Text adapted from Alberts et al., 2014; Mary Jones et al.

, 2014
Cell Structure and Function
In this section, we take a look at the main organelles found in eukaryotic cells from the point of view of their
functions, and we consider how they came to serve the roles they have in the life of the eukaryotic cell.
The nucleus is the information store of the cell
The nucleus is usually the most prominent organelle in a eukaryotic cell (Figure 1–14). It is enclosed within two
concentric membranes that form the nuclear envelope, and it contains molecules of DNA—extremely long
polymers that encode the genetic information of the organism. In the light
microscope, these giant DNA molecules become visible as individual chromosomes
when they become more compact before a cell divides into two daughter cells. DNA
also carries the genetic information in prokaryotic cells; these cells lack a distinct
nucleus not because they lack DNA, but because they do not keep their DNA inside
a nuclear envelope, segregated from the rest of the cell contents.
A prominent structure within the non-dividing nucleus is the nucleolus (plural,
nucleoli), which appears through the electron microscope as a mass of densely
stained granules and fibers adjoining part of the chromatin. Here a type of RNA called ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
is synthesized from instructions in the DNA. Also in the nucleolus, proteins imported from the cytoplasm are
assembled with rRNA into large and small subunits of ribosomes. These subunits then exit the nucleus through
the nuclear pores to the cytoplasm, where a large and a small subunit can assemble into a ribosome.
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER), is so fine in nature
that can be seen only through an electron microscope.
The endoplasmic reticulum is seen as an irregular
network of double membrane system made of
cisternae distributed over the cytoplasm. The
endoplasmic reticulum is connected to the cell
membrane at its outer end and to the nuclear
membrane at the inner end. The endoplasmic
reticulum forms the supporting framework of the cell
and serves as a pathway for the distribution of
materials from one part of the cell to the other. The
endoplasmic reticulum appears rough with ribosomes
attached to it and smooth without them. Thus, when ribosomes are attached on the surface of the cisternae, the
endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is called Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum. However, in the absence of the ribosomes,
it is called Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum. Smooth ER is mainly concerned with lipid synthesis, i.e. it passes on
the synthesized lipids to the Golgi complex. It also makes steroids, some of which are hormones. Rough ER is
concerned with processing and transport of proteins synthesized by the ribosomes attached to it.
Golgi body (Golgi apparatus or Golgi complex)
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The Golgi body is a stack of flattened sacs. More than one Golgi body may be present in a cell. The stack is
constantly being formed at one end from vesicles which bud off from the ER, and broken down again at the other
end to form Golgi vesicles. The stack of sacs together with the associated vesicles is referred to as the Golgi
apparatus or Golgi complex.
The Golgi body collects, processes and sorts molecules
(particularly proteins from the rough ER), ready for transport in
Golgi vesicles either to other parts of the cell or out of the cell
(secretion). Two examples of protein processing in the Golgi
body are the addition of sugars to proteins to make molecules
known as glycoproteins, and the removal of the first amino acid,
methionine, from newly formed proteins to make a functioning
protein.
In plants, enzymes in the Golgi body convert sugars into cell wall
components. Golgi vesicles are also used to make lysosomes.
Lysosomes
Lysosomes are spherical sacs, surrounded by a single
membrane and having no internal structure. They are
commonly 0.1– 0.5 μm in diameter. They contain
digestive enzymes which must be kept separate from the
rest of the cell to prevent damage from being done.
Lysosomes are responsible for the breakdown
(digestion) of unwanted structures such as old organelles
or even whole cells. In white blood cells, lysosomes are
used to digest bacteria. Enzymes are sometimes released
outside the cell – for example, in the replacement of
cartilage with bone during development. The heads of
sperm contain a special lysosome, the acrosome, for
digesting a path to the ovum (egg).
Vacuoles
Some cells contain another type of membrane-bounded organelle called a vacuole. In animal and yeast cells,
vacuoles are used for temporary storage or transport. Plant cells also contain vacuoles. In fact, a single large
vacuole is found in most mature plant cells. This vacuole, sometimes called the central vacuole, may play a limited
role in storage and in intracellular digestion. However, its main importance is its role in maintaining the turgor
pressure that keeps tissue from wilting. The vacuole has a high concentration of solutes; thus, water tends to
move into the vacuole, causing it to swell.

Mitochondria Generate Usable Energy from Food to Power the Cell

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Mitochondria are present in essentially all eukaryotic cells, and they are among the most conspicuous organelles
in the cytoplasm. Individual mitochondria are found to be enclosed in two separate membranes, with the inner
membrane formed into folds that project into the interior of the organelle (Figure 1–17). Mitochondria are
generators of chemical energy for the cell. They harvest the energy from the oxidation of food molecules, such
as sugars, to produce adenosine triphosphate, or ATP—the basic chemical fuel that powers most of the cell’s
activities. Because the mitochondrion consumes oxygen and releases carbon dioxide in the course of this activity,
the entire process is called cellular respiration — essentially,
breathing on a cellular level. Without mitochondria, animals, fungi,
and plants would be unable to use oxygen to extract the energy they
need from the food molecules that nourish them.
Mitochondria contain their own DNA and reproduce by dividing in
two. Because they resemble bacteria in so many ways, they are
thought to have been derived from bacteria that were engulfed by
some ancestor of present-day eukaryotic cells. This evidently created
a symbiotic relationship in which the host eukaryote and the engulfed
bacterium helped one another to survive and reproduce.
Chloroplasts Capture Energy from Sunlight
Chloroplasts are large, green organelles that are found only in the cells of plants
and algae, not in the cells of animals or fungi. These organelles have an even
more complex structure than mitochondria: in addition to their two surrounding
membranes, they possess internal stacks of membranes containing the green
pigment chlorophyll. Chloroplasts carry out photosynthesis—trapping the
energy of sunlight in their chlorophyll molecules and using this energy to drive
the manufacture of energy-rich sugar molecules. In the process, they release
oxygen as a molecular by-product. Plant cells can then extract this stored chemical energy when they need it, by
oxidizing these sugars in their mitochondria, just as animal cells do. Chloroplasts thus enable plants to get their
energy directly from sunlight. And they allow plants to produce the food molecules—and the oxygen—that
mitochondria use to generate chemical energy in the form of ATP.
Like mitochondria, chloroplasts contain their own DNA, reproduce by dividing in two, and are thought to have
evolved from bacteria—in this case, from photosynthetic bacteria that were engulfed by an early eukaryotic cell.
Cell membrane
The cell membrane consists of phospholipids, other lipids, and proteins and is organized into two layers. It
surrounds every cell and defines the boundaries of the cell. It stops the cell contents from escaping and also
controls the substances which are allowed to enter and leave the cell. In general, oxygen, food, and water are
allowed to enter; waste products are allowed to leave and harmful substances are kept out. In this way, the cell
membrane maintains the structure and chemical reactions of the cytoplasm.

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Centrioles: Microtubule Assembly Centers
Centrioles are barrel-shaped organelles found in the cells of animals and most protists.
They occur in pairs, usually located at right angles to each other near the nuclear
membranes; the region surrounding the pair in almost all animal cells is referred to as a
centrosome.
Although the matter is in some dispute, at least some centrioles seem to contain DNA,
which apparently is involved in producing their structural proteins. Centrioles help to assemble microtubules,
long, hollow cylinders of the protein tubulin. Microtubules influence cell shape, move the chromosomes in cell
division, and provide the functional internal structure of flagella and cilia.
The Cytoskeleton: Interior Framework of the Cell
The cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells is crisscrossed by a network of protein fibers that supports the shape of the
cell and anchors organelles to fixed locations. This network, called the cytoskeleton, is a dynamic system,
constantly forming and disassembling. Individual fibers form by polymerization, as identical protein subunits
attract one another chemically and spontaneously assemble into long chains. Fibers disassemble in the same way,
as one subunit after another breaks away from one end of the chain.