MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

c. The quotient of f and g denoted by f/g is the function defined by f(x)/g(x), where
g(x) is not equal to zero.

d. The composite function of f and g denoted by f ο g is the function defined by (f ο

g)(x) = f(g(x)). Similarly, the composite function of g by f, denoted by g ο f, is the
function defined by ( g ο f)(x) = g(f(x)).

Examples:

1. If f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 3x + 2, what is (f+g)(x)?

Solution:

(f+g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)

= (2x + 1) + (3x + 2)
= 2x + 3x + 1 + 2
= 5x + 3

2. What is (f • g)(x) if f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 3x + 2?

Solution:

(f • g)(x) = f(x) • g(x)

= (2x + 1)(3x + 2)
= 6x2 + 7x + 2

𝑓
3. What is ( ) (𝑥 ) if f(x) = 2a + 6b and g(x) = a + 3b?
𝑔

Solution:

𝐟 𝐟(𝐱) 𝟐𝐚+𝟔𝐛 𝟐(𝐚+𝟑𝐛)

( ) (𝐱) = = = =𝟐
𝐠 𝐠(𝐱) 𝐚+𝟑𝐛 𝐚+𝟑𝐛

4. If f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 3x + 2, what is (g  f)(x)?

Solution:

(g  f)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(2x + 1) = 3(2x + 1) + 2 = 6x + 3 + 2 = 6x + 5

𝟔
𝐑 = {(𝐱, 𝐲)|𝐲 = 𝐱 + ; 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝐱, 𝐲 ∈ 𝐍, 𝐱 < 𝟔}
𝐱

III. BINARY OPERATION

69
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

A binary operation on a set G, then, is simply a method (or formula) by which the
members of an ordered pair from G combine to yield a new member of G. This condition
is called closure. The most familiar binary operations are ordinary addition,
subtraction, and multiplication of integers. Division of integers is not a binary
operation on the integers because an integer divided by an integer need not be an
integer.

In mathematics, a binary operation on a set is a

calculation that combines two elements of the set (called
operands) to produce another element of the set.

Definition of Binary Operations

Let G be a non-empty set. An operation * on G is said to be a binary operation on

G if for every pair of elements, a, b is in G that is a,b  G; the product a * b  G.

Note: For each (a,b) G, we assign an element a * b of G.

Illustrative examples:

Tell whether the following is a binary operation or not.

1) G  Z define a * b = a + b (usual addition on Z)

Solution:

Let a  Z and b  Z. If we add a and b, then the sum a + b  Z. Hence a * b = a

+ b is a binary operation.

2) G  Z define a * b = ab (usual multiplication on Z)

Solution:

Let a, b  Z. Then the product of a and b, that is ab  Z. Hence a * b = ab is a

binary operation.

3) G  R+ defined by a * b = a + 17b

70
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Solution:

Let a, b  R+. If we take the sum of a + 17b  R+. Hence it is a binary operation.

4) G  Z+, defined * by a * b = a – b for all set a, b  Z+.

Solution:

If a > b = a – b > 0  Z+

If a < b = a – b < 0  Z+

Therefore, * is NOT a binary operation

5) G  R defined by a * b = ab

To be able to determine if the above statement is a binary operation or not, we

need to have a counter example.

If a = 0 and b = 0, then ab does not exist, hence it is not an element of R

If a = -4 and b = ½, then ab would be an element of a complex number C, so ab 

R.

6) G  Z \{-1} , defined * by a * b = a + b + ab for all set a, b  Z.

Solution

Let a, b  Z except -1, then a > -1 and b > -1 and a < -1 and b < -1. If a * b
= a + b + ab, it follows that a * b = a + b + ab  Z since in both case such as a
and b > -1 and a and b < -1, the result would be Z, hence * is a binary operation.

CLOSED
Definition: A set is “closed” under operation if the operation assigns to every
ordered pair of elements from the set an element of the set.

Illustrative examples:

1) Is S = { ±1, ±3, ±5, ±7, …} is closed under usual addition?

Solution:

71
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

By giving a counter example, S = { ±1, ±3, ±5, ±7, …} is NOT closed under
usual addition. Why? Let us say we are going to a 1 and 3. The sum of 1 and 3 is 4
where 4 is not an element of S. Hence, it is not closed.

2) Let + and • be usual binary operations of addition and multiplication of Z and

let H = {n2 | n  Z+}. Is H closed under addition? Under multiplication?

Solution:

a. To be able to determine if H is closed under addition, we need to have a

counter-example. Let us take two elements in Z, say 1 and 4. If we are going
to add this two numbers, the result would be 5 and obviously, 5  n2 or 5 is not
a perfect square. Hence, H is not closed under addition.
b. Let r  H and s  H. Using H x H  (r, s) = r • s. Since r  H and s  H, that
means there must be an integers n and m  Z+ such that r = n2 and s = m2. So;

(r, s) = r • s = n2 • m2 = (nm)2
and n, m  Z+. It follows that nm  Z+, then (nm)2  H. Hence, H is closed
under multiplication.

Example. Consider the binary operation ∗ on R given by

x ∗ y = x + y − 3. (x ∗ y) ∗ z = (x + y − 3) ∗ z = (x + y − 3) + z − 3 = x + y + z
− 6, x ∗ (y ∗ z) = x ∗ (y + z − 3) = x + (y + z − 3) − 3 = x + y + z − 6.

Therefore, ∗ is associative. Since x ∗ y = x + y − 3 = y + x − 3 = y ∗ x, ∗ is

commutative.

Example. Consider the binary operation * on R given by a*b = ab/2. Show

that a*b = b*c.

Solution:

Let a*b = ab/2. We need to show that a*b = b*a. In b*a = ba/2. But
by commutative properties under multiplication, that is ab = ba, then it follows
that b*a = ab/2. Hence a*b = b*a

72
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Definition:
Let  be a binary operation of a set S. Then;

(a)  is associative if for all a, b, c  S, (ab)c = a (bc)

(b)  is commutative if for all a, b  S, ab = b a

(c) An element e  S is called a left identity element if for all a  S, we have e

a=a

(d) An element e  S is called a right identity element if for all a  S, we have

ae=a

(e) An element e  S is called an identity element if for all a  S, we have a 

e = a and e  a = a.

(f) Let e be an identity element is S and a  S, then b is called an inverse of the

element “a” if a  b = e and b  a = e.

Note that a  b = b  a = e or a * a-1 = a-1 * a = e

If a  S, then the inverse of “a” is denoted by a-1. Here -1 is not an

exponent of a.

Example: Let S = Z+ as define  on S by a  b = a + b – ab. Show the

associativity and the commutativity of S in a binary operation. Find also its identity and
inverse if any.

(a) Associativity

Let a, b, c  Z+. Then; (a  b)  c = a  (b  c)

For (a  b)  c

(a  b)  c = (a + b – ab)  c

= (a + b – ab) + c - (a + b – ab)c

73
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

= a + b + c – ab – ac – bc + abc

For a  (b  c)

a  (b  c) = a  (b + c – bc)

= a + (b + c – bc) – (a)(b + c – bc)

= a + b + c – bc – ab – ac + abc

Hence  is associative on S  Z+.

(b) Commutative

ab=ba
a + b – ab = b + a – ba
a + b – ab = a + b – ab

Hence  is commutative on S  Z+.

(c) Identity

a*e=a e*a=a

a + e – ae = a e + a – ea = a

e – ae = a – a e – ea = a – a

e(1 – a) = 0 e(1 – a) = 0

e=0 e=0

hence, the identity exist except when a = 1.

(d) Inverse

a * a-1 = e a-1 * a = e

Example: Let S = Z+ as define  on S by a  b = a2 + ab + b2. Is the operation 

associative? Commutative? What is its identity? What is its inverse?

74
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

(a) Commutative

ab=ba

a2 + ab + b2 = b2 + ba + a2

a2 + ab + b2 = a2 + ab + b2

Hence, the operation  is commutative.

(b) Associative

(a  b)  c = a  (b  c)

(a2 + ab + b2 ) c = a  (b2 + bc + c2 )

(a2 + ab + b2 )2 + (a2 + ab + b2 )(c) + c2  a2 + (a)( b2 + bc + c2 ) + (b2 + bc + c2 )2

Hence, the operation  is not associative.

Cayley Tables

A (binary) operation on a finite set can be represented by a table. This is a square

grid with one row and one column for each element in the set. The grid is filled in so that
the element in the row belonging to x and the column belonging to y is x*y.

A binary operation on a finite set (a set with a limited number of elements) is

often displayed in a table that demonstrates how the operation is performed.

Example: The table below is a table for a binary operation on the set {a, b, c, d}

 a b C d
a a b C d
b b c D a
c c d A b
d d a B c

a. Is the  commutative?
b. Is the  associative?
c. What is its identity?

75
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Self - Learning Activity

Directions. Do as indicated.

A. Define a relation C from R to R as follows: For any (x,y) R x R,

(x,y)  C meaning that x2 + y2 = 1.

a. Is (1,0)  C? Is (0,0)  C? Is -2 C 0? Is 0 C (-1)?

b. What are the domain and the co-domain of C?

B. If f(x) = 2x2 and g(x) = 3x + 1, evaluate the following:

𝑓
a. (f + g)(x) b) (f • g)(x) c) ( ) (𝑥 ) d) (g  f)(x)
𝑔

C. Tell whether the following is a binary operation or not.

a) G  Z, defined * by a * b = a2 – b2 for all set a, b  Z.

Explanation:

b) G  N, defined * by a * b = 2 + 3ab for all set a, b  N.

Explanation:

76
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

c) G  Z-, defined * by a * b = a + ab - b for all set a, b  Z-.

Explanation:

d) G  R, defined * by a * b = √𝐚 − 𝐛 for all set a, b  R.

Explanation:

D. Let S = Z+ as define  on S by a  b = a + b + 1. Show the associativity and the

commutativity of S in a binary operation. Determine also the identity if there
is.

E. Let A = Z – {0} and let S = {f1, f2, f3, f4, f5, f6} be the set of functions as A
defined as follows:
1
𝑓1(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑓4 (𝑥) =
𝑥

1 𝑥
𝑓2 (𝑥) = 𝑓5 (𝑥) =
1−𝑥 𝑥−1

𝑥−1
𝑓3 (𝑥) = 𝑓6 = 1 − 𝑥
𝑥

Show that the composition of mappings is a binary operation by completing the

multiplication table for *

77
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

* f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6
f1
f2
f3
f4
f5
f6

Present your solution below.

Lesson
3.3 Logic and Formality

Specific Objective

At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to:

1. Define what logic is.

2. Tell whether the statement is formal or non-formal.
3. Show the relationship between grammar in English and logic in
Mathematics.

Introduction

What comes first in your mind when we speak about logic? Do you have any idea what
logic is all about? Could we say that if a person thinks correctly, then he has logic? Perhaps until
now, there are some people arguing whether a logic is an art or it is a science. Now, whether it is
an art or a science, studying logic could be very important not only in the field of mathematics but
in other sciences such as natural science and social science. On this module, we will studying the
fundamental concept of logic but basically logic as mathematical language.

Discussion

I. What is logic?

78
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

In this particular module, we are going to talk about logic as a mathematical

language but a deeper discussion logic as a science as well as its application will be tackled in
module 6. It is very essential to understand better what logic is as a language.

But first, let us have a definition in logic. In your social science courses, logic could
define as the study of the principles of correct reasoning and it is not a psychology of
reasoning. Based on the definition which is logic is the study of the principle of correct
reasoning, one of the principles in logic that is very much important to study is on how to
determine the validity of ones argument. Studying mathematics is also studying theorems.
The proof of the theorem uses the principle of arguments in logic. So, in this case, we could
say actually that the language of mathematics is logic.
In short, mathematical statement is also a grammar. In English, when we construct
a sentence or sentences, we always check if it is grammatically correct but in Mathematics,
we check mathematical statement or sentence in a logical structure. Wherever you go, we
have a common language in mathematics. In order not to conflict with in an English word, we
use appropriate symbols in mathematics so that there will no ambiguity on how to
communicate as to the meaning of a mathematical expression or even in mathematical
sentences
II. Formality
As stated by Heylighen F. and Dewaele J-M in the “Formality of Language:
Definition and Measurement”, an expression is completely formal when it is context-
independent and precise (i.e. non-fuzzy), that is, it represents a clear distinction which is
invariant under changes of context. In mathematics, we are always dealing in a formal way.
Suppose that somebody asked you that the result of adding 5 to 3 is 8 or let us say
that if a variable x is an even number then the square of this variable x would be also an even
number, you would agree that both mathematical sentences or statements are true and there is
no reason for you to doubt. Those two examples statements are precise and it is also an
independent. These are the two characteristics in mathematics that the statement must have
to say the mathematical sentence is in a formal manner. Speaking of statement, statement is
the main component of logic in mathematics.
When we say mathematical logic, it is a statements about mathematical objects that
are taken seriously as mathematical objects in their own right. More generally, in
mathematical logic we formalize, that is, we formulate in a precise mathematical way its
definition, theorem, lemma, conjecture, corollary, propositions and the methods of proof
which will be discussed in our next lesson. These are the major part of formality in
mathematics.
a) Definition

79