Ch.
13 Motivation and
Performance
Ch.14 Leadership
Facilitator: Naya Hapsari, M.Sc.
1
The Nature of Motivation (1 of 3)
• Motivation
– The psychological forces that determine the
direction of a person’s behavior in an organization,
a person’s level of effort, and a person’s level of
persistence
– Explains why people behave the way they do in
organizations
The Nature of Motivation (3 of 3)
• Intrinsically motivated behavior
– Behavior performed for its own sake
• Extrinsically motivated behavior
– Behavior performed to acquire material or social
rewards or to avoid punishment
• Prosocially motivated behavior
– Behavior performed to benefit or help others
The Motivation Equation
INPUTS FROM PERFORMANCE OUTCOMES RECEIVED BY
ORGANIZATIONAL ORGANIZATIONAL
MEMBERS MEMBERS
Time Contributes to Pay
Effort organizational efficiency, Job security
Education organizational Benefits
Experience effectiveness, Vacation time
Skills and the attainment of Job satisfaction
Knowledge organizational goals Autonomy
Work behaviors Responsibility
A feeling of
accomplishment
The pleasure of doing
interesting work
Improving the lives or well-
being of others
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Theories in Motivation
1. Expectancy Theory
2. Need Theories
3. Equity Theory
4. Goal Setting Theory
5. Social Learning Theory
Expectancy Theory (1 of 3)
• Expectancy theory
– The theory that
motivation will be
high when workers
believe that high
levels of effort lead to
high performance
and that high
performance leads to
the attainment of
desired outcomes
Copyright LWA/Dann Tardif/Blend Images/Corbis RF
Expectancy Theory (2 of 3)
• Expectancy
– A person’s perception about the extent to which effort
(an input) results in a certain level of performance
• Instrumentality
– A person’s perception about the extent to which
performance at a certain level results in the
attainment of outcomes
• Valence
– How desirable each of the available outcomes from
the job is to a person
Figure 13.2 Expectancy, Instrumentality, and
Valence
Jump to Appendix 1 for
description
Expectancy Theory (3 of 3)
Jump to Appendix 2 for
description
Need Theories
• Need theories
– Theories of motivation that focus on what needs
people are trying to satisfy at work and what
outcomes will satisfy those needs
• Need
– A requirement or necessity for survival and well-
being
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1 of 2)
• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
– An arrangement of five basic needs that motivate
behavior
– Maslow proposed that the lowest level of unmet
needs is the prime motivator and that only one
level of needs is motivational at a time
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (2 of 2)
Table 13.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
The lowest level of unsatisfied needs motivates behavior; once this level of needs is satisfied, a
person tries to satisfy the needs at the next level.
Needs Description Examples of How Managers Can Help People
Satisfy These Needs at Work
Highest-level Self-actualization The needs to realize one’s full By giving people the opportunity to use their
needs potential as a human being skills and abilities to the fullest extent possible
Esteem needs The needs to feel good about oneself By granting promotions and recognizing
and one’s capabilities, to be respected accomplishments
by others, and to receive recognition
and appreciation
Belongingness needs Needs for social interaction, By promoting good interpersonal relations and
friendship, affection, and love organizing social functions such as company
picnics and holiday parties
Safety needs Needs for security, stability, and a safe By providing job security, adequate medical
environment benefits, and safe working conditions
Lowest-level Physiological needs Basic needs for things such as food, By providing a level of pay that enables a person
needs water, and shelter that must be met in to buy food and clothing and have adequate
order for a person to survive housing
Alderfer’s ERG Theory (1 of 2)
• Alderfer’s ERG theory
– The theory that three universal needs—for
existence, relatedness, and growth— constitute a
hierarchy of needs and motivate behavior
– Alderfer proposed that needs at more than one
level can be motivational at the same time
Alderfer’s ERG Theory (2 of 2)
Table 13.2 Alderfer’s ERG Theory
As lower-level needs are satisfied, a person is motivated to satisfy higher-level needs. When a person
is unable to satisfy higher-level needs (or is frustrated), motivation to satisfy lower-level needs
increases.
Needs Description Examples of How Mangers Can Help People
Satisfy These Needs at Work
Highest-level Growth needs The needs for self- By allowing people to continually improve
needs development and creative and their skills and abilities and engage in
productive work meaningful work
Relatedness The needs to have good By promoting good interpersonal relations and
needs interpersonal relations, to by providing accurate feedback
share thoughts and feelings,
and to have open two-way
communication
Lowest-level Existence Basic needs for food, water, By providing enough pay for the basic
needs needs clothing, shelter, and a secure necessities of life and safe working conditions
and safe environment
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory (1 of 2)
• Herzberg’s motivator-hygiene theory
– A need theory that distinguishes between
motivator needs (related to the nature of the
work itself) and hygiene needs (related to the
physical and psychological context in which the
work is performed) and proposes that motivator
needs must be met for motivation and job
satisfaction to be high
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory (2 of 2)
• Motivator needs relate to the nature of the
work itself: autonomy, responsibility,
interesting work.
• Hygiene needs are related to the physical and
psychological context of the work:
comfortable work environment, pay, job
security.
McClelland’s Needs for Achievement,
Affiliation, and Power (1 of 2)
• Need for achievement
– The extent to which an individual has a strong
desire to perform challenging tasks well and to
meet personal standards for excellence
McClelland’s Needs for Achievement,
Affiliation, and Power (2 of 2)
• Need for affiliation
– Concerned about establishing and maintaining
good interpersonal relations, being liked, and
having the people around one get along with each
other
• Need for power
– A desire to control or influence others
Equity Theory (1 of 2)
• Equity theory
– A theory of motivation that focuses on people’s
perceptions of the fairness of their work
outcomes relative to their work inputs
Equity Theory (2 of 2)
Table 13.3 Equity Theory
Condition Person Referent Example
Equity Outcomes = Outcomes An engineer perceives that he contributes
Inputs Inputs more inputs (time and effort) and receives
proportionally more outcomes (a higher
salary and choice job assignments) than his
referent.
Underpayment Outcomes < (less Outcomes An engineer perceives that he contributes
inequity Inputs than) Inputs more inputs but receives the same outcomes
as his referent.
Overpayment Outcomes > (greater Outcomes An engineer perceives that he contributes
inequity Inputs than) Inputs the same inputs but receives more outcomes
than his referent.
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Inequity
• Underpayment inequity
– The inequity that exists when a person perceives
that his or her own outcome–input ratio is less
than the ratio of a referent
• Overpayment inequity
– The inequity that exists when a person perceives
that his or her own outcome–input ratio is greater
than the ratio of a referent
Equity and Justice in Organizations (1 of 2)
• Distributive justice
– A person’s perception of the fairness of the
distribution of outcomes in an organization
• Procedural justice
– A person’s perception of the fairness of the
procedures that are used to determine how to
distribute outcomes in an organization
Equity and Justice in Organizations (2 of 2)
• Interpersonal justice
– A person’s perception of the fairness of the
interpersonal treatment he or she receives from
whoever distributes outcomes to him or her
• Informational justice
– A person’s perception of the extent to which his or
her manager provides explanations for decisions
and the procedures used to arrive at them
Goal-Setting Theory
• Goal-setting theory
– A theory that focuses on identifying the types of
goals that are most effective in producing high
levels of motivation and performance and
explaining why goals have these effects
– Must be specific and difficult
Learning Theories
• Learning theories
– Theories that focus on increasing employee
motivation and performance by linking the
outcomes that employees receive to the
performance of desired behaviors and the
attainment of goals
Operant Conditioning Theory
• Operant conditioning
– People learn to perform behaviors that lead to
desired consequences and learn not to perform
behaviors that lead to undesired consequences
Operant Conditioning Tools (1 of 2)
• Positive reinforcement
– Gives people outcomes they desire when they
perform organizationally functionally behaviors
• Negative reinforcement
– Eliminating or removing undesired outcomes
when people perform organizationally functional
behaviors
Operant Conditioning Tools (2 of 2)
• Extinction
– Curtailing the performance of a dysfunctional
behavior by eliminating whatever is reinforcing it
• Punishment
– Administering an undesired or negative
consequence when dysfunctional behavior occurs
Avoiding Side Effects of Punishment
• Downplay the emotional element involved
• Try to punish dysfunctional behaviors as soon
as they occur
• Try to avoid punishing someone in front of
others
Organizational Behavior Modification
• Organizational behavior modification
– The systematic application of operant conditioning
techniques to promote the performance of
organizationally functional behaviors and
discourage the performance of dysfunctional
behaviors
Figure 13.4 Five Steps in Organizational
Behavior Modification (OB MOD)
Jump to Appendix 3 for
description
Social Learning Theory (1 of 3)
• Social learning theory
– A theory that takes into account how learning and
motivation are influenced by people’s thoughts
and beliefs and their observations of other
people’s behavior
Social Learning Theory (2 of 3)
• Vicarious learning
– Occurs when a person becomes motivated to
perform a behavior by watching another person
perform the behavior and be positively reinforced
for doing so
– Also called observational learning
Social Learning Theory (3 of 3)
• Self-reinforcer
– Any desired or attractive outcome or award that a
person gives himself or herself for good
performance
• Self-efficacy
– A person’s belief about his or her ability to
perform a behavior successfully
Pay and Motivation (1 of 2)
• Pay as a motivator
– Expectancy theory
• Instrumentality, the association between performance
and outcomes, must be high for motivation to be high.
– Need theory
• Pay is used to satisfy many needs.
– Equity theory
• Pay is given in relation to inputs.
Pay and Motivation (2 of 2)
• Pay as a motivator
– Goal setting theory
• Pay is linked to attainment of goals.
– Learning theory
• Outcomes (pay) are distributed upon performance of
functional behaviors.
Leadership
The Nature of Leadership (1 of 2)
• Leadership
– The process by which a person exerts influence
over others and inspires, motivates and directs
their activities to achieve group or organizational
goals
The Nature of Leadership (2 of 2)
• Leader
– An individual who is
able to exert
influence over other
people to help
achieve group or
organizational goals
Copyright Joshua Hodge Photography/Getty Images RF
Personal Leadership Style
and Managerial Tasks (1 of 2)
• Personal leadership style
– Specific ways in which a manager chooses to
influence others
– Shapes the way that manager approaches the
other principal tasks of management
Personal Leadership Style
and Managerial Tasks (2 of 2)
• Servant leader
– A leader who has a strong desire to serve and
work for the benefit of others
Leadership Across Cultures
• European managers tend to be more people-
oriented than American or Japanese
managers.
• Japanese managers are group-oriented, while
U.S managers focuses more on profitability.
• Time horizons also are affected by cultures.
Figure 14.1 Sources of Managerial Power
Power: The Key to Leadership (1 of 4)
• Legitimate power
– The authority that a manager has by virtue of his
or her position in an organization’s hierarchy
• Reward power
– The ability of a manager to give or withhold
tangible and intangible rewards
Power: The Key to Leadership (2 of 4)
• Coercive power
– The ability of a manager to punish others
– Overuse of coercive power can even result in
dangerous working conditions
– Examples: verbal reprimand, pay cuts, and
dismissal
Power: The Key to Leadership (3 of 4)
• Expert power
– Power that is based on special knowledge, skills,
and expertise that the leader possesses
– Tends to be used in a guiding or coaching manner
Power: The Key to Leadership (4 of 4)
• Referent power
– Power that comes from subordinates’ and
coworkers’ respect , admiration, and loyalty
– Possessed by managers who are likable and whom
subordinates wish to use as a role model
Empowerment: An Ingredient in
Modern Management
• Empowerment
– The process of giving
employees at all levels
the authority
to make decisions, be
responsible for their
outcomes, improve
quality, and cut costs
Copyright AP Photo/Paul Sancya
Leadership Models (1 of 2)
• Trait model
– Focused on identifying personal characteristics
that cause effective leadership
– Some of the personal characteristics that it
identifies are not personality traits per se but,
rather, are concerned with a leader’s skills,
abilities, knowledge, and expertise
Traits and Personal Characteristics Related to
Effective Leadership
Trait Description
Intelligence Helps managers understand complex issues and solve problems
Knowledge and Helps managers make good decisions and discover ways to increase
expertise efficiency and effectiveness
Dominance Helps managers influence their subordinates to achieve
organizational goals
Self-confidence Contributes to managers’ effectively influencing subordinates and
persisting when faced with obstacles or difficulties
High energy Helps managers deal with the many demands they face
Tolerance for Helps managers deal with uncertainty and make difficult decisions
stress
Integrity and Help managers behaving ethically and earn their subordinates’ trust
honesty and confidence
Maturity Helps managers avoid acting selfishly, control their feelings, and
admit when they have made a mistake
Leadership Models (2 of 2)
• Behavioral model
– Identifies the two basic types of behavior that
many leaders engaged in to influence their
subordinates
• Consideration
• Initiating structure
The Behavior Model
• Consideration
– Behavior indicating that a manager trusts,
respects, and cares about subordinates
• Initiating structure
– Behavior that managers engage in to ensure that
work gets done, subordinates perform their jobs
acceptably, and the organization is efficient and
effective
Contingency Models of Leadership
• Contingency models
– Whether or not a manager is an effective leader is
the result of the interplay between what the
manager is like, what he does, and the situation in
which leadership takes place
Contingency Models of Leadership
• Fiedler’s model
– Effective leadership is contingent on both the
characteristics of the leader and of the situation
– Leader style is a manager’s characteristic
approach to leadership
Fiedler’s Contingency Model
• Relationship-oriented style
– Leaders concerned with developing good relations
with their subordinates and to be liked by them
• Task-oriented style
– Leaders whose primary concern is to ensure that
subordinates perform at a high level so the job
gets done
Fiedler’s Model
Situation Characteristics (1 of 2)
• Leader-member relations
– Extent to which followers like, trust, and are loyal
to their leader
• Task structure
– Extent to which the work to be performed is clear-
cut so that a leader’s subordinates know what
needs to be accomplished and how to go about
doing it
Fiedler’s Model
Situation Characteristics (2 of 2)
• Position power
– Amount of legitimate, reward, and coercive power
that a leader has by virtue of his or her position in
an organization
– Determinant of how favorable a situation is for
leading
Figure 14.2 Fiedler’s Contingency Theory of
Leadership
Jump to Appendix 1 for
description
House’s Path-Goal Theory
A contingency model of leadership proposing that
effective leaders can motivate subordinates to
achieve goals by:
1. Clearly identifying the outcomes that subordinates
are trying to obtain from their jobs
2. Rewarding subordinates with these outcomes for
high-performance and attainment of work goal
3. Clarifying the paths leading to the attainment of
work goals
Path-Goal Leadership Behaviors (1 of 2)
• Directive behaviors
– Setting goals, assigning tasks, showing
subordinates how to complete tasks, and taking
concrete steps to improve performance
• Supportive behavior
– Expressing concern for subordinates and looking
out for their best interests
Path-Goal Leadership Behaviors (2 of 2)
• Participative behavior
– Give subordinates a say in matters and decisions
that affect them
• Achievement-oriented behavior
– Setting challenging goals, expecting that they be
met, and believing in subordinates’ capabilities
The Leader Substitutes Model (1 of 2)
• Leadership substitute
– Characteristic of a subordinate or of a situation or
context that acts in place of the influence of a
leader and makes leadership unnecessary
• Members of an organization sometimes can
perform highly without a manager exerting
influence over them
The Leader Substitutes Model (2 of 2)
Possible substitutes can be found in:
• Characteristics of the subordinates: their skills,
experience, motivation
• Characteristics of context: the extent to which
work is interesting and fun
Contingency Models of Leadership
Table 14.2 Contingency Models of Leadership
Model Focus Key Contingencies
Fiedler’s contingency Describes two leaders styles, Whether a relationship-oriented or a task-
model relationship-oriented and task- oriented leader is effective is contingent on the
oriented, and the kinds of situation.
situations in which each kind of
leader will be most effective
House’s path-goal theory Describes how effective leaders The behaviors that managers should engage in to
motivate their followers be effective leaders are contingent on the nature
of the subordinates and the work they do.
Leader substitutes model Describes when leadership is Whether leadership is necessary for subordinates
unnecessary to perform highly is contingent on characteristics
of the subordinates and the situation.
Transformational Leadership (1 of 2)
Leadership that:
• Makes subordinates aware of how important their
jobs are for the organization and how necessary it is
for them to perform those jobs as best they can so
that the organization can attain its goals
Transformational Leadership (2 of 2)
2. Makes subordinates aware of their own
needs for personal growth, development,
and accomplishment
3. Motivates workers to work for the good of
the organization, not just for their own
personal gain or benefit
Being a Charismatic Leader (1 of 2)
• Charismatic leader
– An enthusiastic, self-confident transformational
leader able to clearly communicate his vision of
how good things could be
Being a Charismatic Leader (2 of 2)
• Charismatic leader (continued)
– Being excited and clearly communicating
excitement to subordinates
– Openly sharing information with employees so
that everyone is aware of problems and the need
for change
Transactional Leadership
• Transactional leaders
– Leadership that motivates subordinates by
rewarding them for high performance and
reprimanding them for low performance
Gender and Leadership
• Although there are relatively more women in
management positions today than there were
10 years ago, there are still relatively few
women in top management and, in some
organizations, even in middle management.
• Stereotypes suggest women are supportive
and concerned with interpersonal relations.
Similarly, men are seen as task-focused.
Emotional Intelligence and Leadership (1 of 2)
The moods of leaders:
• Groups whose leaders experienced positive
moods had better coordination
• Groups whose leaders experienced negative
moods exerted more effort
Emotional Intelligence and Leadership (2 of 2)
• Emotional intelligence
– Helps leaders develop a vision for their firm
– Helps motivate subordinates to commit to the
vision
– Energizes subordinates to work to achieve the
vision
Reference
Jones, R. Gareth and George, M. Jennifer. 2017.
Contemporary Management, 11th Edition.
NY: McGraw-Hill.
Terima Kasih
Constant and frequent questioning is the first key to wisdom …
[Ibnu Sina]
74
