S&V measurements

Notes 4: Sensors for vibration

measurements

Luis San Andres

Mast-Childs Chair Professor
Texas A&M University
M

K C
[email protected]

http://rotorlab.tamu.edu/me459/default.htm
S&V modern systems
included with permission
See notes on

Digital Image Correlation (provided by

Trilion)

&
Optical Vibrometry (provided by Polytec)
Other

National Instruments –
Resources (web cats on instrumentation)

http://us.ni.com/webcasts/sensor-measurement-
fundamentals?espuid=CNATL000003505620
 APPLICATIONS OF V IBRATION T RANSDUCERS

1) Measurements on Structures or Machinery Casings: Accelerometers and

Velocity Sensors
Used in gas turbines, axial compressors, small and mid-size pumps.

These sensors detect high frequency vibration signals related to bearing supports, casing
and foundation resonances, vibration in turbine/compressor vanes, defective roller or ball
bearings, noise in gears, etc.

2) Displacement measurements relative to rotating shafts: Proximity Probes

(capacitance or eddy-current)

Used in turbomachinery supported on fluid film bearings, centrifugal compressors, gears

and transmissions, electric motors, large pumps (>300HP), some turbines and fans.

These sensors detect shaft static displacements, unbalance response, misalignment, shaft
bending, excessive loads in bearings, dynamic instabilities, etc.

ACCELEROMETERS
Advantages Disadvantages
Simple to install Sensitive to high frequency noise
Good response at high frequencies Require external power
Stand high Temperature Require electronic integration for velocity
Small size and displacement

VELOCITY SENSORS
Advantages Disadvantages
Simple to install Low resonant frequency & phase shift
Good response in middle range frequencies Cross noise
Stand high temperature Big and heavy
Do not require external power Require electronic integration for
Lowest cost displacement

PROXIMITY SENSORS
Advantages Disadvantages
Measure static and dynamic displacements Electrical and mechanical noise
Exact response at low frequencies Bounded by high frequencies
No wear Not calibrated for unknown metal materials
Small and low cost Require external power
Difficult to install

Novel types: OPTICAL FIBERS and LASER BEAMS. Their performance

plenty is notproducts
of commercial well known yet.
including
Still costly
Digital Image Correlation and Optical sensors, signal processing and analysis
(Laser) Vibrometers

Application of Vibration Sensor ©, Dr. Luis San Andrés 1

From Reference: Harry N. Norton, Handbook of transducers, Prentice Hall, Chap:5,6,7

VELOCITY SENSORS

Electromagnetic linear velocity transducers : Typically used to measure oscillatory velocity. A

permanent magnet moving back and forth within a coil winding induces an emf in the winding.
This emf is proportional to the velocity of oscillation of the magnet. This permanent magnet may
be attached to the vibrating object to measure its velocity.

Electromagnetic tachometer generators : Used to measure the angular velocity of vibrating

objects. They provide an output voltage/frequency that is proportional to the angular velocity.
DC tachometers use a permanent magnet or magneto, while the AC tachometers operate as a
variable coupling transformer, with the coupling coefficient proportional to the rotary speed.

ACCELERATION SENSORS

Capacitive accelerometers : Used generally in those that have diaphragm supported seismic
mass as a moving electrode and one/two fixed electrodes. The signal generated due to change in
capacitance is post-processed using LC circuits etc., to output a measurable entity.

Piezoelectric accelerometers : Acceleration acting on a seismic mass exerts a force on the

piezoelectric crystals, which then produce a proportional electric charge. The piezoelectric
crystals are usually preloaded so that either an increase or decrease in acceleration causes a
change in the charge produced by them. But they are not reliable at very low frequencies.

Potentiometric accelerometers : Relatively cheap and used where slowly varying acceleration is
to be measured with a fair amount of accuracy. In these, the displacement of a spring mass
system is mechanically linked to a viper arm, which moves along a potentiometric resistive
element. Various designs may have either viscous, magnetic or gas damping.

Reluctive accelerometers : They compose accelerometers of the differential transformer type or

the inductance bridge type. The AC outputs of these vary in phase as well as amplitude. They are
converted into DC by means of a phase-sensitive demodulator.

Servo accelerometers : These use the closed loop servo systems of force-balance, torque-balance
or null-balance to provide close accuracy. Acceleration causes a seismic mass to move. The
motion is detected by one of the motion-detection devices, which generate a signal that acts as an
error signal in the servo-loop. The demodulated and amplified signal is then passed through a
passive damping network and then applied to the torquing coil located at the axis of rotation of
the mass. The torque is proportional to the coil current, which is in turn proportional to the
acceleration.

Strain Gage accelerators : these can be made very small in size and mass. The displacement of
the spring-mass system is converted into a change in resistance, due to strain, in four arms of a
Wheatstone bridge. The signal is then post-processed to read the acceleration.

Application of Vibration Sensor ©, Dr. Luis San Andrés 2

Industrial accelerometer design, 2009

Accelerometer frequency response example (786A)

± 5% ...................................................….....…3 - 5,000 Hz
±10% .............................…............……..…….1 - 9,000 Hz
± 3 dB .........................................….....…...0.5 - 14,000 Hz
X dB= 20 log (amplitude ratio)
26 dB=20 log (20) X dB = 10 log (power ratio)
----- log base 10

3 dB=20 log (1.414)

-3 dB=20 log (0.707)

Page 31
© Wilcoxon Research. Proprietary. May 2009
Eddy current sensor for measurement of
rotor vibrations
APPLICATIONS

7. Linear Range For a thrust or differential expansion measurement,

it is even more critical that the probe has the ability to
For a vibration measurement, it is critical that the probe
measure the entire motion of the shaft. The selection
has enough range to measure the motion of the shaft.
process is similar in that the probe is chosen based on
To pick the correct probe, estimate the maximum peak-
the expected shaft movement. The difference with a
to-peak vibration level that is expected and choose a
thrust application is that the gapping of the probe needs
probe that has at least that much linear range. When
to be considered relative to the often asymmetrical
installing the probe it is important to gap the probe in
motion of the shaft. A complete discussion of gapping
the middle of the linear range in order that the vibration
for thrust is beyond the scope of this article, but suffice
will “fit” into the probe’s linear range. It is good practice
to say that careful attention must be paid to ensure
to select a probe that has more linear range than is
that the probe will remain in the linear range during all
strictly required by the application to allow for some
operating conditions [3,4,5].
flexibility when gapping the probe. Figure 6 shows the
typical voltage response versus gap for a probe system. The consequence of an error in application of probes for

7
The probe must stay in the linear range at all times in thrust or expansion measurements is severe as it will
order to provide a valid measurement. typically mean that the machine can fail in a manner
that allows rotating and non-rotating parts to contact,
The consequence of choosing a probe with insufficient
such as blades and casings.
linear range or gapping the probe incorrectly is that the
monitor system will enter a “NOT OK” condition or there
will be data errors instead of protecting the machine.

Figure 6. Actual probe voltage versus gap response (red) overlaid on expected output (blue) showing that the
probe response is highly linear.

5 0 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

 APPLICATIONS

8. Signal-to-Noise Ratio 9. Field Wiring

Eddy-current proximity probes are amazingly accurate Proximity sensors are low-voltage devices—the output

8
devices, but they do not have infinite resolution. There of a typical sensor is usually only a few volts. As such,
is always a noise floor for any electrical device below it is important to maintain a clean signal path to the
which any measurement is not reliable. Typically this monitoring system. Magnetic fields from power cabling
value is several tens of millivolts for a proximity probe and transformers can cause a significant voltage to be
system. Check the data sheet of the product and induced in the sensor system, introducing noise that

9
consider the resolution required of the system. can cause erroneous readings. Cabling for sensors
should always be routed away from power cables. If the
“Electrical Runout” is another problem that may be
instrumentation field wiring must cross power cables it
encountered in an installation. This phenomenon is
should cross perpendicular to the power cables in order
caused by variation in the material properties of the
to avoid coupling the electromagnetic field.
shaft appearing as a spurious vibration signal. The
magnitude of electrical runout can be quite high The frequency response of the sensor is also strongly
depending on the quality of the shaft material. The affected by the amount of capacitance in the wiring
causes and cures of electrical runout have been between the sensors and the monitor [8]. Extra
discussed in previous ORBIT articles [6,7]. capacitance on the output of the sensor acts as a filter
and reduces the magnitude of the high frequency
components of the signal. DC and low frequency
components are not affected. Reference Figure 7 to see
a graph showing the effects of added capacitance.

Figure 7. Added capacitance of long field wiring lengths will affect the frequency response of the probe system,
behaving essentially as a low-pass filter. This effect must be carefully considered, particularly when the probe
system will be required to detect very high frequencies, such as observing a toothed wheel or detecting vibra-
tion harmonics on a high-speed machine such as a turbo-expander.

Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 5 1
 A FEW SENSOR TYPES USED FOR COMMON VIBRATION 
MEASUREMENTS 
Disclaimer: The material in this document was copied ad‐verbatim from the sources noted. Its 
accuracy can not be warranted. 

1) Accelerometers (piezoelectric)
2) Velocity Sensor
3) Proximity Probes (capacitance or eddy current)
4) Laser displacement sensors

1) ACCELEROMETERS
REFERENCE: WWW.OMEGA.COM

An accelerometer is a device that measures the vibration, or acceleration of motion

of a structure. The force caused by vibration or a change in motion (acceleration)
causes the mass to "squeeze" the piezoelectric material which produces an
electrical charge that is proportional to the force exerted upon it. Since the charge
is proportional to the force, and the mass is a constant, then the charge is also
proportional to the acceleration.

There are two types of piezoelectric accelerometers (vibration sensors). The first
type is a "high impedance" charge output accelerometer. In this type of
accelerometer the piezoelectric crystal produces an electrical charge which is
connected directly to the measurement instruments. This type of accelerometer is
also used in high temperature applications (>120C) where low impedance models
cannot be used.

The second type of accelerometer is a low impedance output accelerometer. A low

impedance accelerometer has a charge accelerometer as its front end but has a
tiny built-in micro-circuit and FET transistor that converts that charge into a low
impedance voltage that can easily interface with standard instrumentation.

 Piezoelectric Accelerometers Reference : www.pcb.com 

ME617 ‐ A Few Sensor Types Used for Vibration Measurements  1
 Piezoelectric accelerometers rely on the piezoelectric effect of quartz or ceramic
crystals to generate an electrical output that is proportional to applied acceleration.
The piezoelectric effect produces an opposed accumulation of charged particles on
the crystal. This charge is proportional to applied force or stress. A force applied to a
quartz crystal lattice structure alters alignment of positive and negative ions, which
results in an accumulation of these charged ions on opposed surfaces. These
charged ions accumulate on an electrode that is ultimately conditioned by transistor
microelectronics.

In an accelerometer, the stress on the crystals occurs as a result of the seismic

mass imposing a force on the crystal. Over its specified frequency range, this
structure approximately obeys Newton's law of motion, F=ma. Therefore, the total
amount of accumulated charge is proportional to the applied force, and the applied
force is proportional to acceleration. Electrodes collect and wires transmit the charge
to a signal conditioner that may be remote or built into the accelerometer.

Shear Mode Accelerometer

Shear mode designs bond, or "sandwich," the sensing crystals between a center
post and seismic mass. A compression ring or stud applies a preload force required
to create a rigid linear structure. Under acceleration, the mass causes a shear stress
to be applied to the sensing crystals. By isolating the sensing crystals from the base
and housing, shear accelerometers excel in rejecting thermal transient and base
bending effects. Also, the shear geometry lends itself to small size, which minimizes
mass loading effects on the test structure.

ME617 ‐ A Few Sensor Types Used for Vibration Measurements  2
 Shear Mode Accelerometer

Flexural Mode Accelerometer

Flexural mode designs utilize beam-shaped sensing crystals, which are supported to
create strain on the crystal when accelerated. The crystal may be bonded to a
carrier beam that increases the amount of strain when accelerated. This design
offers a low profile, light weight, excellent thermal stability, and an economical
price. Insensitivity to transverse motion is also an inherent feature of this design.
Generally, flexural beam designs are well suited for low-frequency, low-g-level
applications like those which may be encountered during structural testing.

Flexural Mode Accelerometer

Compression Mode Accelerometer

Compression mode accelerometers offer simple structure, high rigidity, and
historical availability. There are basically three types of compression designs:
upright, inverted, and isolated.

ME617 ‐ A Few Sensor Types Used for Vibration Measurements  3
 Upright compression designs sandwich the piezoelectric crystal between a seismic
mass and rigid mounting base. An elastic stud or screw secures the sensing element
to the mounting base. When the sensor is accelerated, the seismic mass increases
or decreases the amount of force acting upon the crystal, and a proportional
electrical output results. The larger the seismic mass is, the greater the stress and,
hence, the output are.

Upright Compression Accelerometer

Inverted compression designs isolate the sensing crystals from the mounting
base, reducing base bending effects and minimizing the effects of a thermally
unstable test structure. Many reference standard calibration accelerometers use this
design.

Inverted Compression Accelerometer

Isolated compression designs reduce erroneous outputs due to base strain and
thermal transients. These benefits are achieved by mechanically isolating the

ME617 ‐ A Few Sensor Types Used for Vibration Measurements  4
 sensing crystals from the mounting base and utilizing a hollowed-out seismic mass
that acts as a thermal insulation barrier. These mechanical enhancements allow
stable performance at low frequencies, where thermal transient effects can create
signal "drift" with other compression designs.

Isolated Compression

Piezoelectric Material
There are two types of piezoelectric material that are used in PCB accelerometers:
quartz and polycrystalline ceramics. Quartz is a natural crystal, while ceramics are
man-made. Each material offers certain benefits, and material choice depends on
the particular performance features desired of the accelerometer.

Quartz is widely known for its ability to perform accurate measurement tasks and
contributes heavily in everyday applications for time and frequency measurements.

2) VELOCITY SENSORS 
Theory of Operation REFERENCE : www.reliabilitydirect.com 
When a coil of wire is moved through a magnetic field, a voltage is induced across
the end wires of the coil. The induced voltage is caused by the transferring of
energy from the flux field of the magnet to the wire coil. As the coil is forced
through the magnetic field by vibratory motion, a voltage signal representing the
vibration is produced.
 
 
 

ME617 ‐ A Few Sensor Types Used for Vibration Measurements  5
  
The Velocity Probe Reference:www.dliengineering.com

accelerometer
accounts
Some velocity
principle superior
of operation
with
transducers
toathe
built-in
is classic
theare
same.
electronic
made
seismic
Another
with
velocity
integrator.
a type
moving
of
probe
This
velocity
coil unit
outside
transducer
is called
a stationary
a consists
"Velometer",
magnet.
of an The
and is by all

The velocity probe was one of the first vibration transducers to be built. It
consists of a coil of wire and a magnet so arranged that if the housing is
moved, the magnet tends to remain stationary due to its inertia. The
relative motion between the magnetic field and the coil induces a current
that is proportional to the velocity of motion. The unit thus produces a
signal directly proportional to vibration velocity. It is self-generating and
needs no conditioning electronics in order to operate, and it has a
relatively low electrical output impedance making it fairly insensitive to
noise induction.
 

3) CAPACITIVE and EDDY CURRENT SENSORS 
REFERENCE: www.lionprecision.com

Capacitive sensors use the electrical property of "capacitance" to make measurements.

Capacitance is a property that exists between any two conductive surfaces within some
reasonable proximity. Changes in the distance between the surfaces change the
capacitance. It is this change of capacitance that capacitive sensors use to indicate
changes in position of a target. High-performance displacement sensors use small
sensing surfaces and as result are positioned close to the targets .

ME617 ‐ A Few Sensor Types Used for Vibration Measurements  6
  
CAPACITIVE SENSOR Reference: www.news.thomasnet.com 
REFERENCE : www.thomasnet.com 

EDDY CURRENT SENSOR PROBE 
The working principle of the eddy current sensor is described below. 

Eddy currents are formed when a moving (or changing) magnetic field intersects a
conductor, or vice-versa. The relative motion causes a circulating flow of electrons,
or currents, within the conductor. These circulating eddies of current create
electromagnets with magnetic fields that oppose the effect of the applied magnetic
field. The stronger the applied magnetic field, or greater the electrical conductivityy
of the conductor, or greater the relative velocity of motion, the greater the currents
developed and the greater the opposing field (Reference : www.wikipedia.org).

ME617 ‐ A Few Sensor Types Used for Vibration Measurements  7
Eddy current probes sense this formation of secondary fields to find out the distance
between the probe and the target material. 

REFERENCE: www.geocities.com/raobpc/

REFERENCE :www.efunda.com

ME617 ‐ A Few Sensor Types Used for Vibration Measurements  8
  
4) LASER DISPLACEMENT SENSOR    Reference : www.keyence.com 

 
The Charge coupled device (CCD) laser displacement sensor uses a triangulation
measurement system. Conventional laser displacement sensors employ a
Position sensitive detector (PSD) as the light-receiving element.. The light
reflected by a target passes through the receiver lens and is focused on the PSD
or CCD. The PSD uses the light quantity distribution of the entire beam spot
entering the light receiving element to determine the beam spot center and
identifies this as the target position. However, the distribution of light quantity is
affected by the surface condition of the target, causing variations in measured
values. The CCD detects the peak value of the light quantity distribution of the
beam spot for each pixel and identifies this as the target position. Therefore, the
CCD enables stable highly accurate displacement measurement, regardless of
the light quantity distribution of the beam spot.

These sensors can be used in high temperature environments.

ME617 ‐ A Few Sensor Types Used for Vibration Measurements  9
 Light quantity distribution of beam spot on light-receiving element

ME617 ‐ A Few Sensor Types Used for Vibration Measurements  10
 Digital
image
correlation
Introduction and theory

Courtesy of
Trilion Quality Systems
 IS THIS COURSE?
WHAT OBJECTIVES

A GENERAL BACKGROUD
1. Know what is digital image correlation
2. Visualize the measuring volume and the epipolar line
3. Know the difference between facet size and point distance
4. Understand what is the intersection deviation
5. Be able to name a few application examples

B USE
1. Know how to prepare a specimen for DIC
2. Be able to do a measurement and acquire analog signals
3. Know how to evaluate the noise in a measurement
4. Feel capable of searching in the available learning ressources

C POST-PROCESSING
1. Know how to obtain a visual representation of displacements and strains
2. Understand the workflow to analyze data
3. Be able to export data as video, PDF or CSV
4. Feel that using GOM CORRELATE is simple

Page 2
2D DIC course presentation
Page 2 Trilion Education
 SHOULD WE USE ARAMIS?
WHY
What equipment or instrument would you need to do all the following static
and dynamic measurements?

• Position • Speed / velocity

• Dynamic displacement • Acceleration
• Dynamic deformation • Strain

Previous solutions
• Accelerometers • Laser trackers
• LVDT • Extensometers
• Strain Gages • Clip gages
• Draw Wire Sensors • Profilometer
• Displacement Sensors

Page 3
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 SHOULD WE USE ARAMIS?
WHY TO OBTAIN FULL FIELD DISPLACEMENTS AND STRAIN MAP EASILY

Page 4
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 SHOULD WE USE ARAMIS?
WHY POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS

• Determination of material properties

(i.e. FLC)

• Component analysis

• Structural testing and vibration

analysis (i.e. ODS)

• Validation and improvement of Finite

Element Analysis

• High-speed measurements

• Examination of non-linear behavior

• Real-time control of testing machines

• Crash and impact tests

• Characterization of creep and aging

processes

• NDT (Non Destructive Testing)

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 SHOULD WE USE ARAMIS?
WHY MATERIAL, TIME AND SCALE INDEPENDENT

Macroscopic
characterization
Assembly
Wing flex
Engine
Bridge creep test
vibration
monitoring study

Tool Impact test

Component

tracking
Fatigue
test

Fracture
Microscopic analysis
creeping
Material

Tensile tests Split-

Compressive tests Hopkinson
FLC bars

Long term monitoring Real time High speed

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 IS IT A BETTER TECHNOLOGY?
WHY FEATURES AND BENEFITS OF 3D IMAGE CORRELATION

 Non-contact measurement

 Robustness and ease of use

 Modular and integrated system

 3D coordinates, 3D deformation and

strain measurement

 Shape analysis and CAD comparison

 Verification of Numerical Models and

Simulations
• Full-field, real-time results
• Rapid, wide area coverage

 Broad range of materials and

stressing mechanisms
• Thermal, vibration, mechanical, etc.

 100 microns to 100 meters

field of view

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 IS DIC?
WHAT FULL-FIELD NON-CONTACT MEASUREMENT

Point tracking Surface correlation

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 CAN YOU DO WITH DIC?
WHAT PROSTHESIS MOTION ANALYSIS

Page 9
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 CAN YOU DO WITH DIC?
WHAT TENSILE TEST OF MAGNESIUM AT 300˚C

Page 10
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 CAN YOU DO WITH DIC?
WHAT TENSILE TEST OF MAGNESIUM AT 300˚C

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 CAN YOU DO WITH DIC?
WHAT KEVLAR HELMET IMPACT

Page 12
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 IS DIC?
WHAT

x
x
x
x

Page 13
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 IS DIC?
WHAT BASIC IMAGE PROCESSING

Page 14
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 IS DIC?
WHAT BASIC IMAGE PROCESSING

90 93 50 32 48

69 72 98 30 52

92 70 66 95 47

7 99 62 65 96

2 5 95 68 95

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 IS DIC?
WHAT BASIC PRINCIPLE

100 100 100 0 0 0 100 100 100

100 100 100 0 0 0 100 100 100

100 100 100 0 0 0 100 100 100

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

100 100 100 0 0 0 100 100 100

100 100 100 0 0 0 100 100 100

100 100 100 0 0 0 100 100 100

As seen in the
Real image (9x9 pixels)
computer’s memory

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 IS DIC?
WHAT BASIC PRINCIPLE

100 100 100 100 0 0 0 100 100

100 100 100 100 0 0 0 100 100

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

100 100 100 100 0 0 0 100 100

100 100 100 100 0 0 0 100 100

100 100 100 100 0 0 0 100 100

100 100 100 100 0 0 0 100 100

As seen in the
After motion
computer’s memory

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 IS DIC?
WHAT BASIC PRINCIPLE WITH NOISE CONSIDERATION

103 101 99 2 0 1 105 100 96 99 100 101 102 3 0 2 100 102

101 104 98 1 4 3 101 98 100 101 97 98 101 1 2 0 96 102

103 96 99 0 2 2 102 103 98 0 1 3 3 2 0 1 2 0

2 3 0 1 1 2 3 0 1 1 0 3 0 2 1 1 0 3

1 3 3 0 2 1 0 3 0 1 3 2 0 1 1 2 2 0

0 0 2 0 3 0 2 0 0 101 100 100 103 0 2 1 102 101

98 101 102 0 1 0 96 97 102 97 99 100 101 3 2 0 97 101

97 98 103 0 2 0 103 98 100 101 103 98 101 0 1 1 99 96

102 99 101 2 0 0 104 102 101 102 99 96 103 2 3 3 102 100

Before motion After motion

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 IS DIC?
WHAT BASIC PRINCIPLE AND SUBPIXEL INTERPOLATION

103 101 99 52 0 1 55 100 96

101 104 98 51 4 3 51 98 100

103 96 99 49 2 2 52 103 98

2 3 0 1 1 2 3 0 1

1 3 3 0 2 1 0 3 0

0 0 2 0 3 0 2 0 0

98 101 102 52 1 0 46 97 102

Perfect match
97 98 103 51 2 0 53 98 100

102 99 101 48 0 0 54 102 101

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 IS DIC?
WHAT WITH ROUND TARGET MARKERS

Grayscales

Radius (length of ray intersection)

Page 20
2D DIC course presentation
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 IS THIS COURSE?
WHAT OBJECTIVES

A GENERAL BACKGROUD
1. Know what is digital image correlation
2. Visualize the measuring volume and the epipolar line
3. Know the difference between facet size and point distance
4. Understand what is the intersection deviation
5. Be able to name a few application examples

B USE
1. Know how to prepare a specimen for DIC
2. Be able to do a measurement and acquire analog signals
3. Know how to evaluate the noise in a measurement
4. Feel capable of searching in the available learning ressources

C POST-PROCESSING
1. Know how to obtain a visual representation of displacements and strains
2. Understand the workflow to analyze data
3. Be able to export data as video, PDF or CSV
4. Feel that using GOM CORRELATE is simple

Page 21
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 TO USE
HOW BASIC WORKFLOW

1. Decide field of view and frame rate

2. Apply adequate stochastic pattern

3. Set up cameras

a. Focus (with aperture fully open)

b. Apply desired frame rate and close

aperture

4. Pre-test (pattern and noise check)

5. Data Acquisition

6. Data processing

7. Reporting

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 TO USE
HOW SURFACE PREPARATION AND PATTERNING

Standard spray paint patterning

• Dot size 5 Pixels
• Degrease / sand the Surface
• Uniform white background coating
• Apply appropriate sized black dots
• Use developer (Talc powder) for
removable coating
• Use discrete black and white dots
for compression testing, low
strength materials or for discrete
point tracking

Alternative patterning methods

• Sharpy Marker
• Perforated Sheets for Dots > 1/8”
• Tattoo Sheets
• Rubber Stamps
• Nothing…

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 TO USE
HOW DEFINE THE FIELD OF VIEW AND THE SIZE OF THE PATTERN

• What is the size of one pixel?

100 mm 2,450 pixels

2,050 pixels
85 mm
100 mm mm
=𝑥 ⇒ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒 𝐦𝐦/𝐩𝐢𝐱𝐞𝐥
2,450 px px

• What is the size of a dot?

Multiply by 5

Between 0.2 mm in size

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 TO USE
HOW PREPARE YOUR SURFACES LIKE GEORGES AND BE CREATIVE!!!

Page 25
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 CAN YOU DO WITH DIC?
WHAT KEVLAR HELMET IMPACT

• What do you notice about this pattern?

• Can you describe this pattern?

Page 26
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Page 26 Trilion Education
 TO USE
HOW BASIC WORKFLOW

1. Decide field of view and frame rate

2. Apply adequate stochastic pattern

3. Set up cameras

a. Focus (with aperture fully open)

b. Apply desired frame rate and close

aperture

4. Pre-test (pattern and noise check)

5. Data Acquisition

6. Data processing

7. Reporting

Page 27
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 KEY PHYSICAL SETUP PARAMETERS
• Field of view
The viewable area of the object under
inspection. This is the portion of the
object that fills the camera’s sensor
• Measuring distance
The distance from the front of the lens
to the object under inspection
• Depth of field
The maximum object depth that can be
maintained entirely in acceptable focus.
DOF is also the amount of object
movement (in and out of best focus)
allowable while maintaining focus
• Aperture
The unit of measurement that defines
the size of the opening in the lens that
can be adjusted to control the amount
of light reaching the digital sensor
• Focus distance
The distance between the lens and the
subject to make light rays converge to
form a clear and sharply defined image
of the subject
• Slider distance http://www.edmundoptics.com/resources/application-notes/imaging/5-fundamental-
The distance between the 2 cameras parameters-of-an-imaging-system/

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 KEY PHYSICAL SETUP PARAMETERS
FIELD OF VIEW AND LENSE CHOICE (MEASURING DISTANCE OF 6 METERS)

24mm lens
i.e. 175mm for a FOV of 50mm

100 mm lens
i.e. 800mm for a FOV of 50mm

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 KEY PHYSICAL SETUP PARAMETERS
FIELD OF VIEW VS MEASURING DISTANCE

2m from the hut

Total DOF = 0.06m

10m from the hut

Total DOF = 1.66m

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 KEY PHYSICAL SETUP PARAMETERS
APERTURE VS DEPTH OF FIELD

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 KEY PHYSICAL SETUP PARAMETERS
APERTURE VS DEPTH OF FIELD

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 TO USE
HOW BASIC WORKFLOW

1. Decide field of view and frame rate

2. Apply adequate stochastic pattern

3. Set up cameras

a. Focus (with aperture fully open)

b. Apply desired frame rate and close

aperture

4. Pre-test (pattern and noise check)

5. Data Acquisition

6. Data processing

7. Reporting

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 TO SETUP
HOW THE SYSTEM AND CALIBRATE

Cameras setup

• Maximize size of sample in

field of view
• Take into account motion and
stretch of object for the field
of view
• Focus with aperture wide open
• Close aperture to increase
depth of field
• Cross polarization

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 TO USE
HOW BASIC WORKFLOW

1. Decide field of view and frame rate

2. Apply adequate stochastic pattern

3. Set up cameras

a. Focus (with aperture fully open)

b. Apply desired frame rate and close

aperture

4. Pre-test (pattern and noise check)

5. Data Acquisition

6. Data processing

7. Reporting

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 TO SETUP
HOW THE PRE-TEST AND THE EXPECTED SENSITIVITY

• Based on the computation, the noise should be about 1/30 of a pixel

out-of-plane

• In-plane, the noise should be 3 times lower

• Since strain is a relative value based on the displacements, we typically

have noise level around 50-100 microstrain

• Filtering reduces noise and increases accuracy but it also reduces spatial
resolution

Example for a 5MP sensor:

Field of View Out-of-plane displacement sensitivity

10 x 8 mm 0.15 microns

100 x 80 mm 1.5 microns

1 meter x 800 mm 15 microns

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 TO USE
HOW DEFINE THE FIELD OF VIEW AND THE RESOLUTION

• What is the size of one pixel?

100 mm 2,450 pixels

2,050 pixels
85 mm
100 mm mm
2,450 px
=𝑥
px
⇒ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒 𝐦𝐦/𝐩𝐢𝐱𝐞𝐥

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 SUMMARY
HOW BEST PRACTICES ON HOW TO USE, SETUP AND ACQUIRE DATA

Apply a good speckle pattern, make sure you have uniform lighting and
calibrate frequently to ensure consistent quality

Always do a pre-test to check the sensitivity

• Snap a few images with no load and compute displacements and strains
• Make sure that there are no major holes in the data
• Check average and peak strains
• Look for false hot spots

And above all:

• 5 pixels per paint dot
• Check the pattern and verify the noise level
• Intersection error must be lower than 0.3
• Be aware of the coordinate system of your results

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 TO USE
HOW BASIC WORKFLOW

1. Decide field of view and frame rate

2. Apply adequate stochastic pattern

3. Set up cameras

a. Focus (with aperture fully open)

b. Apply desired frame rate and close

aperture

4. Pre-test (pattern and noise check)

5. Data Acquisition

6. Data processing

7. Reporting

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 THEORY
HOW FACET PARAMETERS

Point distance
(granularity of the mesh)

Facet size
at least 3 to
5 speckles

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 THEORY
HOW STRAIN COMPUTATION

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 THEORY
HOW STRAIN TENSOR NEIGHBORHOOD AND STRAIN GAUGE LENGTH

The equivalent strain gauge length is the product of:

• Point distance
• Strain tensor neighborhood
• Size of a pixel in the field of view

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 THEORY
HOW FILTERING

Spatial filter

• Average each data point with its neighbors

• Spreads hotspots
• Useful when material is uniform

Time filter

• Average each data point with the previous and next stages
• Spreads hotspots
• Useful when acquisition speed are not quite adequate for the test speed
• Useful to smooth quasi-static data

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 THEORY
HOW TEMPORAL FILTERING

No filter Time filter (5 passes)

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 THEORY
HOW SPATIAL FILTERING

No filter Spatial filter(5 passes)

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 THANK YOU
FOR YOUR ATTENTION

For more information, feel free to

contact Trilion Quality Systems:

Jonathan Pickworth

Trilion Quality Systems

[email protected]
267.565.8062

Charles-Olivier Amyot

Trilion Quality Systems

[email protected]
418.456.4327

Rev. 1 20170125
Application Note

Nature & Technology: Vibrations Everywhere!

Field of Application
A Aerospace
B Audio & Acoustics
C Automotive
D Data Storage
G General Vibrometry
M MEMS &
Microstructures
P Production Testing
S Scientific & Medical
T Structural Testing
U Ultrasonics

Polytec’s Vibrometers are Indispensable Tools to Optimize Parts and

Goods and to Investigate Natural Dynamic Processes
Originally developed to characterize man-made products, technology and systems, non-contact
laser-Doppler vibrometry is also exploring measurements that unravel the mysteries of biological
structures. Read on to learn more about vibrations in both nature and technical products and pro-
cesses. Discover how these vibrations are detected and studied using laser vibrometry. Find more
interesting applications and Polytec Application Notes on www.polytec.com/applications.

Introduction
The heart beats, wings flap, sounds are sent out BS1
and received – life would be much too quiet with- HeNe-Laser
out vibrations. To investigate vibrating systems in
nature requires sensitive and flexible measurements BS2
Optical
that don’t disturb the specimen. Challenging tasks
Lens Measure-
in medicine, biology and many other sciences take ment
Bragg Cell
advantage of Polytec‘s universal modular vibrome- Object
BS3
ters, single-box portable devices, or high-end
scanning systems.
In the field of industrial research and development, objects, delicate structures or ultrasonic devices are
Polytec’s vibrometers are used to study objects of all made possible by non-contact laser vibrometry.
very different sizes including large automobile bo-
At the heart of every Polytec vibrometer system is
dies, airplane fuselages, ship engines and buildings
the laser Doppler vibrometer – a very precise optical Polytec GmbH
as well as tiny silicon micromachines, hard disk drive
transducer used for determining the vibration velocity Optical Measurement
components and wirebonders. There are numerous
and displacement at a point by sensing the frequen- Systems
other research applications in mechanical and civil
cy shift and phase variation of back scattered laser Application Note
engineering.
light from a moving surface.
VIB-G-05
Demanding applications such as measurements on To learn more about laser Doppler vibrometry,
hot running exhausts, rotating surfaces, underwater please visit www.polytec.com/vib-university June 2006

Advancing Measurements by Light www.polytec.com

 Drosophila head and laser spot focused
onto its antenna sound receiver

Measurement of honeycomb vibrations generated by dancing bees

Biology
For numerous living species on our planet
there are corresponding biological appli-
cations of laser vibrometry. One of the
most prominent is insect communication.
Some insect sounds are quite loud, such
as the singing of the cicada; while others
are supersonic and can’t be heard. Some
insects are so small that their songs are
transmitted mainly through a plant rather
than air. Entomologists use vibrometers to
record this unheard noise for later study.
Consider honeycomb vibrations in bee-
hives; these signals can only be measured
with highly sophisticated equipment.
Other bio applications include measuring
communication between elephants, fruit Laser vibrometer measurements of the vibration patterns of dental ultrasonic
ripeness, spider web motion, and the hea- scaling equipment
ring mechanism in frogs and fruit flies.
www.polytec.com/research
Medical and Health Care Polytec vibrometers. The vibrometer
Laser vibrometry can assist with eardrum can also function as a non-contact poly-
diagnostics and research on the middle graph detector recording artery pulse
and inner ear. In addition, vibrometers waves and respiratory activity, or as a
have been used for vibration measure- remote voice detector as a part of a
ments on artificial heart valves, mecha- multi-media surveillance system.
nical properties of tendons, analysis of www.polytec.com/research
vibrations while bone drilling or medical
laser ablation, and detection of bone
Scanning vibrometer
crack propagation.
representation of heart
Medical, safety and health care devices valve motion
Laser Audiometer providing full ear diag- like tooth brushes, dental scalers and
nostics within a couple of seconds respirators have been investigated using

2
Acoustics
Sound field measurement using
Musical instruments generate wonderful, inspiring
PSV Scanning Vibrometer
sounds through their vibrations. Polytec vibrometers (photo courtesy: Bosch)
can help us understand how this happens with early
work already done on violins, cembalos and dulci-
mers. Vibrometers are also indispensable tools for
loudspeaker design identifying diaphragm resonances
that are deleterious to the sound quality. Vibro-
meter measurements provide an experimental
basis for sophisticated acoustic investigations like
structural-acoustic response (sound field) predic-
tions, acoustic imaging and anti-sound research.
Acoustics are also increasingly important in pro-
duct design. The focus is on how and where are
undesired noises generated and at which point or
location can countermeasures be taken.

Operational deflection
shape of a violin

3-D vibrometry on 3-D scanning measurement of structural dynamics of a car body

brake disks to reveal
brake sqealing

Automotive Development
Valve train measurement using High Speed
Vibrometer (photo courtesy: Porsche) To certify that a new part meets noise and vibration specifications, auto-
motive engineers favor testing instruments that are easy to set up and
operate, and that can exchange data with existing CAE equipment and
software. Polytec’s laser vibrometers are widely used both for structural
dynamics measurements in the R&D labs and for quality control purposes
in the production process. Laser vibrometry gives the opportunity to opti-
mize dynamic automotive FE models by matching the parameters derived
from vibration measurements on prototypes to the FE model. Scanning
vibrometers provide time saving measurements without mass loading
regardless whether on large areas, hot components, rotating parts, light
weight surfaces, or at high frequencies.
www.polytec.com/automotive

3
Aerospace Industry
In the aerospace industry there are undesired vibra-
tions of parts and bodies that must be eliminated.
Typical aerospace applications include design
verification, characterizing airframe components
for production and quality control, and evaluating
aging aircraft structures for maintenance and repair.
Measurements on aircraft wings, turbine blades and
space structures can be performed for modal analy-
sis and subsequent FEM validation. Polytec’s scan-
ning vibrometer is also the ideal tool for measuring
surfaces of large aerospace objects difficult to reach
with contact methods.
www.polytec.com/aerospace

Vibration measurements
on turbine blades
(photo courtesy:
Modal tests for validation of a solar sail
Greg Roberts/ Pratt&Whitney)
design (photos courtesy: NASA)

Data Storage
In designing hard disk drives, one of the challen-
ges is to understand how mechanical interactions
affect positioning. Methods accompanying design,
optimization and quality control have to be fast but
highly sensitive and precise. When verifying a new
drive design, fast testing time is paramount. Laser-
Doppler vibrometers have been effectively used for
many years in design of data storage media. Disk
and tape drives and their components encompass
a wide range of dynamic applications.
www.polytec.com/datastorage

Determination of stable flying heights for a hard disk read/write head

Noise investigation in hard disk spindle motors using 3-D vibration measurements for modal test
scanning vibrometry on a disk drive suspension

4
MEMS and Microstructures Quality control
MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems) find of a gyroscopic MEMS sensor
numerous applications in the automotive, medical, (photo courtesy: Bosch)
bio-chemical and aeronautic industry. As a conse-
quence there is a huge demand for standardized
MEMS testing for both packaged and unpackaged
devices (single die and wafer-level testing). Polytec‘s
instrumentation for micro motion analysis enables
the systematic testing of the dynamic mechanical
response to important electrical and physical inputs,
as well as the dynamic investigation of other micro-
scopic structures ranging from natural objects to
semiconductor components.
www.polytec.com/microstructures

Combined measurement of surface topography, out-

of-plane and in-plane vibration on a MEMS comb drive
using the Polytec Micro System Analyzer

Semiautomatic, wafer-level measurements of MEMS dynamics

Vibration measurement on a Materials Research, Mechanical and

cable-stayed bridge Civil Engineering
Laser vibrometry is an ideal tool for the measurement
of structural dynamics and for non-destructive flaw
detection (fracture, delamination, fatigue) in all kinds
of materials, parts and components. For instance, vib-
rometry can be used for non-destructive testing and
for the investigation of ultrasonic wire bonding.
Regarding buildings and industrial plants, there are
Non-destructive testing of delamination many applications for in-the-field structural health
in a composite material monitoring on wind turbines, building vibration and
displacement, and cable-stayed bridges to prevent
bridge resonance failure. Geological applications in-
clude detection of land mines, rock failures and earth-
quake-induced defects in concrete.

5
 Calibration of impulse force trans- Metrology and Calibration
ducers using a laser interferometer Primary calibration of vibration transducers by laser
Interferometry has the unique advantage that meas-
urements of surface acceleration, velocity or dis-
placement are made with a precision that is trace- Polytec GmbH (Germany)
able directly to the wavelength of laser light. Also, Polytec-Platz 1-7
laser vibrometric velocity measurements offer the 76337 Waldbronn
possibility to perform traceable impulse calibrations Tel. + 49 7243 604-0
of transducers subjected to known impulse loads. Fax + 49 7243 69944
[email protected]

Polytec France S.A.S.

Bâtiment Orion – 1er étage
39, rue Louveau
92320 Châtillon
Tel. +33 1 496569-00
Fax +33 1 57214068
[email protected]
Polytec Ltd.
(Great Britain)
Production Testing Lambda House, Batford Mill
The optimization of products and processes plays Harpenden, Herts AL5 5BZ
Tel. + 44 1582 711670
an important role in a company’s economic success.
Fax + 44 1582 712084
In industrial production, process and quality control
[email protected]
relies on fast, automated and rugged measurement
instrumentation. For both 100% quality control of Polytec Japan
manufactured products and on-line monitoring in Arena Tower, 13 th floor
continuous production, Polytec provides interfe- 3-1-9, Shinyokohama,
rometric sensors that optically measure vibration, Kohoku-ku, Yokohama-shi,
Technical specifications are subject to change without notice. OM_AN_VIB-G-05_2011_01_PDF_US

but also velocity, length and surface integrity. In Kanagawa, 222-0033

addition, they offer many specific advantages for Tel. +81 45 478-6980
industrial production applications such as precise Fax +81 45 478-6981
results without contact, a flexible retrofitting and [email protected]
continuous operation under industrial conditions Polytec, Inc. (USA)
with low maintenance. Automated 100% quality assurance of vehicle com-
North American Headquarters
www.polytec.com/industrial ponents (photo courtesy: P. Marpe, TRW Automotive)
16400 Bake Parkway
Suites 150 & 200
Irvine, CA 92618
Tel. +1 949 943-3033
Fax +1 949 679-0463
[email protected]
Central Office
1046 Baker Road
Dexter, MI 48130
Tel. +1 734 253-9428
Fax +1 734 424-9304
Semiautomatic test station based on Automatic vibration analysis for crack
a Compact Laser Vibrometer for qua- testing of cam rings East Coast Office
lity control of medical devices 25 South Street, Suite A
Hopkinton, MA 01748
Please find more interesting applications and Polytec Application Notes Tel. +1 508 417-1040
on www.polytec.com/applications Fax +1 508 544-1225

Advancing Measurements by Light