Unit-1:

1. State and explain OHMS Law. Also mention its limitations.

A. Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the flow of electric charge.
This physical property, or ability to resist current, is known as resistance and is represented
by the symbol R. The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area A
depends on A and its length. We can represent resistance in mathematical form

where is known as the resistivity of the material in ohm-meters. Good conductors have low
resistivities, while insulators have high resistivities.
Statement: Ohm’s law states that the voltage ‘v’ across a resistor is directly proportional to
the current ‘i’ flowing through the resistor at constant temperature and pressure.

The constant of proportionality for a resistor is defined to be the resistance, R. That is,

Thus, The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of electric current; it
is measured in ohms ( ).
Limitations of Ohm’s law:
1) The law is not applicable to unilateral networks. Unilateral networks allow the current to flow
in one direction. Such types of network consist of elements like a diode, transistor, etc.
2) Ohm’s law is also not applicable to non – linear elements. Non-linear elements are those
which do not have current exactly proportional to the applied voltage that means the resistance
value of those elements changes for different values of voltage and current. Examples of non –
linear elements are the thyristor.
3) The relation between V and I depends on the sign of V. In other words, if I is the current for a
certain V, then reversing the direction of V keeping its magnitude fixed, does not produce a
current of the same magnitude as I in the opposite direction. This happens for example in the
case of a diode.

2. State and explain Kirchoffs Law (KCL & KVL) with an example.
A. Kirchoff’s laws are formally known as Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s
voltage law (KVL).
i. Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) : It states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a
node (or a closed boundary) is zero. Mathematically, KCL implies that

where N is the number of branches connected to the node and is the nth current entering (or
leaving) the node. Consider the below diagram,
Applying KCL gives

since currents, i1,i3,i4 are entering the node, while currents i2 and i3 are leaving it. By
rearranging the terms we get

Integrating on both sides w.r.t t we get,

That means it obeys law of conservation of charge

Features of KCL:
1. Applicable for any lumped circuits or elements.
2. Independent of nature of elements.
3. Follows law of conservation of charge.
ii. Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL): It states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around
a closed path (or loop) is zero.
Expressed mathematically,

where M is the number of voltages in the loop (or the number of branches in the
loop) and vm is the mth voltage. Consider the below circuit
 Features of KVL:
1. Applicable for any lumped circuits.
2. Independent of nature of element.
3. Follows law of conservation of energy.
3. Explain the types of elements in networks with examples.
A.
I) Active and passive elements:
Active elements generates and delivers the current.
Ex: Battery, Voltage source, current source, transistors etc.
Passive elements allows the current to pass through them.
Ex: Resistors(R), Inductor(L), Capacitor(C) etc.
Positive slope represents passive elements and negative slope represents active elements.
ii) Linear and non-linear elements: An element is said to be linear if its voltage current
characteristic graph follows only one equation of straight line passing through origin, otherwise
non-linear elements.
Ex: diodes, transistors, vacuum tubes, transformers etc. – Non linear elements
Resistors(R), Inductor(L), Capacitor(C) etc. – Linear elements
iii) Unilateral and bilateral elements: In bilateral elements the V-I relation is same for current
flowing in either directions, otherwise unilateral.
(or)
An element is said to be bilateral, if it offers same impedance when the polarity of voltage and
current get reversed.
Every linear element is a bilateral but reverse is not true.
 Ex:
iv) Time variant and Time invariant: Any element is said to be time varying, if its V-I
characteristics changes with time, otherwise time invariant.

Ex:
v) Lumped and distributed circuits:
Lumped elements are small in size and action takes place for any cause at the same instant of
time. Ex: R, L, C etc.
Distributed elements are not electrically separable for analytical purpose.
Ex: Transmission line etc.
4. Differences between Series and Parallel circuits. (Any 10 differences)
A.

Series Parallel

The equivalent resistance is The equivalent resistance always

always more than highest value of has a less value than any of the
resistance in the series single resistors connected
connection. parallely.
 There is only one pathway Multiple path way depending on
the number of components
The total capacitance in series The total capacitance in parallel
circuit decreases. circuit increases.
The total inductance in series The total inductance in parallel
circuit increases. circuit decreases.
It is difficult to troubleshoot and It is easier to trouble and identify
identifying the components takes the faulty branch.
time.

5. Derive the equation of Current Division and Voltage Division rule.

A.
Parallel resistor and current division rules:

Series resistor and voltage division rules:

6. State and explain
a) Superposition theorem
b) Thevenins Theorem
c) Nortons Theorem
A. a) Superposition theorem: The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or
current through) an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or
currents through) that element due to each independent source acting alone.
Steps to Apply Superposition Principle:
1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the output (voltage or current) due to
that active source using the techniques.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the independent
sources acting alone.
b) Thevenins Theorem: It states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is
the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are turned off.
For finding Rth:
 CASE 1: If the network has no dependent sources, we turn off all independent sources. Rth is the
input resistance of the network between terminals.
CASE 2 : If the network has dependent sources, we turn off all independent sources. As with
superposition, dependent sources are not to be turned off because they are controlled by circuit
variables. We apply a voltage source at terminals and determine the resulting current . In this
approach we may assume any value of v0 and i0. For example v0 =1V or i0 = 1V.
c) Nortons Theorem : It states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN, where IN is the
short-circuit current through the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are turned off.
We find RN in the same way we find RTh. In fact, from what we know about source
transformation, the Thevenin and Norton resistances are equal; that is,

To find the Norton current we determine the short-circuit current flowing from terminal in both
circuits that is, IN = Isc
Dependent and independent sources are treated the same way as in Thevenin’s theorem. Observe
the close relationship between Norton’s and Thevenin’s theorems:

7. Derive the current and Voltage equation for a Series RL Circuits in time domain analysis.
A.
8. Derive the current and Voltage equation for a Series RC Circuits in time domain analysis
A.