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M usic in Metres
S a ta va d h a n i Dr R. Ganesh

usic and poetry are twin-sisters in the family of fine-arts. Especially the metrical part of
M poetry has much in common with music. However, there are some obvious differences
between the music of poetry and the art of music as it is. Barring such small and significant
differences, one can appreciate the melody of poetry through the earphones of music. Here is
an attempt to bring out the intrinsic melody of metres that belong to the world of Indian poetry
in general and that of Sanskrit in particular. While doing so, some examples are also culled out
from the repertoire of Yaksagana, a well-known regional traditional theatre of Karnataka, having
its lyrics essentially in Kannada.

The word chandas in Sanskrit designates the meaning of metre in general, and its etymology
shows that it is a technique of concealing blemishes, enriching the beauty, and infusing energy
into the art of poetry. Indian Poetics, unlike its western counterpart, accepts both prose and verse
as equally competent expressions of poetry. In this sense, metre is not an indispensable entity in
poetry; however, it is one of the most desirable qualities of it, as that would be a great entertainer
to the lay and the learned alike. Above all, metre acts as a wonderful vyahjaka-samagri (aspects that
nourish the beauty delivered through suggestion), according to the dhvani school. Aestheticians like
Bhojaraja rightly opine that metre is basically a sabdalahkara (embellishment of sound). Added to
this basic structural melody reinforced in the metrical rhythm, the conventional sabdalahkaras like
the varieties of anuprasa and yamaka appearing throughout the length and breadth of the verses
or songs create a world of marvel that impressively communicates the intended mood or emotion,
even before the words are comprehended. This is what T. S. Eliot identifies as auditory imagination.
Thus, the importance of metre in poetry is unquestionable, especially from the perspective of
aesthetics. It is only the vulgar world of utility and propaganda that curbs the employment of
metre for want of erudition and understanding.

Metres are majorly classified into two groups - satana and vitana. The former can be set
to various talas without hampering the intrinsic melody of the metrical rhythm, as they themselves
can be rendered to beats. While the latter, though it has an intrinsic melody and rhythm of the
highest order, refrains from moving to the gait of beats. In spite of the high sense of melody
and intricate sound-patterns, it stands apart from the usual talic measures. Generally, most of the
languages of the world are contended with the former variety of metres. It is only in India, that
too in Sanskrit literature, we find both the varieties. Here again the latter is held high, as poetry, a
thing to be appreciated more deeply at the level of sense, gets distracted when the former variety
dominate the scene. However, in songs they alone reign supreme. The vitana variety of metres
that’s developed in Sanskrit are freely borrowed by many regional languages of India, along
with the satana varieties too. However, the regional languages have developed their own family
of satana measures, well echoing the spirit of Sanskrit literature. Accordingly, we have both the
matra-jati metres and karsana-jati metres in the regional languages. But, the varna-vrttas basically

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belong to Sanskrit. It is in this variety we find both satana and vitana patterns. However, the
latter are very few in number compared to the vast majority of the former. Only a very great mind
that has a keen and deep sense of abstract melody can create a vitana pattern, while the satana
patterns are far easier to realise and simpler to conceive. Generally, musicians, whenever they want
to sing pure poetry, resort to the satana varieties for obvious reason of tala, one of the foremost
aspects of music. By chance if they opt for the vitana ones, often they end up in squeezing or
stretching these melodies, which transcend the time-dependent rhythms, to suit their regular and
time-tested ta lk patterns in a monotonous manner, so that the distinct flavour of the vitana metres
is completely lost, and they blow the usual conch of timed rhythm, which bulldozes all the charm.
Even if at times our musicians attempt the vitana measures without moulding them in the regular
ta lk patterns, sing them in such a way that they go unidentifiable, as if they are prose passages.
It is something like an entirely anibaddha sahitya that is being rendered in a musical way. This
is what most of the kavya vacana artists are doing. This is comparable to pure rendition of raga
without any tala. Both these approaches miserably fail to extract the intrinsic metrical melody
of vitana measures. It is only an approach that can feel and understand the innate gati-vilasa i.e.
the grandeur of gait unique to such metres, and sing as per the rules of yati-sthana i.e. position
of the caesura, along with a complete hold over the literary beauty of the chosen composition.

The usual satana metres have beats like trisra (3+3), caturasra (4+4), misra (3+4), khanda
(5+5), and rarely sahklrna (4+5). In the trisra and caturasra groups, we also have sub-varieties
like santulita-drutavarta (2+4 / 4+2) and santulita-madhyavarta (3+5 / 5+3) respectively. As
told earlier, Sanskrit too, like many other languages, has maximum number of satana metres.
Here, the most popular in the category of trisra gati are devaramya, pramanika, carucamara and
pancacamara, while bhavaramya, dodhaka, totaka, vanamahjari, hapisagati etc. fall into the family
of caturasra gati. Metres like Haranartana, also known as Mallikamala or Mattakokila, and Tarala
obey the rhythm of misra gati, while, measures like Sragvinl, Bhujangaprayata, Indunandana,
Asvadhati, Sambhunatana etc., find their place in the khanda gati variety. It is only the metre
Indravajra that follows the sahkirna pattern, that too in the converse manner, termed as vildma-
sahkirna in common musical parlance. Metres like Tanumadhya and Karim dance to the rhythm
of santulita-drutavarta, while metres like Rathoddhata, Svagata, Mahjubhasinl and Kalahamsa
identify themselves with the santulita-madhyavarta gati. All these are essentially matric metres
in totality, where every laghu or guru - the short and long syllables - are uttered as they are,
and even either in recitation or singing, follow the same mle. But this is not so in the case of
karsana class of metres. Here, the gurus and laghus are arranged in different groups termed as
rati, kama and barn (according to Sanskrit sources) or brahma, visnu and rudra (as per Kannada
sources), or indra, surya and candra (according to Telugu sources), so that they follow the same
trisra, caturasra, misra and khanda varieties. But the beauty here lies with the unique feature of
karsana or elongation, so that much of the music that could be infused while singing is latently
present in the composition itself. Thus, unlike the varna-vrttas and matra-jatis, these karsana
measures, often called as trimurti-ganiya, never have a pathya-rupa (recitation form). They only
have they geya-rupa (musical form). Even the basic metres of Tamil and Malayalam, depending

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on the units like asai and sir follow the above system in essence. Thus, all these matra-jatis and
kar$ana-jatis falling into the superset of vitana metres ultimately take the form of songs that are
set to popular and basic talas like Ska, adi, caturasratriputa, rupaka, misracapu, trisratriputa,
khandacapu, jhampa etc.

As the satana metres are very common and easily identifiable, we are not going to greater
details about them. However, we shall touch upon one sub-variety, the santulita-madhyavarta to
illustrate the sheer variety that it can afford to. Here are a few examples:

Rathoddhata -

_«f\ _r\ ♦ f\r\.a

Ic ln t

Here, though the syllables follow a strict guru-laghu pattern of nd-na-na-na-na-na-na-na-

na-na-na, we have an intrinsic matric measure of 3+5+3+5, and this is very obvious in the rendition
itself. By such madhyavarta-gati, the monotonic mere caturmatra-gati is avoided to a great extent.

Manjubha$irii -
K5H
I

Except for the first two syllables, the rest is absolutely same as Rathoddhata. But the beauty
here lies with the first two syllables itself. Any musically tuned ear can notice the difference in
rhythms between Rathoddhata and Mahjubhasim. The former starts with a sama beat, while the
latter is of visama. Thus the graha or the take-off of the latter is distinctly gripping and leaping.
This is a very welcoming classical feature too in music.

Svagata -

II

Barring the second half, this metre resembles Rathoddhata to a great extent. While the first
half is of santulita-madhyavarta-gati, the second one is a plain caturmatra gati. Hence, in contrast
with Rathoddhata, Svagata falls short of enchanting leaps and curvilinear loops.

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Kalahamsa is similar to Svagata except for the additional two laghus at the beginning of
every foot. Thus, it is a counterpart of Mahjubhd?im. Here again, but for the visama-graha, an
added beauty, everything else is similar to Svagata.

Mallikamala -

cHIc^i Tpjf oUNH rM'Jrj tilMd II

This is a well-known misra-gati metre, strictly following the guru-laghu pattern of

nd-na-na-na-na-nd-na-nd-na-na-nd-na-nd-na-na-na-na-nd, and yet it can be represented as
a matric measure of 3+4+3+4+3+4+5. But, the seeming monotony of this metre is broken
heartily by an intelligent placement of yati, so as to give a twist in the rhythm itself, leading
to a visama-graha in the second half of the foot. This is illustrated in the example itself.

While the first line has a simple monotonic rhythm of misra gati,

the second one I by following the yati, has a beautiful

twist.

Pahcacamaram -
H'fckWII'fcSId^
cW^HIHdddH. I
Pinfold H^Rlct
d d ^ d ^ ^ d ^ + l^ ^ d H . I I

Though this is a very simple and plain trisra gati {na-nd-na-nd-na-nd-na-nd-na-na na-na-
na-nd-na-na) metre, as opposed to its nearest cousin Cdrucamaram (nd-na-nd-na-nd-na-nd-na-na
na-nd-na-na-na-na), it has an arresting beginning with the visama-graha due to the presence
of a laghu. This one small change constantly repeats as a value-addition at the beginning of
every cycle in all the feet, so that a distinct leaping movement is accomplished, as opposed
to a monotonous, linear fast-pace in Cdrucamaram.

A ryd -
Now we shall move on to the satdna metres belonging to the matra-jati class, which
invariably follows the talic patterns that have been enumerated earlier. Here, the Aryd varieties
dominate the scene. Arya, Gltl, Arya-gitl and Upa-gitT are the main measures which are frequently
used in poetry. However, it is the first two that are much exploited by Sanskrit poets, while the

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third, in the name of skandhaka, has gone into the Prakrit literature, and the same, termed as kanda
(skandhaka > khanda-a > kanda) found a great place in Kannada and Telugu languages. Barring
the number of matras in the even lines, all these metres are very similar. However, due to their
complete or incomplete endings in such lines, owing to the saturated or unsaturated ganas, they
have a marked change in the concluding portions, which bear a distinctly different flavour, as far
as the music is concerned. Except Arya-glti, the rest have an incomplete ending in the even lines,
leading to a musical completion resulting in elongated melody. Even here, the only dissimilar
metre is Arya, as its even lines are marked with a difference in the number of matras. While the
JJpa-gltl and Glti, due to their identically in even lines, have a harmonious conclusion. But, the
intrinsic twist within the even lines, due to the existence of an incomplete gana, Upa-gitl lacks
a smooth conclusion, while the Gltl, owing to its incomplete gana placed at the fag end of even
lines, emerges as a measure with normalised ending. Arya-gTtT, in spite of having no incomplete
gana in any of its feet, lacks an independent musical conclusion - smooth or rough - turns out to
be a stiff and compact measure. However, the gava-parivrtti or internal phase-shifts within the
ganas in Arya-gltl create the magic of a complete cycle of pure caturasra, and strikingly beautiful
santulita-drutavarta-gatis, without any break. Thus, all these four varieties have their own marked
beauties and limitations. Here are a few examples to illustrate the melody of these:

This is a Gltl culled out from MukapancasatT. Here, one can notice the exuberant
alliterations ending up in many yamakas. These add to the intrinsic melody of the metre to
say the least. Even the ja-gana in the third line has reinforced a peculiar twist, which can be
treated in either way, so as to mar or enhance the musical quality. But, such a doubt cannot
arise in the following verse taken from the same work.

WfT I

Here, the finesse of the verse is ably supported by the alliterations, again finding their
structure in many types of sabdalankaras, falling into the main category of anuprasa. However,
a greater smoothness and symmetry are achieved mainly due to the optimum use of ja-gana.

Similar effect can be realised in the following verse taken from Syamalanavaratnamalikd.

Here it is needless to say that the verbal melody has vocally contributed to the intrinsic
melody of metre to a great extent.

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We may wind-up this section with two examples of Arya drawn from Alahkaramanihara and
Rasagahgadhara respectively. Here again, we can happily identify the verbal melody competing
with that of the metrical, so as to result in a total musical enrichment, aiding rasa. Even an untrained
ear can notice the twist - unwelcoming to my ear at least - in the last lines of both verses, which
is of course the very nature of the said metre. But, none can ignore its marked existence, which
may as well be exploited in an aesthetic way when the situations demand.

3T fltolswfo ^ II
^ P l ^ : qfcfclT ^ I
H jM fc l I

Now we shall attend to the melodies of vitana or laya-rahita metres, belonging to the
category of varnavrttas. The melodic-pattern of these metres is beyond the scope of any tala.
The word rhythm is rather an over-inclusive term, as it designates the aspects of both satana and
vitana measures in Prosody. However, due to the paucity of technical terms in English, we are
compelled to use the same. Thus, the metrical melody of the vitana-vrttas, is something comparable
to the musical quality of mere ragalapa or melody in the anibaddha i.e. the “unstructured” form,
as compared to the regular musical compositions, which are essentially set to different talas. It
is very difficult and equally interesting, and above all - extremely rewarding - to understand and
expound the secret of these metres w.r.t. their melodic patterns. Any agreeable theory in this
direction would be a hypothesis at the most. However, even such a small increment in progress is
a commendable advancement in the area of metrical aesthetics. The placement of yati or caesura
plays a very vital role in deciding the total rhythmic structure of these metres. Yati, according to
Sanskrit prosody, is the meeting point of two different gatis. Here, the word gad should never
be mistaken for the usual ta lk beats like the trisra, misra, caturasra etc. The gatis involved in
these vitana measures are based on the patterns of gurus and laghus, irrespective of their talk
beats. There are mainly three types of gatis -guru-pradhana, laghu-pradhana and guru-laghu-
misra. Yati is always due to any of these gatis meeting together. If a metre has only one type of
gad throughout its feet, it perhaps has no yati. While, the metres having two or three gatis - at
the most - within a foot, will naturally have one or two yads within; and of course, at the end of
every line an invariable yati will always be present, irrespective of the gatis. If a foot carries more
than three yads including the one at the end, then it would eventually end up in the breaking of
a foot. Thus, the metre will no longer be the same. The aesthetic possibility of the yads within
a foot cannot be more than two. This means - only three set of gatis at the most can occur in
any foot. To make this possible, a metre must have strikingly different arrangement of gurus and
laghus within its feet. Usually, any language will have its metrical varieties arising out of the
natural rhythm of it. Thus, most of the general purpose or all-round metres will always have a
simple rhythm of guru-laghu-misra-gad. This means having one or no yati within a foot. But the
case of special-purpose metres is quite different. Here, the rhythm pattern will not be simple, so
as to suit with that of the language in all its naturalness. Hence, the guru-laghu patterns mostly

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fall into the category of a mixture of all the three possibilities. This will eventually increase the
number of yatis. Owing to such a design, the total structure of the metre becomes a challenge
to any poet in general, and he may have to resort to a constrainted type of construction while
handling such measures. In spite of this obvious impediment handling these metres, strikingness
of the rhythm is always a greater temptation, owing to its higher reward in the sense of aesthetic
appeal. That is why many medieval masters in Sanskrit resort to such measures. This is a hallmark
of their prowess in the skilful art of versification too.

SikharinT -
As an example to this, here is a masterly metre SikhaririT, which has two yatis within a
foot. It is said that this metre has yatis after the sixth and twelfth/thirteenth syllable, along with the
usual one at the end. Though in the present example, the second yati is placed after the thirteenth
syllable, its aesthetic possibility would have better if it were to be after the twelfth. However, both
are in practice. One can clearly notice the guru-pradhana, laghu-pradhana and guru-laghu-misra
gatis falling one after the other in succession in this metre. This orderliness has its own charm.
Especially, the take-off with one laghu followed by five gurus suggests the aptness of the name
of the metre SikharinT too. This, followed by the five laghus and a guru wonderfully suggest the
valley beside the peak, and the final misra-gati would resonate the feel of a plain land. Thus, the
total course of uphill and downhill tasks are complete in it.

This verse from SivanandalaharT illustrates the unfailing charm of this metre, along with
its alliterations. If proper care is taken, this metre can also be rendered in misra-gati, without
marring the lyrical beauty. However, the original flavour of the laya-rahita melody will be lost.

Harinl -
This is a very close cousin of SikharinT. One can easily notice that Harim is almost a
jumbled SikharinT. In spite of such seeming similarity, the rhythm of it is strikingly different.
SikharinT is a very grave and introvert metre starting with a vilamba-gati and then leading to
a druta-gati, while Harim is a jubilant, extrovert measure, with a take-off in druta, leading to
vilamba. However, both conclude in misra-gati. Such an interchange in gatis is the real secret
behind their astounding difference. Like SikharinT, Harim too is a sharp laya-rahita metre, never
compromising for any talic patterns. Especially, the tail-end of it having a pattern of two ja- ganas
concluding with a guru ring an unmistakable stroke of muktaya, which can only be compared to a
brilliant and cascading beats on a mrdangam. Such a finale is well-propelled by the previous four
gurus that appear after the first yati-sthanam, recollecting the impact of an open-beat of forceful

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caturasra-gati on the pakhavSj. This pair of two gurus has an arresting attraction for indulging
with any sort of sabdalahkara.

J-l«rlTsH<URNI £•*!•1
W fc HKHsHlR w u f a cTI
HUlfcl II
In the world of varna-vfttas, Salim, MalinT, Mandakranta and Sragdhara are too well-
known and belong to a single family. In them, one can see an evolution too. Salim, indisputably
the oldest, finds its roots in the vedic Tri$tup, while the rest are more or less its timely extensions.
However, as one can feel the rhythm of Salim and Mandakranta in Sragdhara itself at places,
here we have confined our analysis only to MalinT and Sragdhara. Both these metres are typical
examples of laya-rahita varieties having pronounced yatis. Due to such a feature, they can only
be handled by an adept poet who is capable of creating his own vocabulary. Though MalinT and
Sragdhara have many similarities, the latter, due to its vilamba-gati in the opening in the form of
seven syllables, where only one is a laghu, scores over the former in terms of loftiness, profundity
and gravity. MalinT, opening with an unbroken succession of six laghus concluding happily with
two gurus, has a marked sense of softness and swiftness, sweetness and soberness. Such a pattern
of laghus is also seen in Sragdhara; but it has a definite reminiscence of the bombastic take-off,
and thus makes it not so gentle. Only swiftness can be felt in it. However, both these metres have
the same conclusion. In the words of Abhinavagupta, it is almost a sin to sing Sragdhara, as it
always shines well while chanting. This is obviously because of its vedic origin that is established
through Salim. But, MalinT can carry good music with it, as its opening phrase of laghus often
creates a lilting combination of trisra and caturasra gatis, leading to santulita-drutavarta-gati
too. This is well contrasted by the concluding vilamba-gati of dominating gurus falling into the
pattern of khaqda-gati in terms of beats. Identical patterns of ganas appearing at the yati-sthanas
tempt any poet to indulge in fabricating varieties of sabddlahkaras.

MalinT -

Sragdhara -

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In the world of vitana measures, four are very prominent, and find their use in abundance.
Of them, Vasantatilaka and Sardulavikrlditam are the cherished two. The remaining are of course
Sloka and Upajati. The possibilities of Sloka are far more when compared with any other measures,
and it deserves an independent treatment. Hence, we refrain from doing so. The Upajati metre - a
combination of lndravajra and Upendravajra in different proportions - sounds like a rhythm of
viloma-sahklrna-gad, in spite of its supposed laya-rahita category. However, all these four metres
fall into a single family of madhya-gati-varna-vrttas having a weak or no yati. Therefore, they
can easily be managed with any existing vocabulary.

Vasantatilaka -
Coming to Vasantatilaka, one of the finest creations in the prosodic world of Sanskrit, is a
niryati metre that can never be aesthetically adopted to any tala. However, if we closely observe
the pattern of gurus and laghus in it, we can identify a very intelligent manner of arrangement
that in spite of its satanata, has ceased to be so. If we start counting the matras and arrange them
in the form of the regular ganas, we can identify an inversion of misra-gati in the beginning,
which is followed by the regular one in two successions. Such an inversion, often identified as
viloma-chapu in music, has created the marvel of Vasantatilaka as a laya-rahita metre.

$$ #7: I I

Sdrdulaviknditam -
This is perhaps the most sublime metre in the prosodic world of Indian poetry. Though it
has a madhya-gati throughout, never falls prey to monotony, as there are hearty changes here and
there. Especially the last seven syllables that emerge as an epigrammatic metrical phrase after the
modest but assertive yati steal the show. While the first half serves as a profound prologue to this
invincible conclusion. Sardulavikrlditam can never tolerate any sort of talk mischief. However,
it would submit itself to any sort of majestic rendition that is essentially vitalic. Recitation of
Sardulavikrlditam can no way fall short of the rendition of any sort of ghana-raga.

sp rp ftsfo f e lt e iw ls f o ^TT-
HNvltsfo I

II

Prthvi -
Prthvl is yet another laya-rahita metre, having the number of syllables as Sikharinl. But,
the rhythm-pattern is entirely different. It is supposed to have almost similar gads on either side

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of the single yati in a foot. In this case, there should not be a yati at all, as the gati is almost
the same. But, the discrepancy of such a uniform gati in a section that is quite close to the yati,
makes it happen. Again, the distribution of gurus and laghus in this misra-gati is done in such
a way that there is an unfailing leap at every instance. Such sweet jumps in the whole course of
PrthvT has naturally graduated it to the level of a dancing metre that is not essentially talk. This
is a marked achievement, as we all know that arresting dance, without any pronounced beats, is
quite a rarity. This is a privilege that masters alone can afford. Such a perspective can better drive
home the speciality of PrthvT as a special-purpose metre.

ViyoginT -
Coming to a metre like ViyoginT, which falls under the category of ardha-sama-vrttas,
though they seem to follow the pattern of vitana measures, have an intrinsic melody more akin to
that of satana. That’s why it has a distinct gati that can easily be set to eka or adi-tala. In spite
of having taken such liberties, much of its intrinsic melody will not be lost. However, singing it
without the constraint of any tala, has its own appeal.

pKaTI§MllRidHI II

A guru at the end of every foot in this metre would generate the metre Aupacchandasika.
All the analysis that has been done w.r.t. ViyoginT will equally hold good to this measure too.
However, the extra guru at the end has its own sustained melody in case of a vitana rendition.

* II

Puspitagra -
If the third guru of Aupacchandasika in every foot of it is replaced by two laghus, so
that the total time-span is maintained constant in spite of such a change, would generate the
metre Puspitagra. This naturally has a swifter flow due to the dominating number of laghus
in the first half of every line, and would generate a brilliant take-off, as against the sober and
moderate speed of Aupacchandasika. But for this, the total rhythmic effect in terms of satana
gati remains the same. Thus, it is needless to say that the talk analysis applied to it would hold
good to Puspitagra too.

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Drutavilambita -
In this sober but charming metre, we have a metric mannerism within the prescribed
varna-garias (na-bha-bha-ra) that every foot of it should have. Hence, we see a smooth flow of
3+4+4+5, suggesting units of misra and sahklrna - one each in every line. This is a very unique
combination; for, getting any gati registered in the mind, we need a minimum of two identical
ganas. But here, the case is different: Before the registering of a satana gati, another unit of
a different gati appears. This should naturally mar the melody of the metre. But as a pleasant
surprise, this is not happening. Such an anomaly perhaps is because of the unregistering nature of
the gatis itself! As no great expectation is set in the minds of the listeners due to the placement
of a single misra-gati unit followed by a sahklrna-gati unit, the total metrical rhythm of every
foot is well restored. But, when the same line is set to tala, it would faithfully follow either eka
or adi, without much ado. Here is an example from Bharavi’s KiratarjunTyam.

II

Metres like Viyogirii, Aupacchandasika, Puspitagra, Aparavaktra (elimination of the last

guru of Puspitagra will result in this) and Drutavilambita, having a closer affinity towards
matra-jatis, in spite of their supposed basis in varna-vrttas, act in both the ways, something
similar to the concept of graha-bheda in music. Thus, they steal the show in the lore of metrical
melody by imbibing the best of both the worlds. As they have identical ganas, though for a
short span in every foot, can easily accommodate beautiful alliterations, leading to varieties
of yamakas. This again enriches the mellifluous nature of these metres. All these measures
basically falling into the pattern of Madhya-gati, in terms of the mixture of guru and laghus,
never get entrapped by any sort of yati. Such a feature would naturally accommodate much
of the existing linguistic vocabulary into the fold of these metres. To put it another way,
any Madhya-gati metre having a weak yati or no yati, would naturally act more malleable
in terms o f versification i.e. the siddha-padas of any language would suffice to handle them
as against the yati-prabala metres which often demand a rich vocabulary of sadhya-padas.
These features would enable them to accommodate for many permutations and combinations
w.r.t the yamakas.

Now we shall have a peep into the world of songs that are essentially stmctured in matra-
jati, trimurti-gamya metres. Here, the measures that are popular in Kannada Yaksaganas are cited
as examples, due to their innumerable possibilities in generating lilting rhythms. Unlike the loose
structure of metre, in the case of many of the songs that are in the form of krtis, padams, javalis,
darns, devaranamas, tevarams, prabandhas etc., these Yaksaganic compositions have a greater
regularity coupled with variety in their metrical structure. Added to this, the indispensable nature
of rhyming positions in the form of adi, antya khanda and anuprasas, ably aided by the rhythmic

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tricks such as: varana, atlta, anagata, padagarbha, ganaparivrtti, mudi, vadi, padmagana, pluta
etc., create a galaxy of melodic colours. In spite of the basic, simple talk rhythms such as adi,
rupaka, misra-chapu and khanda-chapu varieties, these Yak?aganic measures have a lasting impact
of variety and veracity in terms of dancing melodies. Even the length of a foot ipada) essentially
based on the number of ganas, plays an important role in harbouring the metrical melody. Above
all, the judicious mixture of matra-jati and trimurti-ganlya patterns within the song - mostly as
two distinct units - creates an amazing rhythmic symphony of flexible and gripping successions
in such a way that the melody of raga and majesty of laya are brought at once in any song as
a singular unit. It is so unfortunate that words would fail to explain such an effect when the
examples are visually presented and not sung to the intended rhythm. However, a trained mind
in both music and metre can unfailingly notice the inbuilt melody from the mere words presented
here. As the Yak$aganic songs are usually framed as nibida-bandhas, in contrast with the sithila-
bandhas present in the usual lyrics of any song that is in the present system of classical music,
mere recitation itself would reveal the metrical melody of them. Thus, the intrinsic music of these
songs owe much to their lyricist than the music composer. In this sense, an adept Yak§agana
poet is also an accomplished musician to a great extent. This would reveal the true relationship
between music and prosody as well.

Here are a few examples from my own Yaksaganic compositions, which would ably reveal
the aforementioned observations:

Trimurti-ganlya-bandha set to misra-capu tala:

Matra-bandha set to eka-tala:

Hlfal I I

Trimurti-ganlya-bandha (first half) and Matra-bandha (second half) set to misra-capu tala:

Hid -
- WT
 THE M U S I C A C A D E M Y • J O UR N A L 2 0 1 6 • V O L UM E 87

Trimurti-gamya-bandha (lines one and two) and Matra-bandha (lines three and four) set to misra-
capu tala, Matra-bandha set to eka-tala (lines five and six):

JTlcHI'dd
nD 'HcW lo iter

TRtS^CRT^ II

Completely in Matra-bandha set to eka-tala. The last two lines are in the second speed.
We can also notice the master-stroke of pluta in the beginning of the first three line.
3l%S ci^R R d^ - t e l l I
I
S - ^S T lT c!^

Trimurti-gamya-trisra-gati-bandha set to rupaka-tala. In the last two lines, the varana in

the words lole and pur a have brought a distinct twist in the rhythm.
r, r, r\ rs ^
«UHIC60 «lllcW>H|d| - H

snR # R m*

Matra-bandha-caturasra-gati set to eka-tala. Especially the half-speed in the phrases

madhusadana and madhumathana have brought a welcoming contrast to the swift movement in
the first half.

nfatA lvl

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Matra-bandha-caturasra-gati set to eka-tala. Here, the pada-garbha in the phrase anuragada

has a gripping beauty as far as the rhythm is concerned, while the mudi as an una-gana in the
three lines is well contrasted by the third line which has complete ganas.

h iP w h ! tfo w p g I I

Trimurti-gamya-bandha (first half) and Matra-bandha (second half) set to misra-capu tala.
In the last line, the words are set in such a skilful manner that they simultaneously adopt themselves
to both the misra and caturasra gatis.

^ -m m -

- H ^ lR&SS

Matra-bandha set to khanda-capu-tala. The una-ganas at the end of every line have created
an arresting sense of rhythm, suggesting the firm and formidable nature of the character (the
huntress Citrangada) described in the song.

fa -

^ < J tiliiH TiRg

faPl£ HMIoM II

To conclude, music in metres is an engrossing subject in itself and needs a greater attention
from the side of musicians as well as poets. This would certainly bring out rewarding results so as
to create better musical compositions leading to greater aesthetic appeal. Especially in the world
of applied music like films, theatre, and folklore, such innovations would better equip the artists
and create an overall positive effect. As the study in this field of learning still remains unexplored,
the present author, with all humility invites the attention of those who are either way equipped.

----------------------------------------------------

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Karnataka Y aksagan a and K u c h ip u d i :

A brief study of both traditions in their presentation
of mythological stories
Veena Murthy Vijay
[This study (an on-going research project of the author) is based mainly on the knowledge
and guidance given by §atavadhani Dr R Ganesh who has been passionately refining and promoting
the art of Yaksagana in Karnataka.]

Tradition of Y aksagan a in Karnataka

Yaksagana, in Karnataka, is a very popular art and this is due to its strong religious
background. In the traditions of Karnataka it was and is a very important ritualistic practice to
hold an all-night Yaksagana program by the families. This is done by inviting a certain group
of artists called mela who are officially attached to a certain temple and this is called “DTpa
torisuvudhu ” meaning bringing light. It is said that there will be at least 4 such groups attached
to the temple and the shows at the temple will be booked for at least 2 years in the temple. If
any family wants a certain day and a certain group they have to book years prior! There are many
well-known mela-s like the Amrtesvari mela, Idagunji mela, Dharmasthala sri manjunatheswara
krpaposita Yaksagana mandali, Mandarthi.

A typical Y aksagan a performance

By evening, the ‘Abbara Tala' or the drums are beaten around the village to bring about
awareness of the evening’s performance at the temple.

After this, as great vibrant beats from the drums fill the air, the mela enters the stage
singing ‘Svami Paraku’. The Kodangi-s dance to this. Then the Balagopala group perform Ganesa
Prarthane for one hour, after which the real story begins. Due to time constraints, many of these
traditions are being skipped in present day plays. The mela starts straight with the story after the
Ganesa puja in the green room.

There are two seating styles for the orchestra - either standing behind or sitting on a seat
called Hadi Mahca. Slowly the music engulfs the atmosphere with eager anticipation while the
drums shift from Jhampe tala to Rupaka tala and playing the cymbals, the Bhagavatar begins
the story. There is no Suthradhara in Bhadagathittu as in Thenkuthittu. The Bhagavataru or the
main singer plays the role of Suthradhara also.

To make the show lively, the mela sings lilting tunes like Chanda Bhame, Namaha Sivaya
and Hara Hara Sambho. The compositions are usually in Bhamini $atpadi or Vardikha $atpadi
and other meters. The stories are usually from Bhagvata Purana. All the characters enter the stage
except the character that dies a tragic death.

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The story begins with the Nandi sl<5ka - Indirege Thale Bhagi. The storyline is sung in
madhyamQvati raga. Then for half-an-hour five dancers dance the Vi$nu stuthi. The story continues
till morning, ending with a song, mahgala. The group packs and moves to the next village to
perform the next day.

K u c h ip u d i tradition of Andhra Pradesh

Unlike the Yaksagana, in Kuchipudi dance drama, the makeup is not as elaborate. Essentially
Kuchipudi dance drama starts with a purvarahga in an elaborate manner. Purvarahga has been in
practice in oral tradition, and includes prayer to Ganesa, and Amba Paraku then Jarjara Dhvaja of
Indira. This is called Uthapana in Bharata Sastra. A number of verses of prayer and benediction
for the successful play are sung. The Suthradhara offers of flowers or Puspanjali is made. This is
called Nandi to delight the Gods. Then there are sldka-s from the veda-s narrated while the stage
is consecrated by the sprinkling of holy water. It is followed by Rahga Alankarana or decoration
of stage with coloured powder. Then the dancers enter with incense, offering to the Gods. After
this the dipa, with a bunch of fifty eight lights are offered to the Rahga Devata- the chief deity
of the stage. Formerly the Jarjara or the flag staff used to be planted on the stage but sometimes
the dancer runs across the stage with the flag staff suggesting driving away the evil forces and
then makes a quick exit. After this, the Ganapati prarthana “Tandava Nrttya Kari Gajanana’
is done with a mask by a dancer. Traditional prayer to goddess “Tripura Sundari” follows. The
“Guru Prarthana ” is recited followed by *Nandi Stdtra ’ by the Suthradhara which is somewhat
similar to the Yaksagana style. In Kuchipudi, the Suthradhara sings, wield cymbals, delivers
dialogues, impersonates the female role of Madhavi and also plays the role of vidusaka (joker).
He often carries the story further. The Suthradhara in Kuchipudi does not change costumes but
by his abhinaya one can make out the role of a character.

The traditional concept of abhinaya in Kuchipudi is from the text Natya Sastra which
adheres to the theory of rasa. The Natya sastra refers to four kinds of abhinaya namely; ahgika,
vacika, aharya, satvika. Abhinaya is the synthesis of all these four.

K u c h ip u d i- A h g ik a ab h in a ya
In ahgika abhinaya essentially the movements of the body are used for expressing emotions
to a composition/ mood/ situation. Natya Sastra describes vividly every movement of the body
in terms of ahga, upahga and pratyahga. In Kuchipudi style apart from ahga, upahga and
pratyahga, the usage of hasta-s (hand gestures) and the cari bedha-s (foot movements) bring
about sculpturesque style into this form. Apart from this, the use of eye, head, neck, eyebrows,
shoulders, limbs and other parts of the body is also taken from the Natya Sastra.

Karnataka Y aksagan a A h g ik a abh in a ya

We do not find any written documentation on the ahgika abhinaya aspect of Karnataka
Yaksagana. The performers were great scholars and poets and spent all their lives performing;

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very little was documented as the technique of Yaksagana. The artists, scholars and critics have
recorded a few nuances of afigika abhinaya. Though it does not follow methodically Natya Sastra’s
nrtta hasta and karana, it follows the lokadarmi style of movements and abhinaya hasta-s and
soushtava which is very important for any dance style. The narrative and situational meaning
brought with combination of abstract movements synchronizing with the rhythm (tala, laya) is
the essence of afigika abhinaya.

The movement of feet - ‘hejje ’, 'mandi' - adavu-s are digina, laaga, kunchittu, salam hejje,
giraki, udi,katthari kaalu, jaaru guppe, thirgaasu nade, tha ding gina, kiru hejje, sallam hejje,
kiru hejje, kai karana (hand gestures). All these are the names of some of the steps used in the
Yaksagana mainly in Badagu Tittu style. These names may not coincide with the names of afigika
abhinaya, but can definitely show a possibility of certain similarities. The recaka-s (the movements
of the hands and the limbs) are very important in Yaksagana.

The writer has been studying the hejje patterns of Yaksagana in comparison to the adavu
patterns of Kuchipudi. Though Kuchipudi has a vast vocabulary of the adavu patterns in various
jati-s, a few modifications to the Kuchipudi style based on some of the steps (hejje) of Karnataka
Yaksagana have been added.

Kuchipudi - V a cik a A b h in a y a
Vacika Abhinaya is very important to this style. Often in dance drama-s of Kuchipudi, the
dancers would enact or render a song and engage in dialogue with sutradhara (the conductor of
the play) also called as the Sakhi or Madhavi. The Sutradhara narrates a glimpse into the story line
of the play with a dramatic flavour. In a solo repertoire of Kuchipudi style, only the lip syncing
of vocal music and sometimes a dialogue in bhamakalapam is presented.

In Vacika Abhinaya the Bhagavatalu would render ‘sTsa padyalu’ and ‘kanda padyalu’
during a Kuchipudi Yaksagana or Bhagavata mela. They were great artists and scholars in telugu
and Sanskrit.

Yaksagana artists were trained to enthral the audience by the recitation of lengthy dialogues,
‘curnika-s’, ‘samvada daruvu-s’, ‘kanda-s’ and ‘kandarta-s’ in all three octaves like the mandra
(lower octave), madhya (middle octave), uchha or tlvra (high octave) in deep and resonant voice.

The inherent lokadharmi style in Kuchipudi allowed, the artists to render dialogues which
were suitable to the situation as a show of their scholarly attributes.

Karnataka Y aksagan a - V a cik a A b h in a y a

Vacika abhinaya is the most important aspect in this style too. The various characters from
mythology are portrayed through recitation and rendering of dialogues. The artists have to be
proficient not only in dance but also in the art of singing (the special kind of Yaksagana music).
The maddale or the drum is played even while the dialogues spoken, the cymbals’ called the

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jakate are used in between the dialogues. Each character is represented with a voice modulation.
In Yaksagana the singing style is called ‘p ada ’. The literature or the script is called ‘p rasafiga’.
Kandha and vruthantha are sung by the artists. The Bhagavataru or the singer sings from behind
on the stage along with the maddale. The voice modulation in singing with dialogue delivery is
unique to this style. During the progression of the play the dialogue between the character and
sutradhara is important in weaving the story of the play.

K u c h ip u d i - A h a ry a A b h in a y a
The aharya abhinaya in Kuchipudi is a presentation of a character through costumes along
with various stage props based on the particular drama and character. Men would impersonate
female characters and adorn beautiful jewellery like the bangles, the necklaces, and most
importantly the jada or the braid.

In Kuchipudi Yaksagana the costumes were always either for demon kings or Gods. Since
the stories were mythological the costumes were rich in its look, long overcoat and an ahga vastram
(shawl) consisting of rich silk and dhoti was used for kings. Each king’s character based on good
and evil the crown would be designed and worn. The sutradhara s costume included a turban dhoti
rudraksamala and tulasi beads. Both saivism and vaisnavism were depicted through these beads.

There were thirty two types o f ornaments for female roles and ten types for male characters
including royal sword and other weapons.

The Kuchipudi artists performed more than one type of dance drama; they were Yaksagana,
vidinatakam, pagativesam and kalapam. The characters and themes of all these forms were
portrayed by men wearing appropriate costumes and makeup.

‘A rdhanarlsw ara’ On one side of the body the artist was dressed as siva and the other
half as his consort Parvati. This vidhindtakam costume was very popular in 1950’s.

A h a rya m in k a la p a m s and dance drama-s

The color combination of makeup costumes in the dance drama were chosen according to
the character. The costumes for Lakshmi was Red or Pink, for Parvati- blue, Saraswati- yellow,
Rama- blue, Narada- orange, Hiranyakasyapu- red. In gollakalappam a special cotton sari which is
earthy brown is worn by the character gollabhama- the village milkmaid, the artist who played the
brahmin’s role would wear silk dhoti or ahga vastra. The artists themselves made their ornaments
in wood which was treated in water and cut into required shape. Upon this gold paper was stuck
which were called thalakulu in different sizes or shapes for the ornaments to shine and glitter.

The most important ornament was the jacia- braid worn by Satyabhama, which was adorned
with ornaments to represent the entire universe.

The costumes, makeup, ornaments were carried by the dancers’ troupe in boxes called
'‘ganiyam’.

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As the times changed and the performers travelled to towns and the technique of makeup
has improved. Professional makeup artists have adapted sophisticated makeup techniques to the
needs of the modem day stage and lights.

The ‘tern’ or the screen which was used for the entry of the characters is not used in solo
repertoire.

Karnataka Y aksagan a - A h a ry a a b h in a ya
The aharya in Yaksagana is spectacular. It transports the audience into the fascinating world
of Gods and Goddesses. The characters are divided into different types- the Dhirodhatta nayaka
(Krsna, Rama and Aijuna), the second type consisting of Indira, Bhlma in his raudra form and the
third type including hunters, etc. and of course demonical types like Ravana and Kumbhakarana
and special types like the incarnations of Visnu. Other characters like Hanuman, rsl-s, guru-s and
women are presented realistically.

The color symbolism in Yaksagana has its own identity. Pinkish yellow is the basic makeup
in Yaksagana with red, black and white lines drawn on it. Heroes put on this basic makeup on
which a variety of designs are drawn to represent different characteristics and moods. The eyes
are made-up with eye-black, the lips are colored red, the tilaka-s are of various designs, and
moustaches and beards are painted directly on to the face. It is said that Yaksagana has 10 varieties
of makeup and an elaborate variety of headgear, costumes and jewellery. The costume consists of
loose black pyjama-s with red and yellow checked sari-s used as dhdti-s topped by green, red or
black jackets a red kurta called ‘ahgi’, is passed on to the junior most artists after it is used by
all the senior artists as per the hierarchy.

The jewellery in Karnataka Yaksagana consists of ankle bells, breast plates, shoulder
ornaments, girdles and belts made out of light wood, brilliantly colored and often inset with mirrors
are used. The headgear is fantastic and called mundale. The turban is tied in a very complicated
fashion, depending on the characters being portrayed.

The ornaments are made by the artisans with a special type of treated wood and the
thermocol inset with gold coloured paper and mirrors and beads.

K u c h ip u d i S d tv ik a A b h in a y a
Satvika Abhinaya deals with the expression with physic states physiologically with emotional
conditions resulting in rasa.

In Kuchipudi style the male dancers had to cultivate a great amount of finesse portraying the
female characters to evoke the illusion to the spectator that they are watching a female dancer. It is
challenging for dancers to impersonate female roles through their male bodies where exaggeration
is like thin line bordering on the aesthetics. But now, Kuchipudi form has seen performing solo
repertoires. Not only for dance dramas of Kuchipudi, but for solo repertoire performed by many
female exponents too, sdtvika Abhinaya remains the soul of a dance performance.
 THE M U S I C A C A D E MY • J O U R N A L 2 016 • V O L UM E 87

Karnataka Yak$agana S a tvik a A b h in a y a

Satvika Abhinaya is the most important and powerful ingredient of Yaksagana. Satvika
abhinaya should have the rasa aspect whether it has vacika or ahgika. Though the performers
are simple village folks they are highly trained dancers who bring out the very soul through their
satvika abhinaya.

At the end of this brief comparison of the two styles, it would only be suitable to conclude
that these two art forms are similar in many ways and parallel in some ways.

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