evaporators may consist of a heat exchanger for boiling the solution with
special provisions for separating the liquid and the vapor phases. Most of the
industrial evaporators have tubular heating surfaces. The tubes may be
horizontal or vertical, long or short; the liquid may be inside or outside the
tubes.

 Short tube vertical Evaporators (these are also known as Calandria or

Robert evaporators).
 Basket type Vertical Evaporators
 Long tube Vertical Evaporators
 Falling Film Evaporators
 Rising or Climbing Film Evaporator
 Forced Circulation evaporators
 Agitated Thin Film Evaporators
 Gasketed plate Evaporator

Evaporators are also classified by the number of effects. There are single effect
evaporators (the vapor from the boiling liquor is condensed and the
concentrated product is withdrawn from the bottom of the evaporator);
double effect evaporators (one more evaporator is attached in series such that
the vapor from one evaporator is used in the second evaporator in heating.
The vapor from the evaporator is condensed and the arrangement is called the
double effect evaporator); likewise there can be triple effect evaporator and
quadruple effect evaporator and so, on. [Evaporation of water is nearly
doubled in the double effect evaporation system compare to single effect per
unit mass of steam used.]

There are several configuration based on feeding arrangement. They are:

Forward feed: both feed and steam are introduced in the first effect and the
feed is passed from effect to effect parallel to the vapor from the earlier effect.
Concentration increases from first to last.

Backward feed: the feed enters at the last effect (coldest effect) and is
pumped through the successive effect. The product is withdrawn from the first
effect where the steam is introduced.

Mixed feed: the dilute feed liquid enters at an intermediate effect and flows in
the next higher effect till it reaches the last effect of the series.

Parallel feed: the fresh feed is introduced to each effect and in this
configuration the product is withdrawn of from the same effect in the parallel
feed operation.

Chilling:

Chilling is the process of cooing foods in the refrigerator or a cooling machine.

The temperature ideal for chilling is that temperature at which the food is
simply cooled or chilled and not frozen. Chilling of food is done to preserve the
quality as low temperature prevents the growth and activity of detrimental
microorganisms which results in the spoilage of the food when kept in normal
atmospheric temperature. Vegetables, fruits cooked foods and etc. are chilled
to delay their spoilage, retain their freshness and appeal.

Freezing
Freezing is also a method of preservation using low temperature for inhibiting
the growth of microorganism. Freezing refers to foods maintained in a frozen
condition. There are two types of freezing and they are: slow freezing and
fast/quick freezing. Most of the cases fast is preferred because the ice crystals
formed during fast freezing is quiet small in size than those formed during slow
freezing. In fast freezing, the time taken, drip loss, product damage is less but it
is a costly process whereas in slow freezing, the time taken, drip loss, product
damage is more but it is cheaper process.

Rate of Freezing: freezing starts at the surface and the freezing front proceeds
to the geometric center. Freezing rate is the rate at which the freezing front
proceeds to the geometric center of the food material.

During slow freezing the ice crystals that are formed are large in size and hence
it can rupture the cellular membrane and on thawing nutrients come out
through the ruptured membrane. This type of nutrient loss is known as drip
loss. Thawing is the opposite of freezing. When temperature rises above the
freezing point and the ice starts to melt.

Pre freezing period

Super
cooling Post freezing period
Phase change

This graph represents the freezing curve.

When freezing takes place, the whole food doesn’t change liquid to solid and it
doesn’t freeze uniformly also. For example the milk nearest to the container
will freeze first and then gradually it continues towards the centre. When the
water starts to freeze the milk becomes more concentrated in minerals,
protein, lactose and fat. The concentrate gradually freezes and the central core
which is highly concentrated remains as unfrozen liquid remains and it also
freezes ultimately if the temperature is sufficiently low.
The freezing point of pure water is 0°C, but actually water does not begin to
freeze at 0°C instead it becomes super cooled to a temperature several
degrees below 0°C.

For freezing, -18°C is considered to be ideal because all water gets frozen,
almost all microorganisms are killed or there growth gets inhibited, enzyme
activity gets inhibited.

There are two types of freezing system (on the basis of the use of the
refrigerant)

1. Direct contact system

i) Immersion freezing or cryogenic freezing
ii) Spray freezer
2. Indirect contact system
i) Air blast freezer
(a) Batch type
(b) Continuous type
ii) Plate freezers ( horizontal and vertical type)

Food Additives: some of the food additives are used for the preservation of
different foods. The uses of preservatives are done in limited amount.

Class-I preservatives: These are natural preservatives because they are found
naturally from the environment. They have fewer side effects and they are not
restricted in any food. Some of the examples of class I preservative are salt,
sugar, honey, vegetable oil, wood smoke and etc.

Class-II preservatives: These types of preservatives are synthetic and artificially

manufactured by man. These are restricted to a specific group of foods in
concentration not exceeding the limits prescribed for each. Examples are
sorbates, sulfates and benzoates.

Smoking: Smoking is generally done for cured/fresh meats and fish products.
The meat/fish is exposed to the smoke of the burning wood. The drying action
of the smoke tends to preserve the meat through many chemicals present in
wood smoke are natural preservatives as well. Smoke obtained by the slow
combustion of hardwood saw dust contains lower alcohols, aldehydes, organic
acids, carbonyl compounds, phenols. The purpose of smoking is to preserve it
for longer time and increasing the palatability by adding flavor and imparting a
rich brown color. There are two types of smoking: dry smoking and liquid
smoking. Smoke has antimicrobial, antioxidant properties. Smoking of meat
causes surface dehydration.

Different types of other additives are also used in foods such as emulsifiers
(food emulsifier is a substance that stabilizes an emulsion by their amphiphilic
nature by reducing their surface tension. Examples are lecithin, Glycerol Mono
Stearate), stabilizers and thickeners (these helps to improve and stabilize the
texture of foods, inhibits crystallization. Example Gum Arabic, pectin) these
also play a role in preserving the food as it helps the food to be stable.

High Hydrostatic pressure: In this method, food products are sealed and
placed into a compartment containing a liquid mostly water and pumps are
used to create pressure. The pumps may apply pressure constantly or
intermittently. A principle underlying the HHP is that the high pressure is
applied in an “isostatic” manner such that all region of food experience a
uniform pressure unlike heat processing. The application of high hydrostatic
pressures on a food product will kill many microorganisms but the spores are
not destroyed in this method. This method works well on acidic foods because
pressure tolerant spores are not able to live in environment with low pH levels.
The treatment works well for both solid and liquid products. This minimizes the
chemical reactions in food. Conventional thermal process damages food
component relating to color, flavor, and nutrition via enhanced chemical
reaction.

Modified atmosphere: it is a technology which helps to extend the shelf of

food products by minimizing the physiological, chemical and microbial
decomposition of air. Modified atmosphere an atmosphere is created with
different composition of gases and then the atmosphere is kept as it is without
further measurement and control taking place.

High Intensity Pulsed Electric Field: High-intensity pulsed electric field

(HIPEF) treatment is gaining popularity as non-thermal processing technology
due its instant penetration characteristics and short processing time. It is
evolving as a potential alternative to other thermal and chemical unit
operations in food processing. It leads to high retention or enhancement of the
concentration of some bioactive compounds especially phenols in fruit juices.
Moreover it is reported that HIPEF processing has shown promising results on
microbial reduction, enzymatic inactivation and prolonging the shelf-life of
liquid foods.

Ultrasound heating: ultrasound has been applied to a wide range of food

processing operation both in laboratory and commercially. Ultrasonic
processing system consists of three components: the electrical power
generator, the transducer and the emitter. The electrical power generator
provides the energy for the system which in most cases is an electrical current.
The second component is the transducer, is the central element in an
ultrasonic system. The transducer converts the electrical energy into sound
energy through mechanical vibrations at ultrasonic frequencies. The third
component is the emitter which is used to radiate the ultrasonic wave from the
transducer into the medium. There are three type of frequencies –low,
intermediate and high frequencies. At both low and intermediate frequencies,
sound penetrates and propagates in sinusoidal waves. The medium responds
by vibrating elastically, producing acoustic cavitation. Acoustic cavitation is the
primary mechanism by which ultrasound acts on food. Ultrasound can be used
for inactivation of microorganisms and enzymes in order to preserve the foods
while maintaining their quality. The rapid creation and collapse of bubbles
creates the antimicrobial effect of ultrasound. As the cells break down, cell
membrane and DNA damages occur due to free radical production.
Frequencies from 20-600 kHz are commonly used for this purpose. Enzymes
can also be inactivated through cavitation.

Pulsed light: It is developed as a non-thermal food processing technique that

involves discharge of high voltage electric pulses into the food for few seconds.
It aims at reducing the pests, spoilage microorganisms and pathogens from
food. It is mainly used to inactivate surface microorganisms on foods,
packaging materials and equipment. It uses light energy in concentrated form
and exposes on the substrate to intense short burst of light. Pulsed light is an
improved form of ultraviolet-C that is being given to foods. The main principle
involves the generation of pulsed light with gradually increasing from low to
high energy and then releasing the highly concentrated energy as broad
spectrum bursts. With a fraction of seconds, the electromagnetic energy gets
stored in the capacitor and is then released in the form of light within a
billionth of a second, which results in power amplification and minimum
additional energy consumption.

Oscillating magnetic field: oscillating the magnetic field has the potential to
inactivate microorganisms and improves the quality and shelf life compared to
other conventional process used for food preservation. It affects the
microorganism’s cell membrane as well as malignant cells. Oscillating magnetic
field of intensity 5 to 50 tesla (T) and frequency of 5 to 500 kHz is generally
applied in the process and reduced the number of microorganisms by at least
2-Log cycles. Magnetic fields are usually generated by supplying current to
electric coils and the required magnetic flux densities of 5 to 50 Tesla (T) is
must for inactivation of microorganisms. The technological advantage of
inactivating microorganism with oscillating magnetic fields includes minimal
thermal denaturation of nutritional and organoleptic properties. Reduced
energy level is required for adequate processing. Potential treatment of foods
instead of a flexible film packaging can be done to avoid the post process
contamination. Still, some additional research is necessary to be conducted for
correlating the inactivation of microorganisms in food and intensity used. A
number of reports have shown the effects of magnetic field on microbial
growth and reproduction as inhibitory, stimulatory and none observable.
Inactivation of microorganism was observed in a number of research papers
with oxalate in magnetic field special in milk yoghurt orange juice and bread
rolls and one pulse of oxygenated magnetic field was found adequate to
reduce the bacterial population between 102 and 103 cfu/gram. The modes of
actions are: it loosens the bond between the iron and protein; damage to
calcium and magnesium ions; break down of covalent bonds in DNA.

Irradiation
Food irradiation is the process of exposing food to ionizing radiation to destroy
microorganism, bacteria, viruses, or insects that might be present in the food.
Further applications include sprout inhibition, delay of ripening, and increase
of juice yield and improvement of re-hydration. Irradiation is sometimes
referred to as “cold pasteurization” since the result achieved is similar to heat
based pasteurization but without that amount of heat. Food irradiation acts by
damaging the target organism’s DNA beyond its ability to repair.
Microorganisms can no longer proliferate and continue their malignant or
pathogenic activities. Spoilage causing microorganism cannot continue their
activities. Insects do not survive, or become incapable of reproduction. Plants
cannot continue their natural ripening processes as enzyme proteins are
denatured and cannot continue the biochemical processes. Only certain food
radiation are can be used in food irradiation. Energies from these radiation
sources are too low to induce radioactivity in any materials, including food.
These are

1. Accelerated electron machines having a maximum energy of 10 MeV.

2. Gamma rays using the radionuclide cobalt-60 (used commonly) or
cesium-137 (used very rarely).
3. X-ray machines having a maximum energy of 5 million electron volts
(MeV); or Accelerated electron beams (E-beams)

Types of irradiation are

1. Low dose application (also known as Radurization )
Up to 1 KGy

2. Medium dose application ( also known as Radicidation )

From 1 KGy to 10 KGy

3. High dose application (also known as Radappertization )

Above 10 KGy

Microwave Heating:
Microwave heating is a multi-physics phenomenon that involves
electromagnetic waves and heat transfer; any material that is exposed to
electromagnetic radiation will be heated up. The rapidly varying electric and
magnetic fields leads to four sources of heating.
Unlike conventional oven, they do not heat up the whole space inside the
appliance and just use the waves to heat the food kept in it. This includes the
heat of preservation. Microwave energy heats the food in a unique fashion
that largely eliminates temperature gradients between the surface and the
centre of food masses. Foods do not heat from outside to inside as with
conventional heating since microwave penetration can generate heat
throughout the food mass simultaneously.

Hurdle technology:
Hurdle Technology advocates the deliberate combination of existing and novel
preservation techniques in order to establish a series of preservative factors
that any microorganism should not be able to overcome. Customer demands
for more natural and fresh like foods which are less food manufacturers to use
only mind preservation techniques for example refrigeration and modified
atmosphere packaging and bio preservation which makes the preservation
even greater difficult task. Consumers are demanding for fresh natural and
minimally processed food products on going trends have been eat out and to
consume ready-to-eat foods. New ecology routes for microbial growth have
emerged. Preservative factors or hurdles disturb the homeostasis of
microorganism. Microorganisms should not be able to jump over all the
hurdles present in the food products. Preservative factors prevent
microorganisms from multiplying and causing them to remain in inactive form
or even diet food preservation implies putting microorganisms in a hostile
environment in order to enable their growth. The feasible responses of
microorganism to this hostile environment determine whether they may grow
or diet food preservation method influences physiology and behavior of
microorganisms in.

Ohmic heating- Ohmic heating is an advanced thermal processing method

where in the food material which serves as an electrical resistor is heated by
passing electricity through it. Electrical energy is dissipated into heat which
results in rapid and uniform heating. Ohmic heating is also called electrical
resistance heating joule heating or electric heating and may be used for a
variety of applications in the food industry. During conventional thermal
processing either in cans or in aseptic processing system for particulate force
coma significant product quality damage may occur due to slow conduction
and convection heat transfer. Ohmic heating volumetrically heats the entire
mass of the food material does the resulting product is so far greater quality
than its canned counterpart. Ohmic heating can be used for heating liquid
foods containing large particulates such as soups, stews and fruit slices in
syrups and sauces and heat sensitive liquids. This technology is useful for the
treatment of proteinaceous food which tends to the nature and coagulate
when thermal process. Liquid egg can be heated in a fraction of seconds
without coagulating it. Like thermal processing Ohmic heating in active its
microorganism by heat. The shelf life of chemical process can force is
comparable to that of canned and sterile, aseptically processed products.

Food Packaging
Temperature- temperature plays a major role in food products because if the
temperature is not controlled then it can cause deterioration in food products
with the moderate temperature range over which most food is handling such
as 10 to 40°C. The rate of chemical reaction is approximately doubled for every
10°C price in temperature. This includes the rates of many enzymes as well as
non-enzymatic reaction. Excessive heat can denature protein, break emulsions,
dries out food by removing moisture and destroys vitamins. Uncontrolled cold
can also damage the foods. If fruits and vegetables are allowed to freeze, they
suffer discoloration, changes in texture, or cracked skins, leaving the food
susceptible to be attacked by microorganisms. Freezing may also cause
deterioration of liquid food. If a container of milk is allowed to freeze the
imitation will be broken and the fat will separate out. Cold damage to food
does not necessarily require the extreme of freezing. The fruits and vegetables
after harvest like other living system have optimum temperature
requirements. When held at refrigeration temperature of about 4°Csome are
weakened or killed and deteriorated processes follow cost of this is termed as
chill injury. Hence, maintaining the temperature while storing a food is very
important.

Water- excessive moisture pickup or loss causes substantial deteriorative

changes in food. Moisture is required for chemical reactions and for
microorganism’s growth, excessive moisture can accelerate this type of
iterations. Excessive loss of moisture can also have detrimental effects
particularly on appearance and texture. Moisture need not to be present
throughout the food to exert major effects surface moisture resulting from
slight changes in relative humidity can cause lumping and caking as well as
such surface defects as motoring crystallization and stickiness. The slightest
amount of condensation on the surface of the food can become a virtual pool
for the multiplication of bacteria on the growth of mold.

Oxygen-oxygen in the air is quite reactive and causes substantial deteriorative

effects in many foods although it is very essential for all the living beings.
Decide the destructive effects due to chemical oxidation of nutrients and other
constituents of food. Oxygen is also essential for mold growth. All models are
aerobic and this is why they are found growing on the surfaces of fruits and
other substances or within the cracks of these food materials. When the
oxygen is present then continuously respiration takes place in fruits and
vegetables and due to this respiration the shelf life of the fruits and vegetables
are reduced.

Light- some foods are very sensitive to light. Light can destroy some vitamins
such as vitamin A vitamin C riboflavin and also cause deterioration of many
food colors. Sensitive foods are often protected from light biopic packaging or
by incorporating compounds into glass and transparent films that screen out
the light of specific wavelengths. Due to light, fat oxidation and changes in
protein may also take place.

Sensitivity to mechanical damage- The fruits and vegetables are very

delicate and require handling with care. If packaging is not properly done then
while transporting there can be mechanical damage due this bruises and cracks
will be formed on the fruits and vegetables and can be a place for the growth
of the microbes. Mostly all the foods are prone to mechanical damages which
can lead to spoilage of the foods and gets wasted ultimately.

Attack by biological agents: when the microorganisms such as bacteria and

molds gets a suitable condition like temperature, humidity and etc. they starts
to grow and reproduce. They utilize the nutrients of the food for their growth.
They are major causes of spoilage of the fruits and vegetables. There are
different type of microorganisms that can grow in different conditions hence
controlling them if very essential because they lead to food spoilage,
production of toxins and can cause severe diseases and food borne illness.
Metal containers
There are two basic types of metal cans: those that are sealed using a ‘double
seam’ and are used to make canned foods (see Technical Brief: Canning of
Foods ); and those that have push-on lids or screw-caps that are used to pack
dried foods (e.g. milk or coffee powder, dried yeast) or cooking oils
respectively. Double-seamed cans are made from tinplated steel or aluminium
and are lined with specific lacquers for different types of food. Cans have a
number of advantages over other types of container: when sealed with a
double-seam they provide total protection of the contents; they are
tamperproof; and they can be made in a wide range of shapes and sizes.
However, the high cost of metal and the high manufacturing costs make cans
expensive compared to other containers. They are heavier than plastic
containers and therefore have higher transport costs. There are few can-
making factories in developing countries and small-scale food processors
generally do not use metal cans because of these disadvantages and/or lack of
availability. Larger (200 litre) metal drums are widely used as shipping
containers for oils, juices and other liquid foods, although cheaper plastic
drums are steadily replacing them. Other types of metal containers include
aluminium foil cups and trays, laminated foil pouches as alternatives to cans or
jars, collapsible aluminium tubes for pastes, and aluminium barrels. The
advantages of aluminium are that it is impermeable to moisture, odours, light
and microorganisms, and is an excellent barrier to gases. It has a good weight :
strength ratio and a high quality surface for decorating or printing.

Glass
Glass bottles and jars have some of the advantages of metal cans: they are
impervious to microorganisms, pests, moisture, oxygen and odours; they do
not react foods or have chemicals that migrate into foods; they can be heat
processed; they are recyclable, and (with new lids) they are re-useable; they
are rigid, to allow stacking without damage; and unlike metal cans, they are
transparent to display the contents. The main disadvantages of glass are: the
higher weight than most other types of packaging, which incurs higher
transport costs; containers are easily broken, especially when transported over
rough roads; they have more variable dimensions than metal or plastic
containers; and there are potentially serious hazards from glass splinters or
fragments that can contaminate foods (see Technical Brief: Packaging Foods in
Glass). Glass containers are still widely used for foods such as juices, wines,
beers, pickles/chutneys and jams (Fig 3.), especially in countries that have a
glass-making factory, but their disadvantages and the high cost for imported
containers in other places mean that they are steadily being replaced by plastic
containers.

Paper and cardboard

Paper and boards are made from wood pulp and additives are mixed into the
pulp to give particular properties to the packaging, including: Fillers such as
china clay, to increase the brightness of paper and improve surface
smoothness and printability.

Binders including starches, vegetable gums and synthetic resins helps to

improve the strength.

Resin or wax sizing agents to reduce penetration by water or printing inks.

Pigments to colour the paper and other chemicals to assist in the

manufacturing process.

Different types of paper are used to wrap foods: 'sulphate' paper is strong and
used for single- or multi-walled paper sacks for flour, sugar, fruits and
vegetables; 'Sulphite' paper is lighter and weaker and is used for grocery bags
and sweet wrappers, as an inner liner for plastic biscuit wrappers and
laminated with plastic films. Greaseproof paper is sulphite paper made
resistant to oils and fats, and used to wrap meat and dairy products. ‘Glassine’
is a greaseproof sulphite paper that is given a high gloss to make it resistant to
water when dry, but it loses its resistance once it becomes wet. Tissue paper is
a soft paper used for example to protect fruits against dust and bruising.
Papers are also treated with wax to provide a moisture barrier and allow the
paper to be heat sealed. Wax coatings are easily damaged and the wax is
therefore laminated between layers of paper and/or polyethylene when used
for bread wrappers and inner liners for cereal cartons.

‘Paperboard’ is a term that includes boxboard, chipboard and corrugated or

solid fibreboards. Typically, paperboard has the following structure:
1. A top layer of white material to give surface strength and printability.

2. Middle layers of grey/brown lower grade material. 3. An under-layer of

white material to stop the colour of the middle layer showing through.

4. A back layer if strength or printability is required. All layers are glued

together with adhesive.

White board is suitable for contact with foods and is often coated with wax or
laminated with plastic to make it heat sealable. It is used for ice cream,
chocolate and frozen food cartons. Chipboard is made from recycled paper and
is used for example as the outer cartons for tea or cereals but not in contact
with foods. It may be lined with white board to improve the appearance and
strength. Other types include moulded paperboard trays for eggs, fruit, meat
or fish or for egg cartons.

Small paperboard tubs or cans are used for snack foods, confectionery, nuts,
salt, cocoa powder and spices. Larger drums are used as a cheaper alternative
to metal drums for powders and other dry foods and, when lined with
polyethylene, for cooking fats. They are lightweight, resist compression and
may be made water resistant for outside storage. Other products that are
handled in lined drums include fruit and vegetable products, peanut butter and
sauces. Corrugated board resists impact, abrasion and compression damage,
and is therefore used for shipping containers. Smaller more numerous
corrugations give rigidity, whereas larger corrugations or double- and triple-
wall corrugated material provides cushioning and resists impact damage.
Corrugated cartons are used as shipping containers for bottled, canned or
plastic-packaged foods. Wet foods may be packed by lining the corrugated
board with polyethylene or a laminate of wax-coated greaseproof paper and
polyethylene, and used for chilled bulk meat, dairy products and frozen foods.

Cellulose
Plain cellulose is a glossy transparent film that is odourless, tasteless and
biodegradable (within approximately 100 days). It is tough and puncture
resistant, although it tears easily. It has dead-folding properties that make it
suitable for twist-wrapping (e.g. sugar confectionery). However, it is not heat
sealable and the dimensions and permeability of the film vary with changes in
humidity. It is used for foods that do not require a complete moisture or gas
barrier, including fresh bread and some types of sugar confectionery. Cellulose
acetate is a clear, glossy transparent, sparkling film that is permeable to water
vapour, odours and gases and is mainly used as a window material for
paperboard cartons.

Plastic
Plastics and plastic packaging are now an essential part of our everyday life.
The key to the success have been versatility. Packaging plastic are used for a
variety applications ranging from sterile storage of medical and pharmaceutical
goods to extending the shelf life of food stuff such as bread meat and
vegetables and protecting sensitive technical products from damage. This
means that plastics make a significant contribution to improving the quality of
your life. At the same time the preserve valuable resources and help to save
cost as a result of the lower weight. Overtime, plastics have become ever more
sophisticated, lighter and more versatile due to innovation innovative
technologies and they have replaced traditional packaging such as glass and
paper in many areas. Various application of plastic packaging includes: plastic
bags and plastic sacks, plastic blow moulded containers, plastic food packaging,
plastic films etc. Various types of Packaging Plastics: PET, HDPE, PVC, LDPE, PP,
PS. They have low permeability to gases, and moisture.

Coated films
Films are coated with other polymers or aluminium to improve their barrier
properties or to impart heat sealability. For example: a nitrocellulose coating
on both sides of cellulose film improves the barrier to oxygen, moisture and
odours, and enables the film to be heat sealed when broad seals are used.
Packs made from cellulose that has a coating of vinyl acetate are tough,
stretchable and permeable to air, smoke and moisture. They are used for
packaging meats before smoking and cooking. A thin coating of aluminium
(termed ‘metallisation’) produces a very good barrier to oils, gases, moisture,
odours and light. This metallised film is less expensive and more flexible than
plastic/aluminium foil laminates.
Aseptic Packaging
Aseptic packaging is a specialized manufacturing process in which
pharmaceuticals food or other contains are sterilized separately from
packaging. The contents are then inserted into the container in a sterile
environment. This method uses extremely high temperatures to maintain the
freshness of the contents while also ensuring that it's not contaminated with
microorganisms. The accepted packaging process is used for various food
products and beverages including milk, soap, tomatoes, puddings and several
others. It is also used in pharmaceutical industries to ensure that medications
are not polluted with harmful bacteria. Aseptic packaging has been growing in
popularity among the manufacturers in recent years there are various
advantages of aseptic packaging. They are: increased shelf life of the food
product, reduced shipping and distribution cost, no excess preservatives
required, it is eco-friendly, maintenance quality of the contents.

Edible packaging
Edible films and coatings are materials that can be directly consume. We
provide various and protection, while enhancing quality and safety of food
products. One of the main advantages of using edible packaging system as
compared to synthetic packaging system is that they are integral part of the
food products; they can be eaten without the need to unpack and throw the
package. Moreover these films a usually are derived from renewable and
edible components, offering the important advantage of being biodegradable
and environmental friendly. There are important factors that need to be
considered when selecting edible packaging material: their ability to function
as a barrier to the environment, their capability to improve food preservation
and processing techniques and to be effective carrier for bioactive compounds.
Edible films are in general good moisture barrier, able to inhibit moisture
exchange between food and atmosphere, preventing therefore microbial
growth, textural change and undesirable chemical and enzymatic reactions.
Edible materials are also good oxygen barrier, able to preserve the quality and
extend the shelf life of oxygen sensitive food products.
Retort Pouch
A retort pouch is constructed from a flexible metal-plastic laminate that is able
to withstand the thermal processing used for sterilization. The food is first
prepared, either raw or cooked, and then sealed into the retort pouch. The
pouch is then heated to 240-250 °F (116-121 °C) for several minutes under high
pressure inside a retort or autoclave machine. The food inside is cooked in a
similar way to pressure cooking. This process reliably kills all commonly
occurring microorganisms (particularly Clostridium botulinum), preventing it
from spoiling. The packaging process is very similar to canning, except that the
package itself is flexible. The lamination structure does not allow permeation
of gases from outside into the pouch. The retort pouch construction varies
from one application to another, as a liquid product needs different barrier
properties than a dry product, and similarly an acidic product needs different
chemical resistance than a basic product. Some different layers used in retort
pouches include:

Polyester (PET) – provides a gloss and rigid layer, may be printed inside

Nylon (bi-oriented polyamide) – provides puncture resistance

Aluminum (Al) – provides a very thin but effective gas barrier

Food-grade cast polypropylene (CPP) – used as the sealing layer

Polyethylene (PE) – can be used instead of PP as a sealing and bonding layer

This multi-layer structure prevents the retort pouch from being recycled into
other retort pouches or food packaging. However, the material can be recycled
into an aluminized resin or up-cycled into textile materials. The weight of a
pouch is less than regular cans or bottles, and the energy required to produce
each pouch is less than competing packaging from metals, paper, and glass. It
allows the sterile packaging of a wide variety of food and drink handled by
aseptic processing, and is used as an alternative to traditional industrial
canning methods. Packaged foods range from water to fully cooked, thermo-
stabilized (heat-treated) high-caloric (1,300 kcal on average) meals such as
Meals, Ready-to-Eat (MREs) which can be eaten cold, warmed by submersing
in hot water.
Active Packaging
Active packaging refers to the incorporation of certain components into
packaging system that release or absorb substances from or into the packaged
food or the surrounding environment so as to prolong shelf life and sustain the
quality, safety and sensory characteristics of the food. Active compounds are
incorporated in different forms such as sachets, labels, films, coatings. Active
packaging system may contain oxygen scavengers, ethylene scavengers,
ethanol emitters and etc. Active food packaging systems using Oxygen
scavenging and antimicrobial technologies have the potential to extend the
shelf life of perishable foods while at the same time improving their quality by
reducing the need of additives and preservatives.

Intelligent packaging
in intelligent packaging, the package function switches on and off in response
to changing external or internal conditions and can include our communication
to the consumer or end user as the status of the product. A simple definition of
intelligent packaging is packaging with sensors and informs. Intelligent tamper
proof packaging- knowing whether a package has been tampered with is
equally important to consumer. Temper evidence technologies that cannot
easily be replicated, example: based on optical variable films or gases sensing
dyes, involving irreversible color changes, will become more widespread and
cost effective for disposable Packaging of commodity items. Piezoelectric
polymeric materials might be incorporated in tour package construction so
that the package changes color at certain stress threshold. In this way self-
bruising closure on a bottle or jar might indicate that atoms have been made to
open it.

Microwave packaging
One of the most rapidly developing areas of added convenience is packaging
design for microwave oven. Such packaging must meet all other standard
requirements for food packaging and also must be transfer into microwaves
and able to withstand the temperature in counted in heating food in the
microwave oven full stop the most commonly used material for this application
are made of plastics. Several plastic such as polyester and nylon which are
capable of withstanding higher temperatures have been used to package
microwave foods. These plastics do not deform or char when exposed to
temperatures in excess of 100°C.

CAP/MAP
In both CAP and MAP, the principle is to store the products under high Carbon
dioxide content (other gases like nitrogen and ethylene are also added along
with it) and low oxygen content .The addition and removal of gases is such that
atmospheric composition of fruits, vegetables and their products is different
from that of air. In both of these processes there is controlled rate of
respiration to preserve the natural color, flavor and taste and aroma.

MODIFIED ATMOSPHERE PACKAGING (MAP)

It is defined as enclosure of food in a package in which the atmosphere inside
the package is modified or altered to provide an optimum atmosphere for
increasing shelf life and maintaining food quality. Generally used along with
other operations like chilling. Other benefits of MAP include maintenance of
high RH, reduction in water loss, improved hygiene by reducing contamination
during handling. Modified of air can be done by 2 methods-active modification
and passive modification. Active modification (also called gas flushing) involves
displacing the air with controlled, desired mixture of gases while passive
modification occurs as a consequence of food’s respiration and metabolism of
microorganisms present inside it.

CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERE PACKAGING (CAP)

It is a packaging method in which the concentration of oxygen, carbon dioxide
and nitrogen is altered and temperature and humidity of product’s
atmosphere is regulated. Some Carbon dioxide release agents, oxygen
scavenger and ethylene absorbers are used.

Advantages of MAP and CAP

Retardation of Senescence.Some physiological disorders like chilling injury is

prevented. Post-harvest diseases and decay is prevented. Shelf life is
increased, Nutritional qualities retained; No addition of chemical preservatives.
Disadvantages of MAP and CAP

Decay, internal browning.Sometimes, increased concentration of carbon

dioxide leads to anaerobic respiration thus leading to off flavor development,
irregular ripening of bananas and tomatoes.

Packaging of Cereals
Cereals are the fruits of cultivated grasses, member of monocotyledonous
family Gramineae. The serials of commerce and industry are harvested
transported and stored in the form of grains. There are 5 modes of the
variations to be considered when selecting suitable packaging material for
breakfast cereals. They are: moisture gain resulting in loss of Crispness, leopard
oxidation resulting in rancidity and off flavors, loss of vitamins, breakage
resulting in an aesthetically undesirable product, loss of Aroma from flavored
products. Packaging of breakfast cereals has traditionally been in fiberboard
boxes with a supercalendered waxed glassine liner. More recently the glassine
liner has been replaced by a various plastic materials, in particular thin gauge
HDPE which is usually folded rather than heat sealed. HDPE co-extruded with a
thin layer of EVA copolymer is a recent introduction, the EVA copolymer
permitting a lower heat seal temperature and offering the consumer and
appealing and peel able seal. To minimize oxidative rancidity it is important
that the package exclude light. The major factor influencing vitamin loss in
packaged cereal is the temperature of storage. More serious are packed with
people based material made from the wood fiber. Micro flute corrugated
paper boards have unique characteristics including good strength properties,
excellent shock absorbing ability, good aesthetic appearance, environmental
advantages and distinctive print properties. White board is suitable for contact
with food and is often coated with low density polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride
or wax. It is used for snacks chocolates and Frozen Food cartons. Flexible
plastic films have been used for serious in single packaging or multiple serving
size packages with other packaging material. The films are sometimes coated
with aluminum to improve the barrier properties or to impart high heat
sealability. Sometimes metal containers are also used for cereals and cereal
products. For bulk cereal packaging jute bags, woven sacks made out of hi
density poly ethylene or polypropylene and multiwall paper sacks are used.
Packaging of dairy and dairy products
For highly perishable commodities like milk and milk products, packaging is
very essential for safe delivery of the products to the consumer without
altering its characteristics and nutritive value. Milk and milk products spoil
rapidly at temperature above refrigeration and in presence of Oxygen and
other contaminating agents present in the atmosphere. the primary function
of packaging is to protect this product from adverse atmospheric conditions
such as oxygen, light, moisture, heat and etc. and to present the product in an
appealing manner to the customer. Liquid pasteurized milk are generally
packed in glass bottles which offer certain advantages like transparency,
rigidity, hygienic, non-toxic nature but this glass bottles are heavy in weight
and easily breakable. Liquid mix are also packed in plastic pouches which are
made up of low density polyethylene, these are high puncture resistant and
also eliminate pinhole problems. The pouches are formed and filled on form fill
seal machines. Aseptic packaging commonly known as tetra packs are also
used for milk packaging. Condensed and evaporated milk are sometimes
packed in tin plated containers. Butter which is a high fat containing dairy
product is prone to oxidative rancidity. For packaging butter parchment paper
is used (known as butter wrap) which is greaseproof but it does not provide a
sufficient barrier to oxygen. Recently embossed Aluminum foil backed
parchment paper has been introduced for UV light protection and sales appeal.
In some countries plastic cups and plastic tubs with lids are used for butter
packaging. Ice cream - the packaging for ice-cream should be designed in such
a way that the pack performs efficiently to contain the product at freezing
temperature full stop conventional form of packages include paper board,
paper cups and in some cases even metal containers. Recently there are
various types of packaging materials that are used for ice cream packaging:
paper board carton with poly coated thermoformed/ injection molded plastic
containers made from high impact polystyrene; polypropylene for high density
polyethylene. The material used for lids are made of low density polyethylene.
For yoghurt injection molded polystyrene and polypropylene crops have been
introduced with Aluminum foil based peel able lids are used.
Water Packaging
Water is very important for us and it should be packed in such a that it's purity
is not harmed PET, Polypropylene (PP). Poly vinyl chloride (PVC), Polyethylene,
and Polycarbonate (PC) in different forms such as pouches, cans, pots, drums,
bottles are being used for storage and distribution of drinking water. LDPE/
LLDPE is widely used for packing of potable drinking water in 200 ml pouches
for serving during travelling. Tetra packs, HDPE are also used.

Packaging material properties

1. PET bottles being used for packaging drinking water. They have good impact
strength and they neither impart taint nor allow packed water to pick up
foreign odor. PETE provides a good barrier to gases (oxygen and carbon
dioxide) and moisture. It also has good resistance to heat, mineral oils,
solvents, and acids, but not to bases. The main reasons for its popularity are its
glass-like transparency, adequate gas barrier for retention of carbonation, light
weight, and shatter resistance.

2. Polycarbonate offers clear, heat resistant, and durable, and is mainly used as
a replacement for glass items such as large returnable/refillable water bottles
and sterilizable baby bottles.

3. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), an addition polymer of vinyl chloride, is heavy, stiff,

ductile, and a medium strong, amorphous, transparent material. It has
excellent resistance to chemicals (acids and bases), grease, and oil, good flow
characteristics and stable electrical properties. Although PVC is primarily used
in medical and other non-food applications, its uses include bottles and
packaging films.

4. HDPE provides excellent resistance to most solvents, very good resistance to

alcohols, dilute acids and alkalis moderate resistance to oils and greases and
poor resistance to hydrocarbons (aliphatic, aromatic, halogenated).

5. LDPE offers good resistance to alcohols, dilute alkalis and acids, limited
resistance to aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, mineral oils, oxidizing
agents and halogenated hydrocarbons.
Packaging of fruits and vegetables
Fruits and vegetables are highly perishable in nature. It is difficult to transport
then through a long distance. The properties of the packaging materials are: it
should be non-toxic; it should have moisture, fat, gas and odor protection. It
should give light protection, resistance to impact. Transparency, tamper
proofiness and easy to open are some of the required properties. Bags, crates,
hampers, baskets, cartons, bulk bins and palletized containers are convenient,
containers for handling, transporting and marketing fresh produce. The earliest
form of packaging material for frozen fruits and vegetables was waxed carton
board, often moisture-proof regenerated cellulose film overwrap. These were
replaced with folding cartons having a hot melt coating of PVC/PVDC co
polymer and the ability for the flaps to heat sealed. Modified Atmosphere
Packaging is also applied for fruits and vegetables. Processed fruits and
vegetables such as canned fruits are packed in metals cans and some are
processed fruits and vegetables are packed in Glass containers generally for
premium end of the market. Retort able pouches made from laminates of
plastic film generally with an aluminum central layer can also be used for the
packaging of fruits and vegetables which are preserved by the use of heat. The
packaging of dehydrated fruits and vegetables requires the use of a package
which will prevent or at the very least minimize the ingress of moisture and in
certain instances, oxygen. Vacuum or inert gas packaging may be used if the
product is particularly sensitive to oxidative.

Packaging of Meat and Meat products:

The basic purpose of packaging is to protect meat and meat products from
undesirable impacts on quality including microbiological and physio-chemical
alterations. Packaging protects from dirt, microorganisms, and parasites, toxic
substance, prevents the moisture uptake or loss, and prevents the color, smell
and taste. Basic types of meat packaging are done using vacuum packaging,
skin packaging, modified atmosphere packaging, controlled atmosphere
packaging, active packaging (using oxygen scavengers, moisture absorbers,
carbon dioxide scavengers and emitters, antimicrobial packaging,), intelligent
packaging (sensors, indicators, etc.). a range of synthetic materials suitable for
meat packaging are available in the form of plastic films or foils. The packaging
films must be flexible, have good mechanical strength, light weight, odorless,
and have good barrier properties against gases, good sealability, low cost. The
most common synthetic materials used for packaging of meat are:
polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinylchloride, and polyamide.
Polyvinylidencholride and Ethylenvinyl alcohol are used as barrier plastic.
Cellulose in the form of transparent films is now no longer of great importance
in meat packaging. Sausages are packed in natural packaging material such as
animal intestine; they are also packed in plastic films.

Food Processing Operation

Types of manufacturing process

Industrial processes can be classified depending on the output of the process

as:

 Continuous processes.
 Discrete processes.
 Batch processes.

Continuous processes
In a continuous process, as suggested by the name, the flow of material or
product is continuous. Processing the materials in different equipment
produces the products. Each machine operates in a single steady state and
performs a specific processing function. Some examples of continuous
processes are pasta production, tomato sauce and juice production, ice cream
production, mayonnaise production, etc. Continuous transformation of mass,
energy and momentum takes place. The target is a product which is uniform in
time. The process is stopped only for maintenance (scheduled or not),
cleaning, irregular working.

Continuous processes have the following advantages over a batch process:

 Production of a narrow specification product, i.e., higher and consistent

product quality.
 Reduced manufacturing cost.
 Improved asset utilization.
 Reduced waste.
Discrete processes
In a discrete process, the output of the process appears one-by-one or in
discrete quantities. The products are produced in lots based on common raw
materials and production history. In a discrete process, a specified quantity of
products moves as a unit or group of parts between workstations. Some
examples of discrete processes are assembly processes.

Batch process
A batch is defined as: The material that is produced by a single execution of a
batch process, or an entity that represents the production of a single material
at any point of time in the process. The term ‘batch’ means both the material
produced by and during the process, and also an entity that represents the
production of that material. The term ‘batch’ can be considered a shortcut for
“the production of a batch”.

Definition of Batch Process- A process is considered to be a batch process if the

process consists of a sequence of one or more steps that must be performed in
a defined order. At the end of the sequence of steps, a finite quantity of the
finished product is produced. The sequence is repeated to produce another
batch of the product. As a general definition, a batch process is a process that
leads to the production of finite quantities of material by subjecting quantities
of input raw materials to an ordered set of processing activities over a finite
period of time using one or more pieces of equipment. In a batch process, the
output of the process appears in quantities of materials or lots. Batch
processes are neither continuous nor discrete, but have the characteristics of
both. Batch processes are usually performed in a sequential way. Batch
processes define a sub-class of sequential processes. Batch processes generate
a product but the sequential processes need not necessarily generate a
product. Some examples of batch processes are beverage processing, biotech
products manufacturing, dairy processing, food processing, pharmaceutical
formulations.
Cleaning
Foods by the nature of the way they are grown or produced on farms in open
environment often require cleaning before use. Cleaning ranges from simple
removal of Dirt from an egg shell with an abrasive brush to complete removal
of bacteria from a liquid food by passing it through a micro porous membrane.
Grains must be cleaned of stones before use full stop cleaning can be
accomplished with brushes, high velocity air, steam, water, vacuum, magnetic
attraction of metal contaminants, mechanical separation and etc. depending
on the product and the nature of the dirt. Some cleaning methods are dictated
by the surface characteristics of the product. Because pineapples have an
irregular surface the scrubbing action of high pressure water jets is used.
Cleaning is the unit operation in which contaminating materials are removed
from the food and separated to leave the surface of the food in a suitable
condition for further processing. Cleaning can be performed by using:

Wet procedures: Soaking, spraying, floatation, washing and ultrasonic cleaning.

Dry procedures: Separation by air, magnetic attraction of metal contaminants

or by physical methods depending upon the product and nature of the dirt.

Fruit and vegetables are generally washed with water to remove dust, dirt and
adhering surface micro-flora. Fruits like peach, apricot etc that are lye peeled
are not washed before peeling. Washing after peeling removes vitamins and
minerals and should be discouraged. Different methods of washing include
soaking or agitating in water, washing with cold or hot water sprays etc.
Mechanical washers involve agitating or tumbling the commodity on moving
belts or revolving screens while they are immersed in water or subjected to
water sprays. Washing by using high pressure sprays is most satisfactory.
Detergents are frequently used in the wash or rinse water. Vegetables may be
soaked in dilute solution of potassium permanganate or chlorine (25-50 ppm)
for disinfection.

Size Reduction
Size reduction is a unit operation involving such activities as cutting, slicing,
milling or pulping of food. It requires energy input to overcome a breaking
stress. The three types of forces involved in size reduction of solids are
compression, impact and shear. Compression is a grinding force, example:
pulverize cereal in a mortar. Impact occurs when material is thrown against a
surface causing it to disintegrate. Shear is a slicing force where you have one
surface sliding over another. The typical example of this is the use of knives to
slice food for example, slicing bread. All of these forces normally exist together
although one usually predominates. Equipment used in size reduction of solids
is generally placed into three categories:

 Cutting, slicing, dicing, mincing, shredding and flaking equipment

 Pulping equipment
 Milling

Size reduction of meat, fresh fruits and vegetables is generally done using
equipment from the first two categories while grains, pulses, spices and other
low-moisture foods are processed by milling. Determination of energy
required in size reduction is generally done using either Kick’s law or Rittinger’s
law. Kick’s law is used for coarse grinding; Bond’s law and Rittinger’s law are
used for intermediate and fine grinding respectively.

Screening
Screening is the practice of taking granulated ore material and separating it
into multiple grades by particle size. This practice occurs in a variety of
industries such as mining and mineral processing, agriculture, pharmaceutical,
food, plastics, and recycling.

Disintegration
It covers wide range of operations that are used to sub-divide large masses of
foods into smaller units or particles. It may involve cutting, slicing, chopping,
grating, pressing to extract juice, pulping, homogenizing etc.

Slicing, chopping, cutting and dicing: Fruit and vegetables are sliced to a
desirable size either manually or by using semi or automatic slicing/chopping
or dicing machines. These unit operations are collectively called as size
reduction. These unit operations increase the rate of drying, heating, cooling
and improve the efficiency and rate of extraction of liquid components like
fruit juices.
Juice extraction: For juice extraction, the fruits and vegetables like apple, pear,
carrot etc. are grated in fruit grater to reduce their particle size. The grated
mass is then pressed through basket press/hydraulic press to extract juice.

Homogenization: Homogenization of milk causes disintegration of fat globules

in milk or cream from large to minute globules. The smaller fat globules then
remain evenly distributed throughout the milk or cream with fewer tendencies
to coalesce and separate from the water phase of the milk. Disintegration of
fat globules is done by forcing the milk or cream under high pressure through a
valve with very small openings. Similarly, fruit juices are homogenized to
prevent sedimentation during storage.

Pulping: For extraction of pulp, the fruits like apple, pear, apricot, guava,
plums, tomato etc. after preliminary treatment (crushing with or without
heating), are passed through the pulper. With the action of blades/flights in
the pulper, the fine pulp is forced through the openings of the screen/sieve
which is collected at one end, while, seeds, skin and core is forced through
other end of the pulper. Depending upon the type of fruit, various types of
pulper like baby pulper, tomato pulper, mango pulper etc. can be used.

Mixing
Definition of Mixing: Mixing may be defined as a unit operation in which two or
more components, in an unmixed or partially mixed state, are treated so that
each unit (particles, molecules etc.) of the components lies as nearly as
possible in contact with a unit of each of the other components. Mixing the
random distribution, into and through one another, of two or more initially
separate phases. Mixing is a random distribution of materials in different
phases into another forming a homogenous phase. There are different types of
mixers depending upon the type of material to be mixed. They may be used for
mixing solids with solids, liquid with liquids, liquids with solids, gases with
liquids etc.

For simple mixing of dry ingredients, a conical blender may be used.

A ribbon blender with rotating mixing elements is used to mix sugar with other
dry components to produce fluffy dry mix.
Propeller type agitator mounted within stainless steel vat is used for mixing
solids into liquids to dissolve them as in case of salt and sugar solution.

Importance of Mixing:

1. To make simple physical mixture: In the production of tablets, capsules,

sachets and dry powders where two or more powders or granules are mixed.

2. Physical Change: Mixing may aim at producing a change that is physical, for
example the solution of a soluble substance. In case of dissolving a solid in a
solvent mixing will take place by diffusion but the process will be slow. In this
case agitation makes the process rapid.

3. Dispersion: In case of emulsions and creams two immiscible liquids are

mixed where one liquid is dispersed into other.

In suspension and pastes solid particles are dispersed in a liquid by mixing. 4.

Promotion of reaction: Mixing encourages and controls a chemical reaction, so
ensuring uniform products.

Objectives of Mixing:

To ensure uniformity; to initiate or to enhance the physical or chemical

reactions e.g.: diffusion, dissolution etc.; to make followings: Tablets,
Suspensions, Emulsions, Pastes, Creams, Ointments, Solutions, Syrups, Tablet
coatings

Centrifugation
Centrifugation is a procedure that involves the use of centrifugal force for the
sedimentation of mixture with a centrifuge used in industry and in laboratory
settings. More dense components of the mixture move away from the axis of
the centrifuge while less dense components of the mixture move towards the
axis.

A particle or droplet will settle in a fluid if its density is greater than that of the
fluid in which it is suspended. The (laminar) settling velocity of particles whose
concentration is very low, that is when the flow of fluid around a particle does
not affect the flow around neighboring particles, can be calculated from Stokes
Law:
 D2 g
u= ∆ρ
18 ƞ

Where D is the diameter of the particle and n is the absolute viscosity of the
surrounding fluid. ∆ ρ Is the density difference between that of the particle and
its surrounding fluid: if ∆ ρ is positive the particle will settle and if it is negative
the particle will float.

There are three types of centrifuges

1. Low speed centrifuges. It is also called as clinical centrifuge. The common

centrifuge has a maximum speed in the range of 4000 to 5000 rpm with RCF
value approx. up to 3000Xg. These instruments usually operate at low
temperature with no means of temperature control of the samples. Two types
of rotors fixed angle and swinging bucket may be used in this instruments. Low
speed centrifuges are especially useful for the rapid sedimentation of coarse
precipitates or red blood cells. The sample is centrifuged until the particles are
packed into a pellet at the bottom of the tube. The upper liquid portion, the
supernatant, is then separated by decantation.

2. High Speed Centrifuges: High speed centrifuges for more sophisticated

biochemical applications. Higher speeds and temperature control of the rotor
chambers are essential. Rotor chambers in most instruments are maintained at
or near 4°C. Three types of rotors are available for high speed centrifugation. a.
Fixed Angel rotor. b. Swinging-bucket rotors c. vertical rotor High speed
centrifuges are used to sediment Cell debris after cell homogenization,
Ammonium sulfate precipitates of proteins and cellular organelles such as
chloroplasts, mitochondria and nuclei.

3. Ultracentrifuges: The most sophisticated of the centrifuges are the

ultracentrifuges because of the high speeds attainable intense heat is
generated in the rotor so the spin chamber must be refrigerated and placed
under high vacuum to reduce friction. It is a high speed centrifuge that has
fixed head rotors .It is mainly used in separation of lipoproteins since the
separation is long process there is generation of heat and thus are provided
with internal cooling system. Ultracentrifuges can be used both for preparative
work as well as for analytical. Preparative models its primarily used for
separations and purification of samples for further analysis and analytical
models which are designed for performing physical measurements on the
sample during sedimentation.

Field of application

Centrifugation is typically used in the dairy industry in the clarification of milk,

the skimming of milk and whey, the concentration of cream, in the production
and the recovery of casein, in the cheese industry, and in lactose and whey
protein processing, etc. This processing technique is also used in beverage
technology, vegetable and fruit juices, coffee, tea, beer, wine, soy milk, oil and
fat processing/recovery, cocoa butter, and in sugar manufacturing etc.

Description of techniques

Centrifugation is used to separate mixtures of two or more phases, one of

which is a continuous phase. The driving force behind the separation is the
difference in density between the phases. By using centrifugal forces the
separation process is accelerated. The necessary centrifugal forces are
generated by rotating the materials. The force generated depends on the
speed and radius of rotation. In raw milk for example, the skimmed milk is the
continuous phase, the fat phase is a discontinuous phase formed of fat
globules with diameters of some microns, and a third phase consists of solid
particles, hairs, udder cells, straw etc. When the differences in density are
large and time is not a limiting factor separation can take place by gravity
(known as sedimentation and skimming). In beer production, clarification of
the hot wort is carried out in order to remove particles (hot trub) to get clear
wort. The commonly used equipment for wort clarification is the whirlpool,
where wort trub particles are separated in tangential flow.

Different types of centrifuge:

1) Tubular/disc bowl centrifuge, 2) Solid bowl nozzle or valve type

centrifuges, 3) Conveyor Bowl/reciprocating conveyor/basket
centrifuges
Sorting & Grading

Sorting and grading are two important steps affecting quality and storage life
of foods. These operations are performed to remove foreign and undesirable
material from foods.

Sorting generally refers to removal of foreign / undesirable matters from the

desired ones.Sorting are the separation of foods into categories on the basis of
a measurable physical property. Like cleaning, sorting should be employed as
early as possible to ensure a uniform product for subsequent processing. The
four main physical properties used to sort foods are size, shape, weight and
color.

Shape and size sorting: The particle size distribution of a material is expressed
as either the mass fraction of material that is retained on each sieve or
cumulative percentage of material retained. Size sorting is the separation of
solids into two or more fractions on the basis of differences in size.

Color sorting: Small particulate foods may be automatically sorted at high

rates using microprocessor controlled color sorting equipment. Particles are
fed into chute one at a time. The angle, shape and lining material of chute are
altered to control the velocity of pieces as the pass a photo detector. Photo
detectors measure the reflected color of each piece and compare it with preset
standards, and defective foods are separated by a short blast of compressed
air.

Weight sorting: Weight sorting is more accurate than other methods and is
therefore used for more valuable foods. Aspiration and flotation sorting use
differences in density to sort food and are similar in principle and operation to
aspiration and flotation cleaning.

Grading refers to classification of cleaned product into various quality fractions

depending upon various commercial values and other uses.

Types of graders:-

Screen grader: it is a chain link type driven over a pair of rolls so that the
food is conveyed along with the belt. A superimposed vibration ensures
that any item smaller than the whole size of belt will drop though the
chute. The machine generally has 2 or 3 belts for grading of 2 to 3 types
of grading. The belt may be covered with rubber to minimize the
damage. This type of grader is used for potato.

Barrel screen: This machine is provided 3 or even 4 grades.a typical

barrel grade would provide three in-line cylindrical screens. The smaller
holes are in the upper end of the sloping barrel and the larger holes are
at discharge end. The whole barrel is tilted about 5 degree so that food
passes down the machine by gravity. This type of grader is used for
potato and peas like products.

Mechanical Weight Grader: this machine works on the basis of unit

weight. The food is placed into individual cup. The cup are travelled a
distance along with food. The spring tension becomes weaker along with
distance. The heavier products overcome the reaction of spring and
discharged at the beginning and lighter products do not overcome the
reaction and travel a long distance along with cup. The lightest product
travel maximum distance and heaviest product travel minimum
distance. This type of grader is used for apples.

Diverging Roller grader: here feed are given into the roller which are
having expanding opening and rotating in opposite direction. The food
move in the divergent opening due to rotation of the rollers. Fruit pass
through the opening when the size of opening is equal to the size of
food. This type of grader is used for round shaped and conical shaped
(carrot) product.

Expanding Belt Grader: the ungraded produce is fed from the the end
having smaller opening. Fruits get singled and get held in the space
between the belts and move along the direction of motion. Small size
food gets graded by passing through the smaller opening near the
feeding end. The big one gets graded by passing through the largest
opening near the far end of belt. This type of grader is used for round
shape food, fruits and vegetables.
 Expanding Opening Roller Grader: the food is carried along on a series
of rollers which get wider and wider as they move along the length of
table. The smaller ones drop through first and larger ones further down.
4 to 5 grades are possible through the machine. This type of grader is
used for potato, onion, tomato, egg etc.
Roller sorter: there are number of rolls in the roller belt. Each roll
rotates about its own axis. So each piece of the product gets an
opportunity to orientate itself to its minimum dimension and get
separated.

Filtration and Membrane Separation

Filtration

Solid particles are removed from liquids by somewhat different mechanisms

than used for removing solid particles from air. The removal process can be
described by standard equations. In this section, we will examine some of
these equations and discuss specific applications of filtration techniques. In
general, the filtration process is described by the manner in which the fluid
being filtered flows through the filter medium where the solids are deposited.
As the solids are removed from the fluid, they accumulate in the filter medium,
resulting in an increased resistance to flow as the filtration process continues.
All these factors result in a description of filtration rate. In addition, this
filtration rate depends on several other factors, including

■The pressure drop across the filter medium ■The area of the filtering
surface ■The viscosity of the filtrate ■The resistance of the filter cake as
determined by the solids removed from the fluid ■The resistance of the filter
medium. The rate of filtration can be written as follows:
Driving Force
Rate of filtration = Resistance

Where the driving force is the pressure required to move the fluid through the
filter medium and the resistance is depends on several factors.
Membrane Filtration

A membrane is a thin layer of semi-permeable material that separates

substances when a driving force is applied across the membrane. Membrane
processes are increasingly used for removal of bacteria, microorganisms,
particulates, and natural organic material, which can impart color, tastes, and
odors to water and react with disinfectants to form disinfection by-products.
As advancements are made in membrane production and module design,
capital and operating costs continue to decline. The membrane processes
discussed here are microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltration (UF), Nano filtration
(NF), and reverse osmosis (RO).

MICROFILTRATION

Microfiltration is loosely defined as a membrane separation process using

membranes with a pore size of approximately 0.03 to 10 microns (1 micron =
0.0001 millimetre), a molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) of greater than
1000,000 Daltons and a relatively low feed water operating pressure of
approximately 100 to 400 kPa (15 to 60psi) Materials removed by MF include
sand, silt, clays, Giardia lamblia and Crypotosporidium cysts, algae, and some
bacterial species. MF is not an absolute barrier to viruses. However, when used
in combination with disinfection, MF appears to control these microorganisms
in water. There is a growing emphasis on limiting the concentrations and
number of chemicals that are applied during water treatment. By physically
removing the pathogens, membrane filtration can significantly reduce chemical
addition, such as chlorination. Another application for the technology is for
removal of natural synthetic organic matter to reduce fouling potential. In its
normal operation, MF removes little or no organic matter; however, when pre-
treatment is applied, increased removal of organic material can occur. MF can
be used as a pre-treatment to RO or NF to reduce fouling potential. Both RO
and NF have been traditionally employed to desalt or remove hardness from
groundwater.

ULTRA FILTRATION

Ultrafiltration has a pore size of approximately 0.002 to 0.1 microns, an MWCO

of approximately 10,000 to 100,000 Daltons, and an operating pressure of
approximately 200 to 700 kPa (30 to 100 psi). UF will remove all
microbiological species removed by MF (partial removal of bacteria), as well as
some viruses (but not an absolute barrier to viruses) and humic materials.
Disinfection can provide a second barrier to contamination and is therefore
recommended.
The primary advantages of low-pressure UF membrane processes are
compared with conventional clarification and disinfection (post-chlorination)
processes are:

• No need for chemicals (coagulants, flocculants, disinfectants, pH adjustment)

• Size-exclusion filtration as opposed to media depth filtration• Constant
quality of the treated water in terms of particle and microbial removal •
Process and plant compactness • Simple automation.

However, fouling can cause difficulties in membrane technology for water

treatment.

NANO FILTRATION

Nano filtration membranes have a nominal pore size of approximately 0.001

microns and an MWCO of 1,000 to 100,000 Daltons. Pushing water through
these smaller membrane pores requires a higher operation pressure than
either MF or UF. Operating pressures are usually near 600 kPa (90psi) and can
be as high as 1,000 kPa (150psi). These systems can remove virtually all cysts,
bacteria, viruses, and humic materials. They provide excellent protection from
DBP formation if the disinfectant residual is added after the membrane
filtration step. Because NF membranes also remove alkalinity, the product
water can be corrosive, and measures, such as blending raw water and product
water or adding alkalinity, may be needed to reduce corrosivity. NF also
removes hardness from water, which accounts for NF membranes sometimes
being called “softening membranes.” Hard water treated by NF will need pre-
treatment to avoid precipitation of hardness ions on the membrane. However,
more energy is required for NF than MF or UF.

REVERSE OSMOSIS
Reverse osmosis can effectively remove nearly all inorganic contaminants from
water. RO can also effectively remove radium, natural organic substances,
pesticides, cysts, bacteria and viruses. RO is particularly effective when used in
series with multiple units. Disinfection is also recommended to ensure the
safety of water.
Some of the advantages of RO are:
 Removes nearly all contaminant ions and most dissolved non-ions,
 Relatively insensitive to flow and total dissolved solids (TDS level and
suitable for small systems with a high degree of seasonal fluctuation in
water demand,
 RO operates immediately, without any minimum break-in period,
 Low effluent concentration possible,
 Bacteria and particles are also removed, and
 Operational simplicity and automation allow for less operator attention
and make RO suitable for small system applications.

Some of the limitations of RO are:

•High capital and operating costs,

• Managing the wastewater (brine solution) is a potential problem,
• High level of pretreatment is required in some cases,
• Membranes are prone to fouling and
• Produces the most wastewater at between 25-50 percent of the feed.

Extraction: Solid-Liquid Extraction

Extraction is a crucial separation technique in organic chemistry, used to
separate components of a mixture based on their solubility in two different
phases that do not mix. Extractions are performed between two phases. In the
case of a liquid-liquid extraction, the dissolved solute is transferred from one
liquid phase to another. Extractions are also performed with a liquid and solid
phase, called solid-liquid extraction, where the solute is transferred from a
solid phase to a liquid phase. A simple example of solid-liquid extraction is
coffee brewing, which involves the mixing of solid coffee grounds with water.
The coffee flavor compounds are extracted from the grounds into the water to
form coffee. Extraction uses the property of solubility to transfer a solute from
one phase to another. In order to perform an extraction, the solute must have
a higher solubility in the second phase than in the original. In general, very
nonpolar solutes will partition into an organic phase, while very polar solutes
will partition into an aqueous phase. The choice of phases will depend on the
solute of interest. The two phases also must be immiscible. Immiscible
solutions never mix and remain as separate phases, like oil and water. Miscible
solutions are completely homogeneous after mixing. Solid-liquid extraction is
used in a wide range of fields. Solid liquid extraction is similar to liquid-liquid
extraction, except that the solute is dispersed in a solid matrix rather than in a
carrier liquid. The solid phase, containing the solute, is dispersed in a solvent
and mixed. The typical equipment used is a vertical cylinder with a cone
bottom, designed for a steam pressure up to 40 to 60 psi and a corresponding
high temperature. Sometimes steam is also injected for better result. The
solvent and the solid phase are poured in the vessel and then the vessel is
closed tightly. After specified time the vessel is open after releasing steam
pressure (if steam injected) . The solvent is recovered from the bottom and the
resultant liquid is collected from the top. Sometimes the resultant liquid needs
extra filtration for better result.

This technique can be used to understand the transfer of polychlorinated

biphenyls, or PCBs, from fish. PCBs are man-made chlorinated hydrocarbons
that have been banned by the EPA. PCBs do not readily decompose in the
environment and tend to accumulate in fish. In this experiment, prey fish
containing PCBs were fed to predator fish. The predator fish were then
collected and sacrificed. The fish tissue was ground in preparation for
extraction. The PCB in the fish tissue was extracted to an organic phase using a
Soxhlet extractor. The Soxhlet extractor setup, composed of a round-bottom
flask, condenser, and the Soxhlet apparatus, is frequently used to extract
solutes that are poorly soluble in solvents. The Soxhlet extraction enables a
small amount of solvent to be used with a large solid sample. The extract was
then tested for PCB content using mass spectrometry. Dry plant matter, called
lignocellulose, is the most abundant raw material being researched for bio-
derived fuels. However, the carbohydrates used as the fuel are trapped within
the rigid plant matrix, called lignin. When the carbohydrates are removed, the
lignin matrix is typically disposed of as waste. However, in this experiment,
waste lignin was examined as a fuel source. Solid-liquid extraction was utilized
to separate the carbohydrate components from lignocellulose, leaving lignin
behind. The lignin was then used for further fermentation experiments. Solid-
liquid extraction can also be used to measure the wax content in fruit skins. In
this experiment, the wax content of tomato skins was analyzed. Exhaustive
dewaxing of dried tomato skins was completed using a Soxhlet apparatus, in
order to fully remove the wax content in the skins. Tomato skins with wax
removed were then further analyzed using nuclear magnetic resonance
spectroscopy. This helped elucidate the composition and degradation of native
and engineered fruits.